Chapter 8 : “Motion”

KEY CONCEPTS [ *rating as per the significance of concept ]

1 Motion ****
2 Graphical Representation of Motion ***
& Graphs
3 Equation of motion ****
4 Uniform Circular Motion **

1 Motion (Uniform Motion And Non Uniform Motion, Acceleration and Velocity)
 A particle is a point-like object, has mass but infinitesimal size
 The object’s position is its location with respect to a chosen reference point, In
the diagram, the road sign the reference point
 Motion occurs when an object changes its position.
Both Distance and Time are important in describing motion.
 Sometimes you know motion has occurred even if you didn’t see it happen.
(mail truck)
 Relative motion: when two objects are moving in a plane (either in same
direction or opposite) each have relative motion with respect to second. e.g. a
person sitting in a train and watching a tree, in this case tree is stable but is
assumed to be moving but with respect to train.
Distance vs. Displacement
• Distance: How far an object has moved. It has only magnitude without
direction. (total)
• Displacement: How far and in what direction an object has moved from its
start position. i.e. the direct distance between two points.
Speed
 Speed = the distance an object travels in a given amount of time

 Speed =

 sI unit of speed is m/s

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Types of Speed
 Constant speed: speed doesn’t change (set your car on cruise control)
 Changing speed: Riding a bike for 5 km. Take off and increase speed, slow
down up hill, speed up down hill, stop for stop sign. The trip took you 15 min
(.25 h)

 Average speed:

 Instantaneous speed: speed at any given time.

Velocity
 Velocity: includes speed and DIRECTION
 Storm is moving at 20km/hr.
 Should you be seeking shelter?
 Suppose two trains are going with the same speed in opposite direction so
they are having different velocities.
 Race car going around an oval track might have constant speed, but
different velocities at each point.
Acceleration
 Any change in velocity over a period of time is called acceleration.
 The sign (+ or -) of indicates its direction. + sign shows the acceleration and –
sign shows de-acceleration.
 Uniform (constant) acceleration equation
 a = v/t

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  Images of car are equally spaced.
 The car is moving with constant positive velocity (shown by red arrows
maintaining the same size) .
 The acceleration equals to zero

 Images of car become farther apart as time increases

 Velocity and acceleration are in the same direction
 Acceleration is uniform (Arrows below the car maintain the same length)
 Velocity is increasing (Arrows above the car are getting longer)
 This shows positive acceleration and positive velocity

The instant speed at points of equal elevations is the same.

The velocities are different because they are in opposite
Free Fall & Air Resistance

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 Galileo Galilei Italian physicist and astronomer

Formulated laws of motion for objects in free fall

 A freely falling object is any object moving freely under the influence of gravity
alone.
 It does not depend upon the initial motion of the object
 Dropped – released from rest
 Thrown downward
 Thrown upward
 The acceleration of an object in free fall is directed downward, regardless of the
initial motion
 The magnitude of free fall acceleration (gravitational acceleration) is g = 9.80
m/s2
 g decreases with increasing altitude
 g varies with latitude, height and depth from earth surface.
 9.80 m/s2 is the average at the Earth’s surface
 The italicized g will be used for the acceleration due to gravity
 Not to be confused with g for grams

 With negligible air resistance, falling objects can be considered freely falling.
objects of different shapes accelerate differently (stone vs feather)
 Speed both upward and downward

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  The path is symmetrical.
 Acceleration is constant.
 The magnitude of the velocities is the same at equal heights.
 Images become closer together as time increases
 Acceleration and velocity are in opposite directions when ball goes upward.
 Acceleration is uniform (violet arrows maintain the same length)
 Velocity is decreasing in upward motion (red arrows are getting shorter)
 Positive velocity and negative acceleration
 Velocity becomes zero at maximum height.
 Time duration flight in going upward and coming back is always same.
Test Yourself :
1. What is SI Unit of displacement?
2. Name the quantity which represents rate of change of velocity.
3. A particle describes a semicircle of radius l 14m. What are its distance and
displacement covered?
2 Graphical Representation Of Motion & Graphs (Refer to article 8.4 of NCERT text
book.)
Test Yourself :
1. What does slope of Position – Time graph represent?
2. If velocity –time graph is parallel to time axis, what type of motion does it represent?

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3 Equation of motion
(1) When object is moving in straight line-
 v = vo + at
 x = xo + vot + ½ at2
 v2 = vo2 + 2a(∆x)
 Average acceleration describes how fast the velocity is changing with respect to
time.  x 
 
v t
aave    
t t

 where:
aave = average acceleration
v = change in velocity
x = displacement
t = elapsed time
(2) when object is coming vertically downward-
 v = vo + gt
 h = vot + ½ gt2
 v2 = vo2 + 2ah
(3) when object is coming vertically upward-
v = vo - gt
h = vot - ½ gt2
v2 = vo2 - 2gh
 The SI unit of velocity is the m/s.
Average accleration is + or – depending on direction.
 Instantaneous Acceleration

 v 
a  lim  
t 0
 t 
 Instantaneous acceleration is the limit of v/t as t approaches zero.
 Instantaneous acceleration is zero where slope is constant
 Instantaneous acceleration is positive where curve is concave up
 Instantaneous acceleration is negative where curve is concave down

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 Test Yourself :
1. Give the equation for uniform motion.
2. When a car stops after applying brakes, what is the final velocity?
4 Uniform Circular Motion
In this kind of motion the object moves on circle with fix speed but the direction is
changed by the time so the velocity of the change so its called acceleration motion. This
acceleration is called centrifugal acceleration. It is directed toward the centre.
Test Yourself:
1. What remains constant in uniform circular motion?
2. What changes continuously in uniform circular motion?

QUESTION BANK

One Mark questions

1. Can displacement be zero even when distance is not zero?
2. Can the distance travelled by an object be smaller than magnitude of its displacement?
3. A particle is moving with uniform velocity. What is its acceleration?
4. How can you get speed of an object from its distance – time graph?
5. How can you get distance of an object from its speed – time graph?
6. A brick & an elephant are in free fall. What is common in their motion?
7. When an object is thrown vertically upwards. What is its velocity at the highest point?
8. Can velocity & acceleration point in opposite directions?
9. Define acceleration.
10. What is non uniform motion?

Two Marks questions

1. Differentiate scalars & vectors?
2. What is retardation? How does it affect the speed?
3. Can speed of a body vary with its velocity constant? Explain.
4. Why is circular motion with constant speed called accelerated motion?
5. State the difference between distance & displacement.

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6. What is the difference between speed & velocity?
7. What does a speedometer & odometer indicate?

Three Marks questions

1. If an object is thrown vertically upwards with speed 49 ms-1. How long does it take to
complete upward journey? What maximum height does it achieve?
2. An object starting from rest covers 20 metres in first 2 seconds & 160 metres in next 4
seconds. What is its velocity after 7 seconds from the start?

Five Marks questions

1. Derive all the three equations of motion for uniform acceleration using graphical method.
2. A car a moving at rate of 72km/h and applies brakes which provide a retardation of 5ms-2.
(i) How much time does the car takes to stop.
(ii) How much distance does the car cover before coming to rest?
(iii) What would be the stopping distance needed if speed of the car is doubled?

*******

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 CHAPTER -9 “Force & Laws Of Motion”
KEY CONCEPTS [ *rating as per the significance of concept]
1 Balanced and Unbalanced Forces ***

2 Laws of Motion *****

3 Inertia and Mass *****

4 Conservation of Momentum ****

1 Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

Balanced Forces The net force is when two or more forces are applied on
the same object and at the same time. The applied forces combined are
called the net force. = 0 25 N 25 N
Balanced Forces The force I apply in one direction plus the force you apply
in the opposite direction are added together. 25 N -25 N = 0 Because the
forces are equal and balanced…just like a balanced scale…this is an
example of balanced forces. Unbalanced Forces What does it mean to
have something unbalanced? Unequal, not the same, different How could
we have unbalanced forces?

Unbalanced Forces A force is applied in one direction and either another

smaller or larger force is applied in the opposite direction or no force is
applied at all in the opposite direction.
Unbalanced Forces If I have a chair and I push on one side of it with a force

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 of 50 N and you push on the other side, with a force of 25 N, will the chair
move? Which way will it move? The direction in which the most force is
applied. What is the net force? 50 N 25 N.
Unbalanced Forces 50N -25N = 25N These forces are unequal so the forces
are considered unbalanced forces. 50 N 25 N = 25 N
Unbalanced Forces If I push the chair in one direction with 25 N force and
you push the chair in same direction with 25 N force, will the chair move?
Why? Because the applied net force is UNBALANCED!
Unbalanced Forces 25 N 25 N = 50 N The result would be the chair moving
in the direction it was pushed with a combined force of 50 N.
Test Yourself
1. An object of 5 kg is acted upon by two forces, 70 N each in opposite
directions. What is its acceleration?
2. Why does an object accelerate during free fall?
2 Laws of Motion
Newton's First Law
1st Law – An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will
stay in motion at constant velocity, unless acted upon by an unbalanced
force.
An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will stay in
motion at constant velocity, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
Newton's Second Law
"If the net force on an object is not zero, the object will accelerate. The
direction of the acceleration is the same as the direction of the net force.
The magnitude of the acceleration is directly proportional to the net force
applied, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object."
Mathematical symbols provide a convenient shorthand for all of this:

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The Effect of Mass
A force applied to an automobile will not have the same effect as the same
force applied to a pencil. An automobile resists accelerating much more
than a pencil does, because it has more inertia, or mass.
The acceleration of an object depends not only on how hard you push on
it, but also on how much the object resists being pushed.
What is the effect of mass on acceleration? This, too, turns out to be quite
simple (I wonder why...). For the same force, an object with twice the mass
will have half the acceleration. If it had three times the mass, the same
force will produce one-third the acceleration. Four times the mass gives
one-fourth of the acceleration, and so on.
This type of relationship between quantities (double one, get half the
other) is called an inverse proportion or inverse variation. In other words,
then:
Newton’s Second Law of Motion The acceleration of an object is
dependent upon both force and mass. Thus, if the colliding objects have
unequal mass, they will have unequal accelerations as a result of the
contact force which results during the collision.
Newton's Third Law
Newton's Third Law is stated as:
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
"action...reaction" means that forces always occur in pairs. (Forces are
interactions between objects, like conversations are interactions between
people.)

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 Single, isolated forces never happen. The two forces involved are called
the "action force" and the "reaction force."
These names are unfortunate for a couple of reasons :
Either force in an interaction can be the "action" force or the "reaction"
force
The action and reaction forces exist at the same time.
"equal" means
Both forces are exactly the same size. They are equal in magnitude.
Both forces exist at exactly the same time. They both start at exactly the
same instant, and they both stop at exactly the same instant. They
are equal in time.
"opposite" means that the two forces always act in opposite directions -
exactly 180o apart.
Newton's third law of motion In every interaction, there is a pair of forces
acting on the two interacting objects. The size of the force on the first
object equals the size of the force on the second object. The direction of
the force on the first object is opposite to the direction of the force on the
second object. Forces always come in pairs - equal and opposite action-
reaction force pairs.
Newton's third law of motion applied to collisions between two objects. In
a collision between two objects, both objects experience forces which are
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Such forces cause one object
to speed up (gain momentum) and the other object to slow down (lose
momentum). According to Newton's third law, the forces on the two
objects are equal in magnitude.
Test Yourself
1. Can action reaction balance each other?
2. What does a force do?
3 Inertia and Mass
Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist any change in its motion. An
object will continue to move at the same speed in the same direction

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 unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. Inertia & Mass
Inertia & Mass of a bowling ball rolled down the road would eventually
come to a stop. Friction is an unbalanced force that causes the ball to stop
or slow down. Without friction, the ball would keep going.
Inertia & Mass of a bowling ball and a tennis ball have the same inertia.
Inertia & Mass If you had a tennis racket and I threw tennis ball at you,
what would happen? If you had a tennis racket and I threw a bowling ball
at you, what would happen? Why could you change the motion of the
tennis ball but not the motion of the bowling ball?
Mass is the amount of matter in an object. A bowling ball has more mass
than a tennis ball. The greater the mass of an object the greater its inertia.
Mass is the measurement of inertia.
Test Yourself
1. Why do we fall forward if we alight from a moving bus?
2. Why does an athlete run for some distance before long jump?
4 Conservation of Momentum
Law of Conservation of Momentum
In a closed system, the vector sum of the momenta before and after an
impact must be equal.
Before After
m1v1 +m2v2 = m1v1’ + m2v2’
Internal and External Forces

QUESTION BANK
One Mark questions
1. Define momentum.
2. State first law of motion.
3. What is inertia?
4. Can action and reaction balance each other?
5. How does one climb up a rope?
6. Why cannot we walk in space?

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7. What does rate of change of momentum represent?
8. Why do we continuously paddle to keep the cycle moving?
9. Why does a scooter tend to skid while executing a sharp turn?
10. Which one would have more inertia : 10 kg mass & 5 kg mass?

Two Marks questions

1. Explain the functioning of shockers in cars.
2. How much force is needed to pull an object of mass 40 kg in vertically upward direction
with acceleration of 2.2 m / s2.
3. Why does a fan keep moving for sometime when switched off?
4. What do you mean by conservation of momentum?
5. Inflated balloon lying on the surface of a floor moves forward when pricked with a pin.
Why?

Three Marks questions

1. An iron sphere of mass 10 kg is dropped from a height of 80 cm, if ‘g’ = 10 m / s2.
Calculate the momentum transferred to the ground by the body.
2. What would be the force required to stop a car of mass 1000 kg and a loaded truck of
mass 10,000 kg in 2 seconds each moving with velocity 5 m / s.
3. Deduce law of conservation of momentum using third law of motion.

Five Mark questions

1. Name and define three different types of inertia & give an example of each.

********

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 CHAPTER 10- “GRAVITATION”
KEY CONCEPTS [ *rating as per the significance of concept]
1 Gravitation ***

2 Universal Law Of Gravitation ****

3 Free Fall **

4 To Calculate The Value Of G ****

5 Mass & Weight ***

6 Weight Of The Object On Moon ***

7 Thrust & Pressure ***

8 Pressure In Fluids ***

9 Buoyancy ****

10 Why Objects Float Or Sink When ***

Placed On The Surface Of Water?
11 Archimedes’s Principle *****

12 Relative Density ***

Gravity is one of the most basic forces in the universe. It plays a fundamental role not
only in the structure of our solar system but also in the way objects behave on Earth. In
this section, we will talk about gravity on a small scale. We will discuss topics such as
weight, free fall, and ballistics. We will learn the physics of phenomena we experience
daily and take for granted
1.Gravitation
Gravitation is the force of attraction between two objects in the universe.
Gravitation may be the attraction of objects by the earth.
This force is proportional to the product of masses of the objects and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them. It is independent of medium.

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 Gravitational force =

Eg :- If a body is dropped from a certain height, it falls downwards due to earth’s

gravity.
If a body is thrown upwards, it reaches a certain height and then falls downwards
due to the earth’s gravity.
 Gravitation may be the attraction between objects in outer space.
Eg :- Attraction between the earth and moon.
Attraction between the sun and planets.
GRAVITY
 A natural force that pulls all objects toward the center of the earth
 keeps the moon orbiting
 It holds stars together . . .
 And binds galaxies together for billions of years ….Prevents Planets from losing their
atmospheres.

Test yourself:
1. When we move from the poles to the equator. Hence, the value of g
decreases. Why?
2. What is the difference between gravity and gravitation?

2.Universal law of gravitation: - “Inverse square law”- All bits of matter attract all
other bits of matter………..
 The universal law of gravitation states that, ‘Every object in the universe attracts
every other object with a force which is directly proportional to product of the
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.’

 The SI unit of G is N m2 kg -2 and its value is 6.673 x 10-11 N m2 kg -2

 The strength of the gravitational attraction between two objects depends on two
factors:

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  How big the objects are (how much mass they have) and
 How far apart they are.

Test Yourself
1. What is the difference between gravity and gravitation?
2. What does it mean to say that the Force of gravity is proportional to the masses
of the bodies, and inversely proportional to the distance between them?

3. Free Fall
 With negligible air resistance, falling objects can be considered freely falling.
objects of different shapes accelerate differently (stone vs feather)

Test Yourself
1. A coin and a feather are dropped from the roof of a building. Which one will fall to
the ground first

4 .To calculate the value of” g “(acceleration due to gravity)

 The acceleration due to gravity is denoted by g.
 The unit of g is same as the unit of acceleration ms -2
 From the second law of motion, force is the product of mass and acceleration.

F = ma
 For free fall, force is the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity.

F = mg or mg = =

or g =

where M is the mass of the

Earth and d is the distance between the object and the earth.
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  For objects near or on the surface of the earth d is equal to the radius of the earth R

 F = mg or mg = =

 or g =

Test Yourself
1. Calculate the value of g on the surface of earth.
2. What is the difference between "weight" and "mass”?

5. Mass and Weight:

 Mass is a fundamental, universal property. You have the same amount of mass no
matter where you are in the Universe.
 Weight is not fundamental its value depends on circumstances in the Universe. Weight
is a force. It is the resultant gravitational force exerted on a body with mass m by all the
other bodies on the Universe.

Weight = Fg = G m Me / R2 = mg
where Me is the mass of the Earth and R is the radius of the Earth.
Test Yourself
1. An astronaut has 80 kg mass on earth (a)what is his weight on earth? (b) What
will be his mass and weight on mars where g=3.7 m/s2 .

2. When you put an object on a spring balance, do you get the mass of an object or
its weight?

6.Weight Of The Object On Moon

 The mass of the moon is less than the mass of the earth. So the moon exerts lesser
force on the objects than the earth.

 The weight of an object on the moon is one sixth (1/6 th) of its weight on the earth.
 The weight of an object on the earth is the force with which the earth attracts the
object and the weight of an object on the moon is the force with which the moon
attracts the object.

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 Celestial body Mass (kg) Radius (m)

Earth 5.98 x 1024 6.37 x 106

Moon 7.36 x 1022 1.74 x 106

Test Yourself
1. What will be the weight of the body on the moon whose mass is12 kg?

7.Thrust & Pressure

 Thrust is the force acting on an object perpendicular to the surface.

 Pressure is the force acting on unit area of a surface

Thrust
Pressure = ----------
Area
 The SI unit of thrust is N/m2 or N m-2 . It is called Pascal (Pa).

8. Pressure In Fluids
 . Fluids exert pressure in all directions
 Pressure exerted on fluids is transmitted equally in all directions.
9. Buoyancy
When an object is immersed in a fluid it experiences an upward force called buoyant
force. This property is called buoyancy or upthrust.

10. Why objects float or sink when placed on the surface of water?
 Take some water in a beaker. Take a piece of cork and an iron nail of the same mass.
Place them on the water. The cork floats and the nail sinks.
 If the density of an object is less than the density of a liquid, it will float on the liquid
and if the density of an object is more than the density of a liquid, it will sink in the
liquid.
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11. Archeimedes Principle
 Archimedes’ principle states that, When a body is partially or fully immersed
in a fluid it experiences an upward force that is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by it.’

12 .Relative density
 The relative density of a substance is the ratio of the density of a substance
to the density of water. It is a ratio of similar quantities and has no unit.

QUESTION BANK
One Mark questions
1. Explain what Centrifugal force is.
2. What do you mean by the weight of the body on moon.
3. Give the value of G with proper units.
4. Give the value of g with proper units.
5. What is measured by physical balance?

Two Marks questions

1. At what height above the earth’s surface would the value of acceleration due to gravity
be half of what it is on the surface? Take radius of earth to be R.
2 . A body of 90 kg f on the surface of earth. How much will it weigh on the surface of
moon whose mass is 1/9 and radius is ½ of that of earth?
3. A piece of paper takes much longer to fall than a stone through the same distance.
Explain the reason.
4. Consider a heavenly body which has a mass twice that of the earth and radius thrice
that of the earth .What will be the weight of the book on this heavenly body, if its

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 weight on earth is 900 N?
Three Marks questions
1. Why gravitational force is usually unnoticeable?
2. Prove that acceleration due to gravity is independent of mass of the body.
3. How can the average density of the earth can be determined?
4. What is buoyancy and buoyant force? Upon what factors do they depend
Five Marks questions
1. Find the percentage change in the weight of a body when it is taken from equator to
poles. The polar radius is 6,357 Km and equatorial radius is 6,378 Km.
2. The density of ice is 918kgm-3 and that of sea water is 1,030kgm-3.An iceberg floats
with a portion 224 liters outside water. Find the volume of iceberg.
3. What are the laws of flotation? Give some illustrations.

********

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 CHAPTER 12 – “Sound”
KEY CONCEPTS [ *rating as per the significance of concept]
1 Production of Sound ****

2 Propagation of Sound *****

3 Reflection of Sound *****

4 Echo ****

5 Uses Of Multiple Reflection ***

Of Sound
6 Range of Hearing ***

7 Applications of Ultrasound **

8 SONAR **

9 Structure of Human Ear ****

1. Production of Sound
Sound is produced due to the vibration of objects. Vibration is the rapid to and fro motion of an
object.
Vibrating objects are the source of all sounds Irregular, chaotic vibrations produce noise Regular,
controlled vibration can produce music All sound is a combination of pure frequencies
A stretched rubber band when plucked vibrates and produces sound.

2. Propagation of Sound
When an object vibrates, the particles around the medium vibrate. The particle in contact with the
vibrating object is first displaced from its equilibrium position
The disturbance produced by the vibrating body travels through the medium but the particles do not
move forward themselves.
A wave is a disturbance which moves through a medium by the vibration of the particles of the
medium. So sound is considered as a wave.Sound waves Require medium for transmission.Sound
waves are called mechanical waves. When a vibrating object moves forward, it pushes and
compresses the air in front of it forming a region of high pressure called compression (C). When the
vibrating object moves backward, it forms a region of low pressure called rarefaction (R).

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A vibrating object producing a series of compressions (C) and rarefaction (R)
In these waves the particles move back and forth parallel to the direction of propagation of the
disturbance. Such waves are called longitudinal waves.
There is another kind of waves called transverse waves. In these waves the particles oscillate up
and down perpendicular to the propagation of the direction of disturbance.
Sound propagates in a medium as a series of compressions (C) and rarefactions (R).
Compressions are the regions of high pressure and density where the particles are crowded and
are represented by the upper portion of the curve called crest.
Rarefactions are the regions of low pressure and density where the particles are spread out and
are represented by the lower portion of the curve called trough
Characteristics of a sound wave

Frequency of sound wave

The number of oscillations per unit time is called the frequency of the sound wave.
It is represented by the symbol ٧ (Greek letter nu). Its SI unit is hertz (Hz)

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Time period of sound wave
Frequency and time are represented as follows:-
٧ for one oscillation
1 1
T = ---- or ٧ = ----
٧ T
Amplitude of sound wave
The amplitude of sound wave is the height of the crest or tough.
It is represented by the letter A.
The SI unit is the same as that of density or pressure.

Wavelength and Amplitude

The wavelength is the distance between the "crests" of two waves that are next to each other.
The amplitude is how high the crests are.
Pitch and loudness of sound
The pitch of sound (shrillness or flatness) depends on the frequency of vibration.
If the frequency is high, the sound has high pitch and if the frequency is low, the sound
has low pitch
Speed of sound
The speed of sound is more in solids, less in liquids and least in gases.
The speed of sound also depends on the temperature of the medium. If the temperature
of the medium is more, the speed of sound is more
3. Reflection of Sound
Sound gets reflected at the surface of a solid or liquid and follows the laws of reflection.
i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

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 ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and normal at the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane.

4. Echo
If we shout or clap near a reflecting surface like tall building or a mountain, we hear the
same sound again. This sound which we hear is called echo. It is caused due to the reflection
of sound.
To hear an echo clearly, the time interval between the original sound and the echo
must be at least 0.1 s.
Since the speed of sound in air is 344 m/s, the distance travelled by sound in 0.I s = 344
m/s x 0.1 s = 34.4 m
So to hear an echo clearly, the minimum distance of the reflecting surface should be
half this distance that is 17.2 m.
Reverberation
Echoes may be heard more than once due to repeated or multiple reflections of sound
from several reflecting surfaces. This causes persistence of sound called reverberation.
In big halls or auditoriums to reduce reverberation, the roofs and walls are covered by
sound absorbing materials like compressed fibre boards, rough plaster or draperies.
5. Uses Of Multiple Reflection Of Sound
Megaphones, horns, musical instruments like trumpets, etc. are deigned to send sound by
multiple reflection in a particular direction without spreading in all directions.
ii) Doctors listen to sounds from the human body through a stethoscope. The sound of
heartbeat reaches the doctor’s ears by multiple reflection.
iii) Generally the ceilings of cinema halls and auditoriums are curved so that sound after
multiple reflection reaches all parts of the hall.

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 Sometimes a curved sound board is placed behind the stage so that sound after multiple
reflection spreads evenly across the hall.
6. Range of Hearing
Human beings can hear sound frequencies between 20 Hz and 2000 Hz.
Sound whose frequency is less than 20 Hz is called infrasonic sound
Sound whose frequency is more than 2000 Hz is called ultrasonic sound
7. Uses of ultrasonic sound
Ultrasonic sound is used to clean objects like electronic Components, used to detect cracks
in metal blocks, used in ultra sound scanners for getting images of internal organs of the
human body used to break small stones formed in the kidneys into fine grains.
8 Sonar
It is a device which uses ultrasonic waves to measure distance, direction and speed of
underwater objects. The distance of the object can be calculated by knowing the speed of
sound in water and the time taken between the transmission and reception of ultrasound

9.Structure of the human ear

The sound waves passes through the ear canal to a thin membrane called eardrum. The
eardrum vibrates. The vibrations are amplified by the three bones of the middle ear called

129
hammer, anvil and stirrup. Middle ear then transmits the sound waves to the inner ear. The
brain then interprets the signals as sound.
QUESTION BANK
One mark questions
1. What do you understand by sound waves?
2. Give an example to show that sound travels at a finite speed.
3. Is sound wave longitudinal or transfer.
4. Name two quantities that vary periodically at a place in air as a sound wave
travels through it .
5. An airplane produces a sound wave with frequency of 5 KHz and wavelength
30 m. In how much time would the sound wave cover the distance of 4 Km?

6. With the help of a diagram show how longitudinal waves like sound waves
travel in air.
7. With the help of a diagram show how longitudinal waves like sound waves
travel in air.

8. Can we hear the ringing of a mobile phone placed in a vacuum chamber?

9. Can two astronauts talk on moon a they does on the surface of the earth?

Two marks questions

1. Explain how echoes are used by bats to judge the distance of an obstacle?
2. State the special properties of ultrasound that make it useful to us .In
general, how these properties are utilized.
3. Why is soft furnishing avoided in concert halls?
4. Draw a diagram depicting low pitched sound and high pitched sound and
write main difference between the two?
5. Distinguish between longitudinal and transverse waves. Give one example
each.
6. An explosion takes place at the moon. After what time would it be heard at
the earth?

130
Three marks questions
1. Two sources A and B vibrate with the same amplitude. They produce sounds
of frequencies 1 kHz and 30 kHz respectively. Which of the two waves will
have greater power?
2. Find the time period of the source of a sound wave whose frequency is
400Hz.
3. A sound wave travels at a speed of 340m/s. If its wavelength is 2 cm, what is
the frequency of the wave? Will it be in the audible range?
4. The grandparents and parents of a two year girl are playing with her in a
room. A sound source produces a 28—kHzsound.who in the room is most
likely to hear the sound?

Five marks questions

1. Sound cannot travel in vacuum. Describe an experiment to demonstrate this.
2. With the help of a diagram describe how compression and rarefaction pulses
are produced in air near a source of sound.
3. Explain briefly how a flaw in a mental component can be detected using
ultrasound?
4. Explain the working and application of SONAR.
5. A monkey drops a coconut from the top of a tree. He hears the sound of the
coconut hitting the ground 2.057 seconds after dropping it .If the monkey
was 19.6 metres above the ground, what is the speed of sound in air?(take g
= 9.8m/s2).
6. Draw a neat diagram of human ear. Explain the function of various parts.

What have you learnt

Longitudinal waves: Those in which the direction of vibration is the same as their direction
of propagation. So the movement of the particles of the medium is either in the same or in
the opposite direction to the motion of the wave. Exemple: sound waves, what changes in
this case is the pressure of the medium (air, water or whatever it be).

131
Transverse waves: The oscillations occur perpendicularly to the direction of energy transfer.
Exemple: a wave in a tense string. Here the varying magnitude is the distance from the
equilibrium horizontal position
A general property of waves is that their speed relative to medium depends on the
properties of medium but is independent of the motion of the source of waves. If the
observer is in motion with respect to the medium, the velocity of wave propagation relative
to the observer wil be different. A remarkable exception is encountered in the case of light
PROPERTIES
Frequency
- Wavelength
- Period
- Amplitude
- Intensity
- Speed
- Direction
Perception of Sound
For humans, hearing is limited to frequencies between about 20 Hz and 20000 Hz, with the
upper limit generally decreasing with age.

KEY LEARNING:

Vibration - repetitive back and forth motion

Periodic motion - a motion that repeats itself
Mechanical waves require medium for propagation
Waves move through medium but medium remains in place
Longitudinal waves-Vibration direction parallel to wave propagation direction Particles in
medium move closer together/farther apart .Example: sound waves
Gases and liquids - support only longitudinal waves
Transverse waves-
Vibration direction perpendicular to wave propagation direction .Example: plucked string
Solids - support both longitudinal and transverse waves Sound waves Require medium for
transmission
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1. Sound is a wave motion, produced by a vibrating source.
2. A medium is necessary for the propagation of sound waves.
3. Sound is a longitudinal wave in which the particles of medium move along the direction of
motion of wave.
4. The part or region of a longitudinal wave in which the density of the particles of the
medium is higher than the normal density is known as compression.
5. The part or region of a longitudinal wave in which the density of the particles of the
medium is lesser than the normal density is called a rarefaction.
6. The point of maximum positive displacement on a transverse wave is known as crest.
7. The point of maximum negative displacement on a transverse wave is known as through.
8. A wave or short duration which is confined to a small portion of a medium at any given
time is known as a pulse.
9. The maximum displacement of particles of the medium from their mean positions during
the propagation of a wave is known as amplitude of the wave.
10. The distance traveled by a wave in one second is called wave velocity. It depends upon
the nature of the medium through which it passes.
11. The speed of sound depends primarily on the nature and the temperature of the
transmitting medium.
12. Sound travels faster in solids than in air. The speed of sound in solids is much more than
the speed of sound in liquids or gases.
13. The distance between two consecutive compressions or two consecutive rarefactions is
called the wavelength.
14. Frequency is defined as the number of oscillations per second.
15. The time taken by the wave for one complete oscillation of the density or pressure of
the medium is called the time period, T.
16. How the brain interprets the frequency of an emitted sound is called the pitch of sound.
17. Loudness is the degree of sensation of sound produced.
18. Sound properties such as pitch, loudness and quality are determined by the
corresponding wave properties.
19. Sound gets reflected and follows the same law as the reflection of light.
20. The persistence of sound due to repeated reflection and its gradual fading away is called
reverberation of sound.
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21. Echo is a repetition of sound due to the reflection of original sound by a large and hard
obstacle.
22. The audible range of hearing for average human beings is in the frequency range of 20
Hz – 20 kHz.
23. The amount of sound energy passing each second through unit area is called the
intensity of sound.
24. Sound of frequency less than 20 Hz is known as infrasound and greater than 20 kHz is
known as ultrasound.
25. Ultrasound has many medical and industrial applications.
26. SONAR stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging and it works on the principle of
reflection of sound waves.
27. The SONAR technique is used to determine the depth of the sea and to locate under
water hills, valleys, submarines, icebergs sunken ships etc.

*******

134
 CHAPTER – 10
LIGHT-REFLECTION
& REFRACTION
Light is a form of energy, which enable us to see the object.
In this chapter we will study the phenomena of reflection and refraction using the
property of light i.e. straight line propagation (Light wave travel from one point to
another, along a straight line).
Reflection of Light
When the light is allowed to fall on highly polished surface, such as mirror, most of
the light gets reflected. normal
Laws of Reflection
1. The angle of incidence is always equal to
Reflected
angle of reflection. ray
Incident
— i=— r ray
i r
2. The incident ray, reflected ray and the
normal to the reflecting surface at the
point of incidence lie in the same plane.
Points of incidences
Image formed by Plane Mirror (Plane reflecting surface)
Plane Mirror

A A1

Object Image

—
i
B —r B1

1) Virtual (imaginary) & Erect (Virtual The image that do not form on
screen.)
2) Laterally inverted (The left side of object appear on right side of image)
3) The size of image is equal to that of object
96 X-Science
4. The image formed is as for behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
Reflection of light by spherical Mirrors
Mirrors, whose reflecting surface are curved inward or outward spherically are
called spherical mirror.
For example - Spoon } fi
The curved surface of shinning spoon can be considered
as curved mirror.
If it is curved inward fi
Act as concave mirror
If it is curved outward fi
Act as a convex mirror.

Reflecting Reflecting
side side

Concave Convex
Mirror mirror
OR CONVERGING OR DIVERGING
MIRROR MIRROR

Few Basic terms related to Spherical Mirror

Radius of curvature
Principal R Concave
P
Axis C F f Mirror
focal length

Radius of curvature
Principal R
Axis P f F C
focal length
Convex
Mirror

97 X-Science
1. Principal axis : Line joining the pole and centre of curvature of the spherical
mirror.
2. Pole : The geometrical central point of the reflecting spherical surface.
(aperture), denoted by (P).
3. Aperture : The width of reflecting spherical surface.
4. Centre of curvature : The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror form a part
of sphere. It has a centre, which is known as centre of curvature, denoted by
(C)
5. Radius of curvature : The separation between the pole and the centre of
curvature. ie. PC = R
6. Focus point : The point on the principal axis, where all parallel rays meet
after reflection, denoted by (F)
7. Focal length : The length between the pole and focus point i.e. PF = f
8. Relationship between focal length and Radius of curvature.
F= R
2
Image formation by spherical Mirror
Before we learn the formation of image or ray diagram, let us go through few tips
a) Remember, A say of light which is parallel to principle axis always pass
through focus (meet at focus) or vice-versa

P P
Principal C F Principal C F
Axis Axis CONCAVE
CONCAVE MIRROR
MIRROR

Principal P F C
Axis
CONVEX MIRROR
Appear as if coming
from focus pt in case of convex mirror

98 X-Science
 Principal P F C
Axis

b) A ray of light which passes through centre of curvature (it is also known as
normal at the point of incidence on spherical mirror) will retrace their path
after reflection

Pole (P)
Principal C F CONCAVE
Axis MIRROR

P
Principal F C CONVEX
Axis MIRROR

c) A ray of light falling on pole get reflected at the same angle on the other side of
principal axis.

i P —
i=—
r
r
C
F

—
i=—
r
— i
—
r F C

99 X-Science
Note : A ray of light passes through centre of cus-valerie reflecting spherical
surface is always act as normal at the point of incidence. If we know the normal we
can draw angle of incidence and angle of reflection

i
r
P
al
norm dence C F
ng t of inci
(passi c) at p
r oug h
th

—
r
—
i

P F C

Note : The image will only form when two or more rays meets at apoint. Image
formation by a concave mirror for different position of the object

1. Object Position of Nature

At infinity Image Real and
P At focus Inverted
C F
Size of
Image
Highly diminished
(point size)

2. Object A Position of Nature

Beyond C Image Real and
object
B1 — i P Between F&C Inverted
B C image F —
r

Size of
A1 Image
Small

3. Object Position of Nature

A Image
At C Real and
At C Inverted
B1 B P
F Size of
Image
A
Same Size
of object

100 X-Science
4. Object A — i=— r
Between C&F Object Position of Nature
B1 B —
i P Image Real and
—
r
C F Beyond C Inverted
Image
Size of Image
A 1 Enlarged

5. Object — i=— r
At F A Position of Nature
Image Real and
B —
i P At (infinity) Inverted
F —
r
C
Size of Image
Highly enlarged
A1

6. Object
Between F&P A
(Special Case)
—
i P
B —
r B1
C F
Position of Image Nature
Behind the mirror Virtual
and
Size of Image
Erect
Enlarged

Image formation by Convex Mirror

1. Object
At infinity P
F C

Position of Image Size of Image Nature

At focus Highly diminished Virtual & erect

101 X-Science
1. Object
Anywhere between
infinity and pole A
of the mirror A1
P
B B1 F

Position of Image Size of Image Nature

Between P & F Very small Virtual & erect

Uses of Concave Mirror

1. Used in torches, search light and headlight of vehicle.
2. Used to see large image of face as shaving mirror
3. Used by dentist to see large images of the teeth
4. Large concave mirror used to focus sunlight (heat) in solar furnaces.
Uses of Convex Mirror
1. Used as rear-view mirror in vehicles because it gives erect image. It also helps
the driver to view large area.
Sign Convention for Reflection by Spherical Mirror
1. The object is always placed to the left side of mirror.
2. All distance should be measured from pole (P); parallel to principal axis.
3. Take 'P' as origin. Distances measured
Right of the origin (+ x - Axis) are taken positive
Left of the origin (– x-Axis) are taken negative
Perpendicular to and above principal axis (+y-Axis) are taken positive
Perpendicular to and below principal axis (–y-Axis) are taken negative
+y

o (Cartesian system)
–x +x

–y

102 X-Science
MIRROR FORMULA
f fi
distance between F and Pole
1 1 1
v fi
distance of image from Pole
F = v + u
u fi
distance of object from Pole
R R fi
distance between centre of curvature and pole.
where f = 2

MAGNIFICATION
It is expressed as the ratio of the height of the image to height of the object
height of image h1
m= = 1
height of object h
It is also related to 'u' and 'v'
–v
m= u 2

\
from 1 and 2 equation
1
– v where h fi
image height from principle axis
1
h
m= h = u 1
h fi
Object height from principle axis.

It magnitude m > 1 _____ Image is magnified

m = 1 _____ Image is of same size
m < 1 _____ Image is dimirushed

Few tips to remember sign convention for Spherical mirror

Object height h fi
always positive | Image height h
1
} Real - negative
Virtual - positive
Object distance from pole u fi
is always negative

Image distance from pole v fi

}
Real - Image always negative
Virtual - Image always positive
Focal length f fi }
Concave mirror – always negative
Convex mirror – always positive
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction of Light : Happens in Transparent medium when a light travels from
one medium to another, refraction takes place.
A ray of light bends as it moves from one medium to another

103 X-Science
Refraction is due to change in the speed of light as it enters from one transparent
medium to another.
Speed of light decreases as the beam of light travel from rarer medium to the denser
medium.

normal normal

Incident Denser medium

Raver medium
Ray

Denser medium Rarer medium

Refracted Ray
When ray travel from Rarer to Denser it bends When ray travel from denser to
towards normal after refraction rarer medium it bends away
from normal

Some Commonly observed phenomenon due to Refraction

1. The stone at the bottom of water tub appear to be raised.
2. A fish kept in aquarium appear to be bigger than its actual size.
3. A pencil partially immersed in water appears to be displaced at the interface of
air and water.
Refraction through a Rectangular Glass Slab
A
N
Incident ray Air (Rarer Medium)
i1
K L
O

r1

1
Glass
i2 N (Denser
Medium)
1
N O M
e Air (Rarer Medium)
Here light ray changes is
1
direction at O and O , the
point at the interface of (Refracted Ray)
transparent medium. C
B

104 X-Science
When a incident ray of light AO passes from a rarer medium (air) to a denser
medium (glass) at point. O on interface AB, it will bends towards the normal. At pt
1
O , on interface DC the light ray entered from denser medium (glass) to rarer
medium (air) here the light ray will bend away from normal OO1is a refracted ray
OB is an emergent ray. If the incident ray is extended to C, we will observe that
emergent ray O1B is parallel to incident ray. The ray will slightly displaced laterally
after refraction.
Note : When a ray of light is incident normally to the interface of two media it will
go straight, without any deviation.
Laws of refraction of light-
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two
transparent media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a
constant ie.
Sin i constant
Sin r = (r)

for given colour and pair of media, this law is also known as Snells Law
Constant n is the refractive index for a given pair of medium. It is the refractive
index of the second medium with respect to first medium.
Sin i n2 Where 2 is for second
Sin r = n1 = n21 medium and 1 is for first
medium

Refractive Index
The refractive index of glass with respect is air is given by ratio of speed of light in
air to the speed of light in glass.
ng Speed of light in air c
nga = n = = v
a Speed of light in glass
C fi Speed of light in vacuum = 3· 108 m/s
speed of light in air is marginally less, compared to that in vacuum.
Refractive index of air with respect to glass is given by
na
( a fi
g fi
air
glass )
nag = n =
g
Speed of light in glass
Speed of light in air
v
= c

105 X-Science
The absolute refractive index of a medium is simply called refractive index
Speed of light in air c
nm = = v
Speed of light in the medium
Refractive index of water (nw) = 1.33
Refractive index of glass (ng) = 1.52

Spherical Lens
A transparent material bound by two surface, of which one or both surfaces are
spherical, forms a lens.
CONVEX LENS
A lens may have two spherical surfaces, bulging outwards, is
called double convex lens (or simply convex lens.
It is also known as converging lens because it converges the light.
CONCAVE LENS
A lens bounded by two spherical surfaces, curved inwards is
known as double concave lens (or simply concave lens)
It is also known as diverging lens because it diverges the light.
Few Basic Terms related to spherical lens.

R
Principal f Convex
Axis C1 F1 O F2 C2 Lens
or (2F1) or (2F2)
Optical
centre (O)

R
Optical centre (O)
Principal Concave
Axis C1 F1 O F2 C2 Lens

C1 O C2

106 X-Science
1. Centre of curvature - A lens, either a convex lens or a concave lens has two
spherical surfaces. Each of these surfaces form a part of sphere. The centre of
these two spheres are called centre of curvature represented by C1 and C2.
2. Principal axis - Imaginary straight line passing through the two centres of
curvature
3. Optical Centre - The central point of lens is its optical centre (O). A ray of
light, when passes through 'O' it remains undeviated i.e. it goes straight.
4. Aperture - The effective diameter of the circular outline of a spherical lens.
5. Focus of lens - Beam of light parallel is principal axis, after refraction from
1) Convex lens, converge to the point on principal axis, denoted by F,
known as Principal focus

Principal Axis
F1 O F2

2) Concave lens, appear to diverge from a point on the principal axis, known
as principal focus.

Principal
F1 O F2 Axis

The distance OF2 and OF1 is called as focal length

Tips for drawing Ray diagram
a) After refraction, a ray parallel to principal axis will pass through F.

Principal
Axis
F1 O F2 F1 O F2

(Converge) (Diverge)

107 X-Science
b) A ray passes through F, after refraction will emerge parallel to principal axis.

F2
Principal F1 F2 Principal
F1 Axis Axis
O O

c) A ray passes through optical centre 'O', paeses without any deviation.

Principal
F1 F2 F1 O F2 Axis
O

Image formation by a convex lens for various position of object

1. Object Position of Image Nature
At infinity At focus Real &
F2 inverted
Size of Image
2F1 F1 F2 2F2 Highly
diminished
(point size)
2. Object
Beyond 2F1
Position of Image Nature
A
Between F2 & 2F2 Real &
inverted
B1 Size of Image
B 2F1 F1 O 2F2 Small
F2
A1
3. Object
At 2F1
A
Position of Image Nature
B1
At 2F2 Real &
B
2F1 F1 F2 2F2 inverted
O Size of Image
Same size of
A1 object

108 X-Science
4. Object Position of Image Nature
Between F1 & 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Real &
A inverted
Size of Image
Enlarged
B
2F2 B1
2F1 F1 O F2

A1
Object
5. Position of Image Nature
At focus F1
at infinity Real &
A
inverted
Size of Image
B Highly Enlarged
2F1 F1 O F2 2F2

6. (Special Case) Size of Image Nature

A1 Enlarged
Object Virtual &
Between F1 and A Erect
optical centre 'O'
B1
Position of Image 2F1 F1 B O F2 2F2
On the same
side of the
object

Image formation by concave lens

1. Object Position of Image Nature
Alt infinity At F1 Virtual &
Size of Image Erect
Highly Diminished
2F1 F1 O F2 2F2

109 X-Science
2. Object Position of Image Nature
Between infinity Between F1 & O Virtual
and optical centre & Erect
Size of Image
(at any point)
Very small
A
A
B
2F1 F1 B O F2 2F2

Sign Convention for Refraction by spherical lens

Similar to that of spherical mirror, only the difference is that all the measurement
are made from optical centre 'O'
+ y-axis

o
– x-axis + x-axis

– y-axis

LENS FORMULA
'O' fioptical centre
1 1 – 1
= f - distance between F and 'O'
f v u
u - distance of object from 'O'
R v - distance of image from 'O'
f= r - distance between centre
2
of curvature & 'O'
MAGNIFICATION
It is defined as the ratio of the height of image to the height of object.
1
h – image height
m=
height of image
height of object
=
h
h
1

= 1
} from principal axis
h – object height
from principal axis
It is also related to 'u' & 'v'
v
m= 2
u

110 X-Science
 From equation 1 & 2
h1 v
m= =
h u

If magnitude of m > | fi
Image is magnified
m = 1 fi
Image is of same size
m < | fi
Image is deminished
Few tips to remember sign convention for spherical lens
Object height h fi
is always positive

Image height h1 Real fi is always negative

Virtual fi is always positive
Object distance from optical centre u fi
is always negative

Image distance from optical centre v fi }

Real fi positive
virtual fi
negative

Focal length v fi }
Convex lens fi
is always positive
Concave lens fi
is always negative
Power of Lens
The degree of convergence or divergence of light ray achieved by a lens is known
as power of a lens.
It is difined as the reciprocal of its focal length Represented by P
It f is given in meter, then
1
1 P=
f= f
f It f is given in cm, then
100
P=
f

SI unit of power of a lens is "dioptre" denoted by 'D'

I dioptre or ID fi
It is the power of lens whose focal length is 1m
1 –1
ID = OR ID = 1m
1m

111 X-Science
Power convex lens or converging lens is always positive

f is +ve
O F2

Power of concave lens or diverging lens is always negative

f is –ve
F1 O

If any optical instrument have many lens, then net power will be
P = P1 + P2 + P3....

EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers Type Questions (1 Mark)
1. If the angle of incidence is O°, what is the angle of reflection?
2. What is the nature of image formed by concave mirror if the magnification
produced by the mirror is +3?
3. Give two uses of concave mirror?
4. Find the focal length of a convex mirror, whose radius of curvature is 30 cm?
5. What do you understand by magnification of a spherical mirror?
6. An object is held at the principal focus of a concave lens of focal length f.
Where the image will form?
7. Show the angle of incidence and angle of refection.

8. Complete the ray diagram.

2F1 F1 O F2 2F2

112 X-Science
9. Define the SI unit of power of lens.
10. When light undergoes refraction at the surface of seperation of two media,
what happens to speed of light.
Short Answer Type Questions (2-3 Marks)
1. What do you understand by refraction of light. Draw the labelled ray
diagram, when ray passes through glass slab.
8
2. The refractive index of glass is 1.54 and the speed of light in air is 3x10 m/s.
Calculate the speed of light in water?
3. A convex mirror used on an automobile has a focal length of 6m. If vehicle
behind is at a distance of 12m. Find the nature and location of image.
(4m, virtual erect small)
4. A concave lens of focal length 15cm, forms an image 10 cm from the lens.
How far is the object placed from the lens? Draw the ray diagram?
5. Two thin lens of power +3.5D and - 2.5D are placed in contact. Find the
power and focal length, if the lens are in combination. (p = + 10, f = 1m)
6. What are the law of refraction. Define refractive index of a medium.
Very Long Answer Type Questions (5 Marks)
1. Draw the ray diagram, showing the image formed by concave mirror, when
object is placed at
a) at infinity b) between F22F
c) At 2F d) At F
e) between F&P
2. Draw the ray diagram, showing the image formed by convex lens, when
object is placed at.
a) At infinity b) between F1 & 2F1
c) At 2F1 d) Beyond 2F1
e) between F1 & optical centre 'O'

113 X-Science
 CHAPTER – 11
The Hyman Eye and the Colourful World
In this chapter we will study Human eye that uses the light and enable us to see the
objects.
We will also use the idea of refraction of light in some optical phenomena in nature
i.e. Rainbow formation, twinkling of star, blue and red colour of sky etc.
Human Eye : A Sensitive sense organ
It acts like a camera, enable us to capture the colourful picture of the surroundings.
It forms an inverted, real image on light sensitive surface Retina

The Various parts of eye and their functions

1. Cornea : It is a thin membrane through which light enters. It forms the
transparent bulge on the front of eyeball. Most of the refraction occurs at the
outer surface of the cornea.
2. Eyeball : it is approximately spherical in shape, with a diameter of about
2.3cm.
3. Iris : It is a dark muscular diaphragm that controls the size of pupil. It is
behind the cornea.
4. Pupil : It regulates and control the amount of light entering the eye. It is the
black opening between aqueous humour & lens.
5. Crystalline eye lens : Provide the focussed real & inverted image of the
object on the retina. It is composed of a fibrous, jelly like material. This is
convex lens that converges light at retina.

114 X-Science
6. Ciliary muscles : It helps to change the curvature of eyelens and hence
changes its focal length so that we can see the object clearly placed at different
positon.
7. Retina : Thin membrane with large no. of sensitive cells.
8. When image formed at retina, light sensitive cells gets activated and generate
electrical signal. These signals are sent to brain via optic nerue. Brain analyse
these signals after which we perceive object as they are.
How pupil works ?
Example : You would have observed that when you come out of the cinema hall
after watching movie in the bright sun light, your eyes get closed . And when you
entered the hall from the bright light, you won't be able to see and after some time
you would be able to see.
Here the pupil of an eye provide a variable aperture, whose size is controlled by iris
a) When the light is bright : Iris contracts the pupil, so that less light enters the
eye.
b) When the light is din : Iris expand the pupil, so that more light enters the eye.
Pupil open completely, when iris is relaxed.
Persistence of Vision : It is the time for which the sensation of an object continue
th
in the eye. It is about 1/16 of a second.
Power of Accommodation :
The ability of eye lens to adjust it focal length is called accommodation with the
help of ciliary muscles.

Ciliary Muslces

Relaxed Contract
1. Eye lens become thin 1. Eye lens become thick
2. Increases the focal length 2. Decreases the focal length
3. Enable us to see distant object clearly 3. Enable us to see nearby object clearly

Near point of the Eye For point of the Eye

It is 25cm for normal eye. The It is infinity for normal eye. It is the
minimum distance at which object can farthest point upto which the eye can
be seen most distinctly without strain. see object clearly.

115 X-Science
DEFECTS OF VISION AND THEIR CORRECTION
1. CATARACT : The image can not be seen distinctly because eye lens become
milky and cloudy. This condition is known as cataract, it can cause complete
or partial loss of vision.
This can be corrected by surgical removal of extra growth (cataract surgery)
2. Myopia : (Near Sightedness)
A person can see nearby object clearly, but cannot see distant object distinctly.
Image formed in front of the retina.

Normal O Image
Eye Object formed
at Retina

Myopic
O1 O Eye

The Reason of defect

1. Excessive curvature of eye lens (thick, decrease focal length)
2. Elongation of the eye ball.
CORRECTION
Corrected by using a Concave Lens of appropriate power.

O1 O

Correction of Myopita

116 X-Science
(3) Hypermetropia (Far - Sightedness) –
A person cannot see nearby object clearly, but can see distant object distinctly.
Image formed at a point behind the retina

NORMAL Image formed

EYE N at Retina

Hypermetropic
NORMAL eye
EYE N N1

The Reason of defect

1. Increase in focal length of the eye lens (Thin eye lens)
2. Eye ball has become too small.
CORRECTION
Corrected by using a Convex Lens of appropriate power.

N
N1

Correction of Hypermetropic eye

117 X-Science
4. Presbyopia
As we become old, the power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases,
the near point gradually recedes away.
This defect is called Presbyopia. Person may suffer from both myopia and
hypermetropia.
Reason of defect- Gradual weakening of ciliary muscles and decreasing the
flexibility of the eye lens.
Correction- Using of Bifocal lens with appropriate power.
Bifocal lenses consist of both concave and convex lens, upper position consist
of concave lens and lower portion consist of convex lens.
Refraction of light through a Prism
Prism- It has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces.
These surfaces are inclines to each other. The angle between its two lateral
faces is called Angle of Prism.
A Angle of Prism

D (Angle of deviation)
Ð
Ð
i- incident angle
Ð
i
Ð
r Ð
e
t (emergent angle)
ligh
Sun
Em
B C erg
ent
ray

Angle of Deviation (D) ®

The angle between the incident ray and emergent ray.
Dispersion fo white light by a Glass Prism

Ð
D for red colour
ÐD for violet colour
ht
h ite lig
W
R
beam While light
Spectrum
V
Ð
D for violet colour > Ð
D for red colour

118 X-Science
Inclined refracting surfaces of glass prism show exciting phenomenon.
Splitting of White light into band of colours
The band of the coloured components of light beam as called Spectrum i.e.
VIBGYOR
The splitting of light into its component colours is called Dispersion.
The different component colour of light bends at different angle with respect to
incident angle the red light bends the least while the violet bends most.
ISSAC NEWTON ® He was the first, who obtained spectrum of sunlight by
using glass prism.
He tried to split the spectrum of white light more by using another similar prism,
but he could not get any more colours.
He repeated the experiment using second prism in on inverted position with
respect to the first prism.
Allowed all the colours of spectrum to pass through second prism. He found white
light emerges on the other side of second prism.
en
Scre

te
ght R R whi
h ite li ligh t
w
V V
rce
Sou

He concluded that sun is made up of seven visible colour ‘VIBGYOR’

RAINBOW ® It is the spectrum of sunlight in nature It is formed due to the
dispersion of sunlight by the tiny water droplet, present in atmosphere.
Water droplet act like prism.
It refract and disperse the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally (internal
reflection) and finally refract it again, when it emerges out of the water droplet.
A rainbow is always form in a direction opposite to that of sun.
Due dispersion and internal reflection of light different colour reaches to
observer’s eye.
Red colour appear on top & violet at the bottom of rainbow

119 X-Science
 Sunlight Rain drop
A

At ‘A’®
Refraction & dispersion takes place B
At ‘B’®
Internal refraction takes place
C
At ‘C’®
Refraction & dispersion takes place
R
V

Atmospheric Refraction –
1. Apparent Star Position– It is due to atmospheric refraction of star light.
The temperature and density of different layer of atmosphere keeps varying.
Hence we have different medium.
Distant star act as point source of light. When the starlight enter the earth’s
atmosphere it undergoes refraction continuously, due to changing refractive
index i.e. from Rarer to denser. It bends towards the normal.
Due to this the apparent position of the star is different from actual position.
The star appear higher than its actual position.

Apparent position of star

Actual
position
of Star In atmosphere layer
.............................................
.............................................
Refractive index
.............................................
.............................................
decreases
.............................................
.............................................
.............................................
.............................................
Atmosphere
.............................................
.............................................
EARTH

2. Twinkling of Star– It is also due to atmospheric refraction

Distant star act like a point source of light. As the beam of starlight keeps
deviating from its path, the apparent position of star keeps on changing
because physical condition of earth’s atmosphere is not stationary
Hence the amount of light enters our eyes fluctuate some time bright and some
time faint.
This is the “Twinkling effect of star”

120 X-Science
Q. Why Planet do not twinkle?
Ans. Planets are closer to earth and are seen as extended source of light i.e. the
collection of large no: of point sized sources of light. Therefore the total
amount of light entering our eyes from all individual point source will nullify
the twinkling effect.
(3) Advance Sunrise and delayed sunset
This is also due to atmospheric refraction.
Because of this sun is visible about 2 minutes earlier than actual sunrise and
about 2 minutes after the actual sun set. Apparent
position
Atmosphere of sun
n
rth o

Horizon
Ea rver
se
Ob

EARTH Actual
Sun

Apparent flattering of the sun’s disc at sun set and sun rise is due to atmospheric
refraction.
Scattering of Light
Tyndall Effect– When a beam of light strikes the minute particle of earth’s
atmosphere suspended particles of dust and molecule of air the path of beam
become visible. The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particle
gives rise to Tyndall Effect.
It can be observed when sunlight passes through a canopy of a dense forest.
The colour of the scattered light depends on the size of the scattering particles

Very fine particle Large size particle Very large enough

(scatter mainly (Scatter light of (The sky appear
blue colour short longer wave length white)
wave length) i.e. red)
(1) Why cloud Appear white– The size of water droplet (scattering particle) is
very large, hence scattered all wavelength of light almost equally.
(2) Why colour of sky is blue– The molecules of air and other fine particles in
the atmosphere have size smaller than the wavelength of visible light. Since
the blue has shorter wavelength than red, hence it will scattered the most.

121 X-Science
 According to Rayleigh scattering
1
Scattering of light a l 4 ( l – Wavelength)
Scattering of light decreases with increase in wavelength

Q. If there is no earth’s atmosphere? What will happen to scattering

phenomenon?
Ans. There will be no scattering and sky will appear dark.
(3) Colour of the Sun of Sunrise and Sunset
While sunset and sunrise, the colour of the sun and its surrounding appear
red.
During sunset and sunrise, the sun is near horizon, and therefore the sunlight
has to travel larger distance in atmosphere. Due to this most of the blue light
(shorter wavelength) are scattered away by the particles. The light of longer
wavelength (red colour) will reach our eye. This is why sun appear red in
colour.
(4) Why the danger signal or sign are made of red colour.
Red colour scattered the least when strikes the small particle of fog and
smoke because in has the maximum wavelength (visible spectrum). Hence
at large distance also, we can see the red colour clearly.
(4) At noon sun appear white–
At noon the, sun is overhead and sunlight would travel shorter distance
relatively through the atmosphere. Hence, at noon, the Sun appear while as
only little of the blue and violet colours are scattered.
(In the afternoon)
(In the early morning (Less blue
or evening) Light travel less scattered)
distance in atmosphere.
(Blue scattered away
sun appear reddish
.............................................
.............................................
.............................................
.............................................
Light Travel large distance
.............................................
.............................................
in atmosphere
Sun near
.............................................
.............................................
Atmosphere
horizon .............................................
.............................................
EARTH

122 X-Science
 EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1. What is the phenomenon responsible for the blue colour of sky?
2. What is the near and far point of a normal eye?
3. Name the component of eye that is responsible for the adjustment of
eyelens?
4. To an astronaut why does the sky appear dark instead of blue?
5. How can your remove the defect of vision ‘Presbyopia’.
6. Name three primary colour? (Ans. RED, BLUE, GREEN)
7. Write the nature of image formed by our eye?
8. What do you understand by Dispersion of light?
9. What is Tyndall Effect?
10. A student has difficulty reading the black board while sitting in the last row.
What is the defect of vision and how it can be corrected?
Short Answers (2 Marks)
1. Name the phenomenon responsible for formation of rainbow? Explain it
with the help of diagram?
2. What is power of accommodation. How ciliary muscles helps in
accommodation?
3. Why the sun appear red while sunset and sunrise. Explain?
4. Why the star twinkle but not earth?
5. Explain the function of
(i) Iris (ii) Pupil (iii) Retina
6. Explain the refraction of light through glass prism with the help of diagram.
Show angle of emergence and angle of deviation?
Long Answer Type Questions (5 Marks)
1. What is myopia. State the two causes of myopia? With the help of labelled
ray diagram show
(1) Eye defect
(2) Correction of myopia
2. What is hypermetropia. State the two causes? With the help of labelled ray
diagram show
(1) Eye defect
(2) Correction of hypermetropia.
3. Draw the labelled diagram of human eye and explain the image formation?

123 X-Science
 CHAPTER – 12
ELECTRICITY
Think life without “electricity” in this modern society. Is it possible to survive
without electrical energy in world of technology. Since we are science student, so it
is necessary to understand the basic concept behind the word “electricity”
Charge®
(q)
It is a very small particles present in an atom it can be either negative (electron) or
positive (proton)
“Coulomb” is the SI unit of charge, represented by C.
Net charge (Q)– Total charge
1018
IC Net charge is equivalent to the charge contained in nearly electrons 6´

Q = ne (n is no: of electron)
–19
If Q = 1C, e = 1.6 ´
10 C (negative charge on electron)
Q 1
n= =
e 1.6 ´ 10
–19

100 18 18
= ´ 10 = 6.2 ´
10
16
18
n=6´
10 electron

Current (I)
Rate of flow of net charge is called current. Denoted by (I)

Q
I = t is time
t

SI unit of current is “Ampere” rep. by A.

Ampere ®
Defined as one coulomb of charge following per second.

1C
1A =
1s

124 X-Science
In an electric circuit the electric current flow in the opposite direction of the flow of
electron (–ve charge) conventionally. It flows from the +ve terminal of battery or
cell to –ve terminal.
Small quantity of current are expressed in
–3
mA (milli Ampere) = 10 A
–6
uA (micro Ampere) = 10 A
Ammeter– It is an instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit.
It is always connected in series m a circuit
It is represented by the symbol ––––––––+ A – ––––––– in an electric circuit. It has
low resistance.
Electric Circuit– It is a closed path along which an electric current flow.

Bulb
The arrow shows the direction
of electric current in circuit.
–
Ammeter A
+
Key In this circuit ammeter is
+ – connected in series.

Battery
(Having 3 cells)
The electron can only flow when there is difference of electric pressure. For
example “water flowing through a tube” It is only possible when there high
pressure at one side and low at another side, then it will move from high pressure to
low pressure.
In case of electric current, the flow of charge is made possible due to chemical
action with in a cell that generates the potential difference across the terminals of
the cell.
8. Electric potential Difference– It is defined as the work done in carrying a unit
charge from one point to another between the two points of an electric circuits.
V – Potential Difference
W
V= W – Work
Q
Q – Net Charge
SI unit of potential difference – Volts rep. by “V”

125 X-Science
One Volt ® When 1 Joule of work is done to carry one coulomb (1C) of charge
from one point to another of a current carrying conductor then the potential
difference is send to be IV.

1J
IV =
1C

Voltmeter ® It is an instrument, used to measure the potential difference and

represented by the symbol +V – in an electric circuit. It is always
connected in parallel across the points between which the potential difference is to
be measured. It has high resistance.
Symbols for some commonly used instrument in circuit diagrams

(1) Cell + –

(2) Battery + –

(3) Key (switch) open OR

(4) Key (Close) OR

(5) Joint wire

(6) Wires with no join

(7) Bulb

+ –
(8) Ammeter A

+ –
(9) Voltmeter V

126 X-Science
Georg Simon Ohm (physicist) 1787 – 1854
Found the relationship between the current (I) flowing through a conductor and
potential difference (V) across the terminals of a conductor using the circuit
diagram.
+ V– GRAPH

–
A
+ V Va
I
(V)
O I (A)
+ –

In this circuit diagram we come across two new symbols

RESISTANCE (R)

OR RHEOSTAT (Variable Resistance)

Ohm’s Law ® He stated that the electric current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportion at to the potential difference across its ends, provided the
temperature remain constant
Va I
V = IR
Where “R” is the proportionality constant for the given metal at given temperature
and is said to be resistance, the graph between V and I is always straight line.
Resistance– It is the property of a conductor that opposes the flow of current. It is
represented by ‘R’ and symbol is
SI unit of resistance “Ohm” OR W
1 Ohm – The resistance of a conductor is said to be one Ohm, when the potential
difference across the conductor is 1V and the current flowing through it is 1A.
V = IR
\ R= V
I
1 Ohm or 1 W = 1V
1A

127 X-Science
Rheostate–
As we know that
V = IR
1= V
\
R {
Shows that current through
conductor resistor is inversely
proportional is its resistance }
So to increase or decrease the current accordingly in the circuit a component is
used is called “Rheostat”, that regulates the current without changing potential
difference. Represented by “Rh”

Its symbol is OR

it a conductor has less Resistance, then more current will flow through it.

FACTORS ON WHICH RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR DEPENDS–

(1) On its length (l)
(2) On its cross sectional area (A)
(3) On the nature of material

(Resistance) Ral (Directly prop. to length)

1 (inversely prop to cross-sectional area)
Ra
A
Ra l
A
R= l
A
Where “ ” (rho) is a proportionality constant known as resistivity of the material
of conductor.
11. Resistivity ( ) – the resistance offered by a wire of unit length and unit cross-
sectional area is called resistivity.
l
Its SI unit is W m Since R =
A
R.A W .m2
\ ==
l m
\
SI unit of =
W
m.

For a material irrespective of length and area, the resistivity is a constant.

128 X-Science
Resistantly of a material vary with temperature
Resistivity of an alloy (homogeneous mixture of metals) is generally higher than
of its constituent metals. Example Constantan (alloy of Cu & Ni)
Alloys have high resistivity and do not oxidise (burn) readly at high temperature,
for this reason they are commonly used in electrical heating devices, like electric
iron, heater, toasters etc. For example “Tungsten” as filament of electric bulb.
Resistance in Series– (Maximum Effective Resistance)
Let us take three resistance R1, R2 and R3 that are connected in series in a circuit.
R1 R2 R3

V1 V2 V3
I

+ –

V
Ohm’s low stated
V = IR
The current (I) flowing through the resistance in series will remain same, where as
the potential difference (V) across each resistor will be different.
V = IR
V1 = IR1 , V2 = IR2 , V3 = IR3
Total potential difference (V) = V1 + V2 + V3
V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
} Putting the value of
V, V , V & V
1 2 3

I R = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
Reff = R1 + R2 + R3

Thus, we conclude that effective Resistance of the several resistors joined in series
is equal to the sum of their individual resistance.
Resistance in Parallel (Minimum Effective Resistance)
Let us take three R1, R2 and R3, that are connected in parallel in the electric circuit.
R1
I1
I2 R2
I1 R3
I3

+ –

129 X-Science
 Now,
I1 = V , I2 = V , I3 = V
R1 R2 R3
Total current (I) = I1 + I2 + I3
substitute the value of I1 , I2 , I3 and I
V = V + V + V
R R1 R2 R3
V = V 1 + 1 + 1
R R1 R2 R3

1 = 1 + 1 + 1
Reff R1 R2 R3
Thus, we conclude that the reciprocal of total effective resistance of the several
resistors connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the
individual resistance.
Disadvantage of series connection in on electric circuit :–
1. In series connection if any of the component fail to work, the circuit will break
and then none of the component (ex. TV, bulb, fan..) will work.
2. It is not possible to connect a bulb and a heater in series, because they need
different value of current to operate properly.
Hence, to overcome this problem we generally use parallel circuit.
Heating effect of Electric Current :
Explanation® Battery or a cell is a source of electrical energy.

Battery or Cell Electron

(Chemical reaction in will come in motion
it will produce potential to flow current
difference at its through resistor
two terminals)

Rest of energy of source is Part of this energy is To maintain this current,

converted into heat, that consumed in useful the source has to keep
raises the temperature work expending its energy
of gadget. (like rotating of fan)

This is known as heating This effect is utilized in

effect of electric current devices such as electric
heater, iron etc.

130 X-Science
Mathematical Expression :–
Let us suppose that current (I) is flowing through a resistor of resistance (R) for the
time (t). The potential difference across the resistance is (V).
W
V= Q

\
Work done in morning the charge Q will be
W = VQ
W
Then power, P = t [Rate of change of work done]
VQ
= t
Q
P = VI I= t – (1)

Heat energy supplied by the source for time t will be

Energy or Work
H=P´ t P= – (2)
time
Put equation (i) in equation (2)
H = VIt
= (IR) It \
V = IR Ohm’s Law]
2
H = I Rt
This is known as Joule’s Law
The law stated that the heat produced in a resistor is
(i) directly proportional to square of the current(I)
(ii) directly proportional to resistance (R) for given current
(iii) directly proportional to time (t) for which current flow through resistor.
Application of Heating Effect of Electric Current :–
(1) Used in electric iron, toaster, oven, heater etc.
(2) It is also used in bulb to produce light.
(Filament of bulb is made of strong metal with high melting point such as
tungsten (m.pt = 3380°C). This filament can retain as much of the heat
generated as possible, to become very hot and emit light)
(3) It is also used in the “fuse connected in an electric circuit {Fuse a safety
device, protect the circuits and appliance by stopping the flow of high current.
The wire of fuse is made of an alloy of metals for ex Aluminium Copper, Iron

131 X-Science
 lead etc. The alloy should be of low m.pt and high resistivity, fuse is always
connected in series circuit. When large current flow through the circuit, the
temperature of fuse wire will increase. This melts the fuse wire and break the
circuit.
“ Fuses” used for domestic purposes are rated as 1A, 2A, 3A, 5A, 10A etc. for
various operation depending upon the power of appliance using.
Example- let us consider an appliance “electric Iron” which consume 1KW
electric power, at 220V
P = VI
I = P = 1KW = 1000W
V 220V 220V
I = 4.54A

In this case a 5A fuse is required.

Electric Power :– In case of electricity, it is defined as the rate of change electrical
energy dissipated or consumed in an electric electrical energy dissipated or
consumed in an electric circuit.
P = VI
or P = I2R ( V = IR Ohm’s Law)
2
V ( I= V )
or P =
R R
or P = Electrical Energy (E)
time (t)
SI unit of electric power is “Watt” (W).
1 Watt® Defined as the power consumed by a device, when 1A of current passes
through it at the potential difference of 1V.
P = VI
1 Watt = 1 Volt ´
1 Ampere

29 Electrical Energy– E – Electrical Energy

P= E t – time
t
\
E=P´
t

132 X-Science
SI unit of electrical energy = Ws or J
Commercial unit of electrical energy = KWh or One unit

E=P´
t
\
KWh = 1KW ´
h
= 1000W ´ 3600 s
5
= 36 ´10 Ws
106J
= 3.6 ´ (SI unit Ws = J)
\
1 106J
KWh = 3.6 ´

One horse power = 746W

133 X-Science
 EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1. Define the SI unit of (one mark each)
(a) Current
(b) Potential Difference
(c) Resistance
(d) Electric Power
(e) Electric Energy (Commercial)
2. What is the conventional direction of flow of current?
3. Define the term resistivity?
4. On what factors does the resistance of a conductor depend?
5. How is the voltmeter and ammeter connected in the electric circuit.
6. Heating effect of current carrying conductor is due to –
(Ans : loss of kmectic energy of electron)
7. Why the filament of bulb has high melting point?
8. How does use of a fuse wire protect electrical appliance?
9. What is the relationship between power, current and potential difference
(Ans : P = VI)
10. How many joules are there in 1KWh?
Short Answer (2-3 marks) type Questions
1. Draw a schematic diagram of a circuit consisting of a battery of six cell of
1.5V each, three resistor each of 3W
in series and a plug key.
2. State Ohm’s law. Draw the graph between V&I?
3. What is joule’s Heating effect of current, derive its expression?
4. A wire of length L and R is stretched so that its length’s doubled and the area
of cross section is halved. How will its
(i) Resistance change
(ii) Resistivity change.

134 X-Science
5. An electrical appliance of power 2KW works at potential difference of 220V.
Does it require fuse of 5A, give reason?
6. Calculate the total effective resistance between points A and B
1W 1W
(i)
1W 1W 1W
A 1W 1W B

3W 3W

(ii)
A B

3W 3W

2W
(iii)
A 2W

2W 2W

2W
B

Long Answer (5 Marks) type Questions

1. On what factor the resistance of conductor depends give its mathematical
expression. Give the SI unit of resistivity?
Calculate the resistivity of a metal of length 2m at 20°C having the resistance
of 20W and diameter 0.3mm?
2. In a circuit below, calculate
4W 2W

6W

+ –

6W

135 X-Science
 (1) Calculate total effective resistance
(2) The total current through the circuit.
(3) Potential difference across 4W
and 2W
.
3. Three resistance of 2W
, 3W
and 5W
are connected in the electric circuit.
Calculate the
(1) Maximum effective resistance
(2) Minimum effective resistance

136 X-Science
 CHAPTER – 13
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF
ELECTRIC CURRENT
In this chapter, we will study the effects of electric current :
1. Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851)
Oersted showed that electricity and magnetism are related to each other. His
research later used in radio, television etc.
The unit of magnetic field strength is name Oersted in his honour.
2. Oersted Experiment

R K
X

XY is conductor (Cu wire)

through which current is passed

Y
– +
On passing the current through the copper wire XY in the circuit, the compass
needle which is placed near the conductor gets deflected. If we reverse the
direction of current, the compass needle deflect in reverse direction. If we
stop the flow of current, the needle comes at rest.
Hence, it conclude that electricity and magnetism are linked to each other. It
shows that whenever the current will flow through the conductor, then
magnetic field around. it will developer
3. Magnetic Field – It is the region surrounding a magnet, in which force of
magnet can be detected. It is a vector quantity, having both direction &
magnitude.
4. Compass needle– It is a small bar magnet, whose north end is pointing
towards north pole and south end is pointing towards south pole of earth.
5. Magnetic field lines–
When a bar magnet is placed on a card board and iron fillings are sprinkled,
they will arrange themselves in a pattern as shown below.

137 X-Science
 N S

The lines along which the iron filling align themselves represent magnetic
field lines.
Hence, magnetic field line is a path along which a hypothetical free north pole
tend to move towards south pole.
6. Characteristics of Magnetic field lines :
(1) The direction of magnetic field lines outside the magnet is always from
north pole to south pole of bar magnet and are indicated by an arrow.
Inside the magnetic, the direction of field lines is from its south pole to north
pole
Thus magnetic field lines are closed curve
(2) The strength of magnetic field is expressed by the closeness of magnetic
field lines. Closer the lines, more will be the strength and farther the lines, less
will be the magnetic field strength.
(3) No two field lines will intersect each other.
If they intersects, then at point of intersection the compass needle will show
two direction of magnetic field which is not possible.

Tangent at the
point of intersection
shows two direction.

7. Magnetic field due to Current Carrying Conductor

N N
x S y x S y
Cu wire Cu wire

+ – – +

(a) (b)

138 X-Science
 The above electric circuit in which a copper is placed paralled to a compass
needle, shows the deflection in needle gets reversed, when the direction of
current reversed. Hence electricity and magnetism are related to each other.
8. Right Hand Thumb Rule :–
It is a convenient way of finding the direction of magnetic field associated
with current carrying conductor.
Hold the straight were carrying current in your right hand such that thumb
points towards the direction of current, then your folded fingers around the
conductor will show the direction of magnetic field.

Direction of magnetic
field lines.

This rule is also called Maxwell’s corkscrew rule.

9. Magnetic Field due to Current through a Straight Conductor
+ –
A
Direction of Direction can be
Current explained using
Right Hand Thumb
Rule

on c + –
ecti i
Dir agnet Pheostat
f
o dm
fiel
10. Magnetic Field due to Current through a circular Loop
S
Z

–
+

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 Every point on the wire carrying current give rise to the magnetic field,
appearing as a straight line at the centre of loop. By applying Right hand
Thumb rule, we can find the direction of magnetic field at every section of the
wire.
11. Solenoid– A Coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped
closely in the shape of a cylinder is called solenoid.
12. Magnetic field due to a current in a solenoid–

S N

+ –

– Using R.H. Thumb Rule, we can draw the pattern of magnetic field lives
around a current carrying solenod.
– One end of the solenoid behaves as a magnetic north pole, white the other
end behave as the South Pole.
– The filed lines inside the solenoid are in form of parallel straigh lines, that
implies that magnetic field inside the solenoid is same at all points i.e. Field is
uniform.
13. Electromagnet– Strong magnetic field inside the solenoid can be used to
magnetise a magnetic material for example soft iron, when it is placed inside
the coil. The magnet so formed is called electromagnet.
14. Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836) suggested that the magnet also exert an
equal and opposite force on the current carrying conductor.
Iron Stand
Experiment®

+ S

rod Current Carrying

–

N Aluminium rod should lie

between the two poles
of magnet

Horse shoe magnet

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 We will observe that the rod will displace i.e. the rod will experience a force,
when it is placed in magnetic field, in a perpendicular direction to its length.
– The direction of the exert force will be reversed if the direction of current
through the conductor is reversed.
– If we change the direction of field by inter changing the two poles of the
magnet, again the direction of exert force will change.
– Therefore the direction of exerted force depends on
(1) direction of current
(2) direction of magnetic field lines.
15. Left Hand Fleming Rule
M other F ather C hild

(Force) ®
Motion Field Current
T humb Fore finger Middle finger
Thrust (force)
Three of them perpendicular to each other.

– According to this rule, stretch thumb, forefinger and middle finger

of your left hand such that they are mutually perpendicular to each
other.
If fore finger represent direction of magnetic field & middle finger
represent direction of current, then thumb will point in the direction
motion or force acting on the conductor.
– Functioning of electric motor is based on this rule. It convert electrical
energy into mechanical energy.
16. Michael Faraday– Gave the law of Electro magnetic Induction
17. Galvanometer® It is an instrument that can detect the presence of a current
in a circuit. If pointer is at zero (the centre of scale) the there will be no flow of
current.
If the pointer deflect on either side right or left, this will show the direction of
current. Represented by
o
G

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18. Electro Magnetic Induction – Can be explained by two experiments
(a) FIRST EXPERIMENT ®
“SELF INDUCTION”

N S
G G

In this experiment, when the north pole of bar magnet is brought closes to the
coil or away from the coil, we see momentary deflection in the needle of
galvanometer on either side of null point. First right and then left.
Similarly, if we keep the magnet stationary and coil is made to move towards
or away from the north pole of magnet. Again we will observe deflection in
the needle of galvanometer.
If both bar magnet and coil kept stationary, there will be no deflection in
galvanometer.
This experiment can also be done with the south pole of magnet, we will
observe the deflection in galvanometer, but it would be in opposite direction
to the previous case.
Þ It concludes that motion of magnet with respect to coil or vice-versa,
changes the magnetic field. Due to this change in magnetic field lines,
potential difference is induced in the same coil, which set up an induced
current in the circuit.
(b) SECOND EXPERIMENT – Mutual Induction
Primary Coil Secondary Coil

+ – G
Coil 1 Coil 2

In this experiment plug in the key that is connect coil with battery and observe
the deflection in galvanometer. Now plug out the key that is disconnect the
coil-1 from battery and observe the deflection in galvanometer, which will be
in reverse direction.
Hence, we conclude that potential difference is induced in secondary coil
(coil-2), whenever there is a change in current, in primary coil (coil-1) (by on
and off of key).

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 This is because, whenever there is change in current in primary coil
¯
Magnetic field associated with it also changes
¯
Now, magnetic field lines around the secondary coil (coil-2) will change and
induces the electric current in it (observed by the deflectionof needle of
Galvanometer in secondary circuit)
This process, by which changing of strength of current in primary coil,
induces a current in secondary coil is called Electromagnetic Induction”
The induced current is found to be highest when the direction of motion of coil
is at right angles to the magnetic field.
19. Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
(1) (2) (3)
M other F ather C hild

Motion Field Current

(movement of conductor) (Magnetic) (Induced)

Thumb Fore finger Middle finger

Three of them perpendicular to each other.
Rule can be defined at–
Stretch thumb , forefinger and middle finger of right hand, so that they
are perpendicular to each other. The forefinger indicates direction of magnetic
field, thumb shows the direction of motion of conductor, then the middle
finger will shows the direction of induced current.
Electrical generator is based on the principle of electro magnetic induction.
It convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Current

Alternate Current (AC) Direct Current (DC)

(1) Changes the direction Does not change its
periodically after equal direction with time it is
interval of time unidirectional

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 Current

I
I
(A)
(A) time
time (s)
(s)
It has frequency It has frequency
50Hz in India OHz
60 Hz in America

21. Advantages of Alternate Current (AC) over Direct Current (DC)

Electric power can be transmitted to longer distances without much loss of
energy. Therefore cost of transmission is low.
In India the frequency of AC is 50Hz. It means after every 1/100 second it
changes its direction.
22. Domestic Electric Circuits :–
In our homes, the electric power supplied is of potential difference V = 220V
and frequency 50Hz.
It consist of three wires :–
(1) Wire with red insulation cover – LIVE WIRE (POSITIVE)
Live wire is at high potential of 220V
(2) Wire with black insulation cover – NEUTRAL WIRE (NEGATIVE)
Neutral wire is at zero potential
Therefore, the potential difference between the two is 220V.
(3) Wire with Green insulation cover – EARTH WIRE
it is connected to a copper plate deep in the earth near house.
The metallic body of the appliances is connected with the earth wire as a
safety measure.
Function–
Earth wire provide a low resistance to the current hence any leakage of
current to the metallic body of the appliances, keep its potential equal to
that of earth. That means zero potential and the user is saved from severe
electric shock.

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23. Distribution Box
containing main
Earth wire switch & fuse
for each
current
Live wire
Ueutral wire

Electrical Electricity
Fuse board meter

Point to be noted in domestic circuit

(1) Each appliance has a seperate switch of ON/OFF
(2) In order to provide equal potential difference to each appliance, they should
be connected parallel to each other. So that they can be operated at any time.
One consist of current of 15A
for high power appliances
(3) We have two electric circuit in our home
Other circuit consist of current 5A
for low power appliances.

24. Short Circuiting –

Due to fault in the appliances or damage in the insulation of two wires, the
circuit will offer zero or negligible resistance to the flow of current. Due to
low resistance, large amount of current will flow.
I2) heat is produced in live wire
According to Joule’s law of heating effect (Ha
and produces spark, damaging the device and wiring.
25. Overloading–
Overloading can be caused by (1) Connecting too many appliances to a single
socket or (2) accidental rise in supply voltage if the total current drawn by the
appliances at a particular time exceeds the bearing capacity of that wire, it will
get heated up. This is known as overloading.
Fuse a safety device can prevent the circuit from overloading and short
circuiting.

145 X-Science
 EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1. What is the frequency of AC used in India?
2. Name the point where the iron filling are collected more?
3. Who discovered electro magnetic induction?
4. Why does a compass needle get deflected when brought near the bar
magnet?
5. If both the coil and the magnet are stationary, will there be deflection in
galvanometer?
6. Why magnetic field lines do not intersect each other?
7. What is the advantage of Alternate Current over Direct current?
8. What do you understand by short circuiting?
9. When the force experienced by a current carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field is maximum?
10. Write the factors affecting the magnetic field due to a straight conductor?
Short Answers (2 Marks)
1. A charged particles enters at right angles into a uniform magnetic field. What
is the nature of charge particle, if it experiences a force in a direction pointing
vertically out of the page.
Magnetic field

Charge particle (use left hand flemings rule)

2. Name the Rule–
(1) Force experience by a current - carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field.
(2) Direction of magnetic field lines associated with a current carrying
conductor.
(3) Direction of induced current in a coil due to its rotation in magnetic
field.

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3. What is solenoid? Where the magnetic field is uniform in solenoid?
4. Draw the pattern of magnetic field lines due to current carrying straight
conductor?
(5) Name two safety measures commonly used in electric circuit and
appliances?
(6) What is overloading?
Long Answer (5 Marks)
1. Explain the phenomenon of Electro magnetic Induction with the help of an
activity. Write its one application.
2. Draw the schematic diagram of domestic circuit. Write the colour and
function of Neutral wire, Live wire and Earth wire.

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