Thermo-HT EED Sp-21

Course: Thermodynamics-Heat Transfer
Recommended Books:
▪ Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach by Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles, 5th Ed / 8th

Ed.
▪ Fundamentals of Thermodynamics by Claus Borgnakke and Richard E. Sonntag, 7th / 8th Ed.
▪ Applied Thermodynamics by TD Eastop and A McConkey, 5th Ed.
▪ Heat Transfer by Yunus Cengel
▪ Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer by Incropera.
Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 1

Fundamental Concepts of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics and Energy

Various energy sources and the possible
▪ All living things depend on Energy for survival conversion paths
▪ Modern civilizations will continue to thrive only if
existing sources of energy can be developed to
meet the Growing demands
▪ Energy exists in many Forms: From energy locked
in the atoms of matter itself to the intense radiant
energy emitted by the Sun
E.g.
o Chemical Energy of fossil fuels → Heat →
Mechanical Energy in Turbines or Engines
o Nuclear Energy of Uranium Atoms → Heat
o Potential Energy of Water → Kinetic Energy →
Water turbines → Electrical Energy
o K.E of Wind → Windmills → Electricity
o Energy of Tidal Waves → Floating Turbine →
Electricity


Thermodynamics = Therm + Dynamis
(Heat) (Power)
▪ Thermodynamics:
o The science of Energy focusing on Energy Conversion Processes and Energy Storage Science of the
relations between Heat, Work and the Properties of the systems
o Science of the Regularities governing processes of Energy Conversion
❖How to adopt these interactions to our benefit ?
→ Thermodynamics enables us to answer this question
→ We study the effects on different substances, as we may expose a Mass to Heating / Cooling or
to volumetric Compression / Expansion
→ During such processes we are transferring energy into or out of the mass, so it changes its
conditions expressed by properties like Temperature, Pressure, and Volume


▪ Energy: The ability to cause changes
▪ Conservation of Energy Principle: During an interaction, energy can
change from one form to another but the total amount of energy
remains constant → Energy cannot be created or destroyed
▪ The First Law of Thermodynamics: An expression of the conservation
of energy principle
▪ The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Energy has quality as well as
quantity, and actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing
quality of energy
Greater Energy Input (Food) than energy output

(Exercise) will gain weight (Store Energy in the
form of fat), and a person who has a smaller Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 4
energy input than output will lose weight
Application Areas of Thermodynamics

▪ All activities in nature involve some interaction between energy and matter; thus, it is hard to imagine an
area that does not relate to thermodynamics in some manner
The human body

Air-conditioning Airplanes
systems
Car radiators Power plants Refrigeration systems

Systems and Control Volumes

▪ System: A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study
o In study of thermodynamics, we choose a small part of the universe to which
we will apply the laws of thermodynamics → We call this subset a SYSTEM
o system is a Macroscopically identifiable collection of matter on which we
focus our attention (e.g: water kettle or aircraft engine)
▪ Surroundings: The mass or region outside the system

o The rest of the universe outside the system close enough to the system to
have some perceptible effect on the system is called the surroundings
▪ Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings. (e.g.: walls of the kettle, the housing of the engine)
BOUNDARY :
Fixed / Movable
Shared by both,
SYSTEM and SURROUNDINGS
No Thickness, No Mass / Volume
Systems And Control Volumes

▪Systems may be considered to be closed or open
▪ Closed system (Control Mass): A fixed amount of mass, and no mass can
cross its boundary
o We do permit heat and work to enter or leave but not mass
▪ Open System (Control Volume): in which we permit mass to

cross the system boundary in either direction (from the system
to surroundings (or vice versa)
o Most of the engineering devices are open system such as a

compressor, turbine, or nozzle etc.
Fluid in a Turbine as Open System Fluid in a Closed Cylinder as a Closed System


Control surface: The boundaries of a Control Volume
→ It can be real or imaginary, Fixed or Moving
BOUNDARY of OPEN or CLOSED System is also known as CONTROL SURFACE
e.g. Water Heater, Car Radiator, Turbine, Compressor


Control Mass: a control surface that is closed to mass flow, so that no mass can escape or enter the
Control Volume → containing the same amount of matter at all times
Example of a Control Mass Example of a Control Volume


Isolated System - in which there is no interaction between system and the surroundings
→ It is of fixed mass and energy, and hence there is no mass and energy transfer across the system
boundary
▪ We must choose the system for each and every problem we work on, so
as to obtain best possible information on how it behaves
▪ In some cases the choice of the system will be obvious and in
some cases not so obvious

Properties of System
Any characteristic of a System to which some Physically Meaningful Numbers can be assigned without
knowing the history behind it, is known as its PROPERTY
e.g. Pressure (P), Volume (V), Temperature (T) and mass (m), etc. also
Viscosity (μ), Electric Resistance (R), Thermal Conductivity (k), etc.
Intensive : Independent of Mass of system.

- e.g. Velocity (c), Elevation (h), Pressure (P), Temperature
(T), Density (ρ) etc.
Extensive : Dependent on Mass (or size or extent) of system →

varies directly with the mass
- e.g. Volume ( V ), Momentum, Mass (M), Energy etc.
→ if a quantity of matter in a given state is divided into two equal parts,
each part will have the same value of Intensive Properties as the
original and half the value of the Extensive Properties
Specific : Extensive properties per unit mass.
- e.g. Sp. Vol (v = V/m), Sp. Enthalpy (h = H/m), etc.
Extensive properties per unit mass, such
Mechanical as specific
Engineering volume,
Dept. HITEC Univ. are Intensive Properties 12
Processes and Cycles

▪ Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another
▪ Path: Series of states through which a system passes during a process
o To describe a process completely, one should specify the Initial and Final States, as well as the Path
it follows, and the Interactions with the Surroundings
▪ Quasistatic or Quasi-equilibrium Process: When a process
proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally
close to an equilibrium state at all times
molecules near the face of piston will

piston is moved slowly, molecules will
not have enough time to escape and they
have sufficient time to re-distribute and
will have to pile up in a small region in front
there will not be a molecule pileup
of the piston, thus creating a high-pressure
in front of the piston
region there
⇒ Pressure will rise at the same rate at
⇒ process is Non Quasi-equilibrium13due to
all locations
Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ.
pressure difference

▪ Process diagrams plotted by employing Thermodynamic Properties as
coordinates are very useful in visualizing the processes
▪ Some common properties that are used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or specific volume v).
▪ The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a
particular property remains constant
▪ Isothermal process: A process during which the temperature T remains
constant
▪ Isobaric process: A process during which the pressure P remains
constant
▪ Isochoric (or isometric) process: A process during which the specific
volume v remains constant
▪ Cycle: A process during which the initial and final states are identical
→ i.e., A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its
initial state at the end of the process

State 2 h=Const s=Const

Isenthalpic Isentropic
V=Const
Isochoric
Temperature (T)
Pressure (P)
Property B
T=Const
P=Const Isothermal
Isobaric
State 1
Property A Volume (V) Enthalpy (h)/ Entropy (s)

The Steady-Flow Process

▪ The term steady implies no change with time
→ The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient
▪ A large number of engineering devices operate for long periods of time

under the same conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow devices
▪ Steady-flow process: A process during which a fluid flows through a control

volume steadily
→ properties can change from point to point within the control volume,
but at any fixed point they remain the same during the entire process
→ Volume V, the Mass m, and the total Energy Content E of the control
volume remain constant during a steady-flow process
▪ Steady-flow conditions can be closely approximated by devices that are
intended for continuous operation such as turbines, pumps, boilers,
condensers, and heat exchangers or power plants or refrigeration systems
▪ Term Uniform implies no change with location over a specified region

Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Statement:
If two bodies are in Thermal Equilibrium with the third body → they are also in Thermal Equilibrium with
each other
A B
C
25 ºC
25 ºC 25 ºC 25 ºC
o This statement seems to be very simple

o However, this can not be directly concluded from the other Laws of Thermodynamics
o It serves as the basis of validity of TEMPERATURE measurement
▪ By replacing the Third Body with a Thermometer; the Zeroth Law can be stated as :
→ Two bodies are in Thermal Equilibrium, if both have same TEMPERATURE, even if they are not in contact
with each other
▪ Temperature bears as important relation Mechanical
to Thermodynamics as Force does to Statics or Velocity does to
Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 17
Dynamics
Temperature Scales
▪ All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible
states such as the Freezing and Boiling points of water: the Ice
Point and the Steam Point
▪ Ice point: The temperature, equal to 0°C (32 °F), at which pure
water and ice coexist in equilibrium at 1 atm of pressure
▪ Steam point: A mixture of liquid water and water vapor in
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100 °C or 212 °F).
o Celsius scale: in SI unit system
o Fahrenheit scale: in English unit system
▪ On the basis of the 2nd law of Thermodynamics, a temperature scale
that is independent of any thermometric substance can be defined; →
referred as the Thermodynamic Scale of Temperature
▪ Change in Volume at constant pressure or change in pressure at

constant volume of a fixed mass of gas which is not easily liquefied
(e.g. Oxygen, Nitrogen, etc.) can be used as measure of temperature
o IfGraph of Temperature against Volume in the constant Pressure

gas thermometer is extrapolated beyond the ice point to the point at
which volume of the gas would become zero, temperature at this
point is -273 oC Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 18
Temperature Scales
o Similarly if Graph of Temperature Versus Pressure in the
constant volume gas thermometer is extrapolated to zero
pressure, then the same zero Temperature is found
o An Absolute Zero of temperature has been fixed and
an absolute scale of temperature can be defined
▪ Temperature on Absolute Celsius Scale can be obtained by adding
273 to all temperatures on Celsius scale → called Kelvin scale
A constant-volume gas thermometer would

read -273.15°C at absolute zero pressure.
P versus T plots of the ▪ Thermodynamic Temperature Scale: A

experimental data obtained temperature scale that is independent of the
from a constant-volume gas properties of any substance
thermometer using four
different gases at different o Kelvin scale (SI) OR Rankine scale (E)
(but low) pressures.

Temperature Scales
▪ Whenever the value of Temperature is used in Equations relating to fundamental laws, then the value of
temperature, whose reference point is True Zero or Absolute Zero is used
o i.e. the Temperature below which the temperature of any substance cannot fall → Absolute Zero
Comparison of magnitudes of
various temperature units.
Temperature Scales
Comparison of Temperature Scales

Pressure 68 kg 136 kg
▪ Pressure: A normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area
▪ When dealing with liquids and gases, we ordinarily speak of Pressure; for
solids we speak of Stresses
SI Units : Afeet=300cm2
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
1 kPa = 103 Pa
1 MPa = 106 Pa = 103 kPa 0.23 kgf/cm2 0.46 kgf/cm2
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa P=68/300=0.23 kgf/cm2
1 atm = 101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar

1 kgf/cm2 = 9.81 N/m2 = 9.81 X 104 N/m2 = 0.981 bar = 0.9679 atm
Some basic
English Units : pressure
gages.
psi = Pound per square inch ( lbf/in2)
1 atm = 14.696 psi
1 kgf/cm2 = 14.223 psi
Pressure
▪ Absolute pressure: Actual pressure at a given position → measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e.,
absolute zero pressure)
▪ Gage pressure: difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure
→ Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate
gage pressure
▪ Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure
P (gauge)
Local Atmospheric Pressure
( 1.01325 bar @ Sea Level )
P (vacuum) P (abs) P (atm)
Absolute Zero Pressure

p = 1 atm

Energy, Energy Transfer, and General Energy Analysis
Forms of Energy
▪ Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic,
chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the TOTAL ENERGY, E of a system.
o Total Energy of a system on a unit mass basis is denoted by e
▪ Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy

▪ Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a
whole with respect to some outside reference frame
e.g., kinetic and potential energies
The macroscopic energy of an
object changes with velocity and
▪ Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular elevation
structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity
▪ Internal energy, U: The sum of all the Microscopic forms of energy

Forms of Energy
▪ Kinetic Energy, KE: Energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some reference
frame → When all parts of the system move with the same velocity
▪ Potential energy, PE: The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational field
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic Energy per unit mass
Potential Energy Potential Energy

per unit mass
▪ Magnetic, Electric, and Surface Tension Effects are significant in some specialized cases only and are
usually ignored
⇒ Total Energy of a system:
Energy of a system per unit mass

Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy

▪ Internal
Energy is related to the molecular structure and the degree of
molecular activity and can be viewed as the sum of the Kinetic and Potential
energies of the molecules
o For Gases, Kinetic Energy is mostly due to Translational and Rotational
motions, with Vibrational motion becoming significant at higher
temperatures
o Electrons in an atom rotate about the Nucleus, and thus possess Rotational
Kinetic Energy
o Electrons also spin about their axes, and the energy associated with this
motion is the Spin Energy
Various forms of
o particles in the Nucleus of an atom also possess microscopic energies
Spin Energy that make up sensible
energy
▪ Sensible Energy → Portion of the internal energy of a system associated with
the Kinetic Energies of the molecules

Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy

▪ Internal
Energy is also associated with Various Binding Forces between the molecules of a substance,
between the atoms within a molecule, and between the particles within an atom and its nucleus
o If sufficient energy is added to the molecules of a solid or liquid, the molecules overcome these
Molecular Forces and break away, turning the substance into a gas → Phase Change Process
▪ Latent Energy: portion of the internal energy of a system associated with the phase change of a system
o Phase-change Process can occur without a change in the chemical composition
of a system
▪ Chemical Energy: internal energy associated with the Atomic Bonds in a molecule
o During a Chemical Reaction, e.g. combustion, some chemical bonds are
destroyed while others are formed → Internal Energy changes
▪ NuclearEnergy: tremendous amount of energy associated with the strong

bonds within the Nucleus of the atom itself
o Chemical Reaction involves changes in the structure internal energy of a system

of the electrons of the atoms, but a Nuclear Reaction is the sum of all forms of the
involves changes in the core or nucleus
Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ.
microscopic energies. 28
The First Law of Thermodynamics

▪ The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy principle) provides a sound basis for studying
the relationships among the various forms of energy and energy interactions, such as Heat Q, Work W, and
Total Energy E
▪ The first law states that Energy can neither be created nor destroyed during a process; it can only change
forms → every bit of energy should be accounted for during a process
Energy cannot be created

or destroyed; it can only
change forms
The increase in the energy of a

potato in an oven is equal to the
amount of heat transferred to it
I- The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Mass Undergoing a Cycle

During any cycle a system (control mass) undergoes, the Cyclic Integral of the heat is
proportional to the cyclic integral of the work
▪ consider as a control mass the gas in the container shown go through a cycle that is made up of two
processes
o work is done on the system by the paddle that turns as the weight is lowered
o system then return to its initial state by transferring heat from the system until the cycle has been
completed
▪ Measurements of Work and Heat were made during a Cycle for a wide variety of systems and for
various amounts of work and heat, and
▪ When the amounts of Work and Heat were compared, it was found that they were always proportional

I- The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Mass Undergoing a Cycle
▪ Observations led to the formulation of the First Law of Thermodynamics, which in equation form is
cyclic integral of the heat transfer → represents the net heat transfer during the cycle,
cyclic integral of the work → represents the net work during the cycle
▪When a system undergoes a Thermodynamic Cycle then the net heat supplied to the
system from its surroundings plus the net work input to the system from its surroundings
must equal zero

II- The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Change In State of a Control Mass
▪ System undergoes a Cycle in which it changes from state 1 to state 2 by process A and returns from state 2
to state 1 by process B
Considering the Two Separate Processes →
→ consider another Cycle in which the control mass changes from state 1 to state 2 by process C and
returns to state 1 by process B, as before
Subtracting the second of these equations from the first
⇒
II- The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Change In State of a Control Mass
o ⇒ quantity δQ − δW is the same for all processes between states 1 and 2

o ⇒ δQ − δW depends only on the initial and final states and not on the path followed between the two
states
⇒ this is a Point Function, and therefore it is the differential of a property of the mass
Because E is a property, its derivative is written dE
E1, E2: initial and final values of the energy E of the

control mass
1Q2: heat transferred to the control mass during the
process from state 1 to state 2
1W2: work done by the control mass during theEngineering
Mechanical process Dept. HITEC Univ. 33
The work (electrical) done

on an adiabatic system is
equal to the increase in the
energy of the system.
heating of water in a pan on top of a The work (shaft) done on an

range adiabatic system is equal to
In the absence of any work the increase in the energy of
interactions, the energy the system.
change of a system is equal to
the net heat transfer. Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 34

Energy Balance
▪ Net change (increase or decrease) in the Total Energy of the system during a Process is equal to the
difference between the Total Energy Entering and the Total Energy Leaving the system during that process
The energy change of

a system during a
process is equal to
the net work and heat
The work (boundary) done on transfer between the
an adiabatic system is equal to system and its
the increase in the energy of the surroundings
system
Energy Change of a System, ΔEsystem
▪ In the absence of Electric, Magnetic, and Surface Tension Effects the change in the total energy of a
system during a process is the sum of the changes in its Internal, Kinetic, and Potential Energies
▪ The First Law introduces a new property of the system called the Energy of the System
▪ We have “Energy in transition (Heat)” between the system and the surroundings” which is not a property
and “Energy of the system” which is a property
▪ The change in the value of a “Property” during a process depends only on the End States and not on the
path taken by a process
o Balance in your bank account is a property. The Deposits and Withdrawals are not.
o A given balance can be obtained by a series of deposits and withdrawals or a single large credit or
debit!
▪ Most systems encountered in practice are STATIONARY, i.e., they do

not involve any changes in their velocity or elevation during a process

Example
A tank containing a fluid is stirred by a paddle wheel. The work input to the paddle wheel is
5090 kJ. The heat transfer from the tank is 1500 kJ. Consider the tank and the fluid inside a
control surface and determine the change in internal energy of this control mass.
Example
A domestic refrigerator is loaded with food and the door closed. During a certain period the
machine consumes 1 kWh of energy and the internal energy of the system drops by 5000 kJ.
Find the net heat transfer for the system.

III- The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout
▪ Energy can be transferred to or from a system in three forms: Heat, Work, and Mass Flow
▪ Net Transfer of a quantity is equal to the difference between the amounts transferred in and out
o Heat Transfer Q is zero for Adiabatic Systems

o Work Transfer W is zero for systems that involve no work interactions
o Energy Transport with Mass Emass is zero for systems that involve no
mass flow across their boundaries (i.e., Closed Systems)
▪ More compactly, Energy balance for any system undergoing any kind of
process
The energy content of a control

in the rate form:
volume can be changed by mass
flow as well as heat and work
interactions.
▪ Energy Balance can be expressed on a per unit mass basis:
▪ Energy Balance in Differential form:
For a cycle ∆E = 0,
thus Qnet = Wnet
When applying the Energy Balance in any of its forms, it is important to

be careful about Signs and Units and to distinguish carefully between
Rates and Amounts
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Introduction to the Second Law
▪ Hot cup of coffee gets cooled off when exposed to surrounding
→Energy lost by coffee = Energy gained by Surroundings

→Here, First Law of Thermodynamics is satisfied
▪ HOWEVER, converse is NOT true
→ i.e. Taking out Heat Energy from Surroundings ≠ Coffee getting
hot
→ Still, First Law of Thermodynamics is satisfied !

▪ Heating of a room by Electric heater; by passing Electric Current
through the Resistor
→Electric Energy supplied to the heater = Energy transferred to

the Surroundings ( room air )
→Here, First Law of Thermodynamics is satisfied

▪ HOWEVER, converse is NOT true.
→Transferring Heat to the wire ≠ Equivalent amount of Electric

Energy generated in wire
→Still, First Law of Thermodynamics is satisfied !


▪ Paddle Wheel mechanism operated by falling mass
▪ Paddle wheel rotates as mass falls down and stirs the fluid inside
the container
▪ Decrease in Potential Energy of the mass = Increase in Internal
Energy of the fluid
→ Here, First Law of Thermodynamics is satisfied.
▪ HOWEVER, converse is NOT true.
→ Transferring Heat to the Paddle Wheel ≠ Raising the mass.
→ Still, First Law of Thermodynamics is satisfied !
Gasoline is used as a car drives up a hill, but the fuel in the gasoline tank cannot be
restored to its original level when the car coasts down the hill

▪ From these day – to – day life examples, it can be clearly seen that; Satisfying the First Law of
Thermodynamics does not ensure for a Process to occur actually
▪ Processes proceed in certain direction; but may not in Reverse direction
▪ First Law of Thermodynamics has no restriction on the DIRECTION of a Process to occur
▪ This Inadequacy of the First Law of Thermodynamics; to predict whether the Process can occur is solved
by introduction of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
A process must satisfy both

the first and second laws of
thermodynamics to proceed

Thermal Energy Reservoirs

Thermal Energy Reservoir :
Hypothetical body with relatively very
large Thermal Energy Capacity ( mass x Sp.
Heat ) that can supply or absorb finite amount of
Heat without undergoing change in Temperature
e.g. ocean, lake, atmosphere, two-phase system,

Bodies with relatively large thermal industrial furnace, etc.
masses can be modeled as thermal
energy reservoirs A source supplies energy in
the form of heat, and a
→ Reservoir that Supplies Energy in the form of Heat is known as SOURCE sink absorbs it
→ Reservoir that Absorbs Energy in the form of Heat is known as SINK
▪ Any physical body whose Thermal Energy Capacity is large relative to the amount of energy it supplies or
absorbs can be modeled as Reservoir
→ E.g. Heat Dissipation from a TV set in the Room
Mechanical Air Dept. HITEC Univ.
Engineering 45
HEAT ENGINES
▪ Mechanical Work done by the shaft is first converted to the internal energy of the water → may then
leave the water as heat
▪ Any attempt to reverse this process will fail → transferring heat to the water does not cause the shaft to
rotate
→ From such examples, it can be concluded that,

1. Work can be converted to Heat.
2. BUT, Converting Heat to Work requires Special
Devices
→ These devices are known as Heat Engines

HEAT ENGINES

HEAT ENGINES
Heat Engines are devices that convert Heat to Work:

1. They receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar energy, oil
furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.)
2. convert part of this heat to work → usually in the form of a rotating shaft)
3. reject the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink (the
atmosphere, rivers, etc.)
4. They operate on a cycle
Heat Engines and other Cyclic Devices usually involve a Fluid to and from
which heat is transferred while undergoing a cycle → called the Working
Fluid
Heat Engines are generally Work – Producing devices,

e.g. Gas Turbines, I.C. Engines, Steam Power Plants, etc.

HEAT ENGINES
Steam Power Plant
Qin = Amount of heat supplied to steam in boiler
from a high-temperature source (furnace)
Qout = Amount of heat rejected from steam in
condenser to a low temperature sink (the
atmosphere, a river, etc.)
Wout = Amount of work delivered by steam as it
expands in turbine
Win = Amount of work required to compress water
to boiler pressure
net work output of this power plant: A portion of the work output of a
heat engine is consumed internally to
maintain continuous operation
HEAT ENGINES
Steam Power Plant
▪ four components of the steam power plant involve
Mass Flow In and Out, and therefore they should
be treated as Open Systems
▪ These components, together with the connecting

pipes always contain the Same Fluid
▪ No mass enters or leaves this Combination

System, → indicated by the Shaded Area
▪ For a closed system undergoing a cycle, change

in internal energy ∆U is zero, and therefore the Net
Work Output of the system is also equal to the Net
Heat Transfer to the system

HEAT ENGINES
Thermal Efficiency
▪ηth: Fraction of the heat input that is converted to net work output is a
measure of the performance of a heat engine
OR
▪ Cyclic devices of practical interest such as Heat Engines,

Refrigerators, and Heat Pumps operate between a high-temperature
medium (or reservoir) at temperature TH and a low-temperature
medium (or reservoir) at temperature TL Some heat engines perform better
than others (convert more of the heat
they receive to work)
HEAT ENGINES
Thermal Efficiency– contd--
▪ To bring uniformity to the treatment of Heat Engines, Refrigerators, and Heat

Pumps
QH = magnitude of heat transfer between the cyclic device and the high
temperature medium at temperature TH
QL = magnitude of heat transfer between the cyclic device and the low
temperature medium at temperature TL
⇒ ⇒

HEAT ENGINES
Thermal Efficiency– contd--
▪ Thermal Efficiencies of work-producing devices are relatively low
▪ Ordinary spark-ignition automobile engines have a thermal

efficiency of about 25 percent
▪ ηth is as high as 40 percent for Diesel Engines and Large Gas-

turbine Plants and as high as 60 percent for large Combined Gas-
steam Power Plants
▪ Even with the most efficient heat engines available today, almost
One-half of the energy supplied ends up in the rivers, lakes, or the
atmosphere as waste or useless energy

HEAT ENGINES
The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Kelvin–Planck Statement
It is impossible for any device that operates on a Cycle to receive

heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work
→ II Law applies only for a Cycle -- not for a process!!

→ As during an Isothermal Process the system can exchange heat
with a single reservoir and yet deliver work
▪ No heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100 percent
→ OR as for a power plant to operate, the working fluid must
exchange heat with the environment as well as the furnace
▪ Impossibility of having a 100% Efficient Heat Engine is not due to

Friction or Other Dissipative Effects
A heat engine that violates the Kelvin–
→ It is a limitation that applies to both the Idealized and the Actual
Planck statement of the second law.
heat engines
Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

▪ Transfer of heat from a low-temperature medium to a
high-temperature one requires special devices called
Refrigerators
▪ Refrigerators, like heat engines, are Cyclic Devices
▪ Working fluid used in the refrigeration cycle is called a
Refrigerant
▪ most frequently used refrigeration cycle is the vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle
In a household refrigerator, the freezer compartment
where heat is absorbed by the refrigerant serves as the
EVAPORATOR, and
coils behind the refrigerator where heat is dissipated to
the kitchen air serve as the Condenser
▪ Air conditioners are refrigerators whose refrigerated space

is a room or a building instead of the food compartment
▪COP of a Refrigerator decreases with decreasing refrigeration temperature
→ it is not economical to refrigerate to a lower temperature than needed

Coefficient of Performance
▪ Efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed in terms of the coefficient of
performance (COP)
▪ Objective of a Refrigerator is to remove heat (QL) from the refrigerated space
Based on Conservation of energy principle for a cyclic device
⇒
value of COPR can be greater than Unity
⇒ amount of heat removed from the refrigerated space can be greater The objective of a refrigerator is to
than the amount of work input remove QL from the cooled space

Heat Pumps
▪ Device that transfers heat from a low-temp medium to a high-temp one
▪ Heat Pump absorbs heat from a low-temp source,
such as cold outside air in winter, and supplying
this heat to the high-temp medium such as a House
Objective of a
heat pump is to
⇒ supply heat QH
The work supplied into the warmer
to a heat pump is space
used to extract ⇒
energy from the
cold outdoors and for fixed values of QL and QH
carry it into the
warm indoors Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 57
Introduction to Heat Transfer
What is Heat Transfer?
▪ “Energy in transit due to temperature difference (or gradient)”
▪ temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer, just as:
o voltage difference is the driving force for electric current flow and
o pressure difference is the driving force for fluid flow
Thermodynamics tells us:
􀂃 How much heat is transferred (δQ)
􀂃 How much work is done (δW)
􀂃 Final state of the system
Heat Transfer tells us:
􀂃 How (with what modes) δQ is transferred
􀂃 At what rate δQ is transferred
􀂃 Temperature distribution inside the body
Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 58
Applications of heat transfer
▪ The problem of determining the temperature distribution and the heat flow is of
interest in many branches of science and technology (or engineering)
o In power engineering heat exchangers, boilers condensers, burners, nuclear

reactor cores, radiators, solar energy conversion, steam power plants
o Domestic applications ovens, stoves, toaster
o In Heating and Air-conditioning building structure, estimate insulation, prevent

excessive heat losses
o In electronic and Electrical Engineering heat distribution, heat stress, dissipation
o Manufacturing / Materials Processing welding, casting, soldering, laser machining
o Automobiles / Aircraft Design

Modes of heat transfer
Conduction Heat Transfer: Occurs when a temperature gradient exists
through a solid or a stationary fluid (liquid or gas)
Convection Heat Transfer: Occurs between a solid surface and an
adjacent moving fluid, when they are at different temperatures
Thermal Radiation: Heat transfer between two surfaces (that are not in
contact), often in the absence of an intervening medium in the form of
electromagnetic waves

Conduction
▪ Transfer of energy from the more energetic to less energetic particles of a
substance by collisions between atoms and/or molecules
T1
T1>T2
xo qx”
x T2
T2
▪ Conduction can take place in solids,
liquids, or gases
o In gases and liquids: due to collisions and diffusion
of molecules during their random motion
o In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations
of the molecules in a lattice and energy transport by
free electrons
Conduction

Conduction
Basic Heat Conduction Law—Fourier Law
▪ heatconduction regularity is result of Biot’s experimental
observation and Fourier’s analysis theory of heat
▪ Rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on:

o geometry of the medium,
o its thickness, and
o material of the medium, as well as
o temperature difference across the medium
▪ Rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is
proportional to temperature difference across the layer and
heat transfer area, but is inversely proportional to the
thickness of layer
constant of proportionality k is the thermal

conductivity
Mechanical Engineering of the
Dept. CEME NUST material 63
Conduction
Basic Heat Conduction Law—Fourier Law -- Contd--
▪ In the limiting case of x → 0
Fourier’s Law Of Heat Conduction
o dT/dx is the Temperature Gradient, i.e., Slope of the temperature curve on a T-x
diagram (the rate of change of T with x), at location x
o Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature, and temperature
gradient becomes negative (-ve) when temperature decreases with increasing x
▪ Heat Flux is then:
o Rate of heat transfer per unit area T1(high) q x”
heat rate by conduction, qx (W), through a plane T2 (low)

wall of area A is then the product of the flux and x1 x2
the area, qx//.A x
Conduction
Example
The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25 m thick,
and is made of a flat layer of concrete whose thermal conductivity is k 0.8 W/m ·
°C. The temperatures of the inner and the outer surfaces of the roof one night are
measured to be 15°C and 4°C, respectively, for a period of 10 hours. Determine (a)
the rate of heat loss through the roof that night and (b) the cost of that heat loss
to the home owner if the cost of electricity is $0.08/kWh.

Conduction
Thermal Conductivity
▪ Measure of a material’s ability to conduct heat
k = 0.608 W/m·°C for water and
k = 80.2 W/m·°C for Iron at Room Temp.
⇒ iron conducts heat more than 100 times faster than
water can
▪⇒ k is rate of heat transfer through a unit

thickness of the material per unit area per
unit temperature difference
k of pure copper at room temperature is 401 W/m ·

°C,
⇒ a 1-m-thick copper wall will conduct heat at a rate
of 401 W per m2 area per °C temperature difference
across the wall
Conduction
Thermal Conductivity – contd --
Range of thermal conductivity of various materials at room temp.
pure crystals and metals

have the highest thermal
conductivities, and gases
and insulating materials
the lowest
▪ k’s of a substance is
normally highest in the
Solid Phase and lowest in
Gas Phase

Conduction
Thermal Conductivity – contd --
variation of thermal conductivity

over certain temperature ranges is
negligible for some materials, but
significant for others
it is common practice to evaluate

the thermal conductivity k at av.
temp and treat it as a constant in
calculations
Further Detailed Discussion on

Thermal Conductivity: Ch-1, pp:
19-23, Book Cengel 2nd Ed.

Convection
▪ Energytransfer by random molecular motion (as in Conduction) plus bulk
(Macroscopic) motion of the fluid
o Convection: transport by random motion of molecules and by bulk motion of fluid
o Advection: transport due solely to bulk fluid motion
▪ Convective Heat Transfer — Fluid flows over a solid body or inside channel,
while temperature of fluid and solid surface are different, heat transfer between
the fluid and the solid surface takes place as a consequence of the motion of
fluid relative to the surface
o faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer
o In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and
the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction

Convection
o Heat transfer processes involving change of

phase of a fluid are also considered to be
convection
o There is also fluid motion induced during the
process of rise of the vapor bubbles during
boiling or the fall of the liquid droplets during
Condensation Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 70
Convection
Forced Convection Natural

Convection
Boiling Condensation

Convection
Newton’s Law of Cooling
▪ Convective Heat Flux is proportional to: q "x  (TS − T )
proportionality constant is the Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient, h (W/m2.K)
q"x = h(TS − T ) ⇒
h: Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient in W/m2·°C or Btu/h·ft2·°F
As: Surface Area through which convection heat transfer takes place, m2
Ts: Surface Temperature
T : temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface
o h is not a property of the fluid
o h is an experimentally determined parameter whose value depends on many variables:
✓ surface geometry,
✓ nature of fluid motion,
✓ properties of the fluid, and
✓ bulk fluid velocity Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 72
Convection

Convection
Example
A 2-m-long, 0.3-cm-diameter electrical wire extends across a room at 15 °C, as

shown in Fig. Heat is generated in the wire as a result of resistance heating, and
the surface temperature of the wire is measured to be 152 °C in steady operation.
Also, the voltage drop and electric current through the wire are measured to be 60
V and 1.5 A, respectively. Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation, determine
the convection heat transfer coefficient for heat transfer between the outer
surface of the wire and the air in the room.

Radiation
▪ Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of Electromagnetic Waves
(or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the
atoms or molecules
▪ Unlike conduction and convection, transfer of energy by radiation does not

require the presence of an intervening medium
▪ energy transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no
attenuation in a vacuum
▪ Can occur from solid surfaces, liquids and gases

▪ Thermal Radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their
Temperature
▪ All bodies at a temperature above Absolute Zero emit Thermal Radiation
▪ Radiation is a Volumetric Phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases emit,
absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees
Radiation
▪ Radiation
emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted by a
blackbody at the same temperature
ε = Emissivity of the surface 0≥ε≥1
▪ Radiation may also be incident on a surface from

its surroundings, such as Sun
o rate at which all such radiation is incident on a unit
area of the surface as the Irradiation G
o Radiant Energy absorbed

per unit surface area:

Radiation
▪ Absorptivity(α): Fraction of radiation energy incident on a surface that is

absorbed by the surface
0≥α≥1
▪ Blackbody absorbs entire radiation incident on it

⇒ A Blackbody is a perfect absorber (α = 1) as it is a perfect emitter. (ε = 1)
▪ If α < 1 and surface is opaque, portions of the irradiation are reflected

▪ If surface is semi-transparent, portions of the irradiation may also be
transmitted
▪ α depends on the nature of the irradiation, as well as on the surface itself
E.g. Absorptivity of a surface to solar radiation may differ from its absorptivity to
radiation emitted by the walls of a furnace

Radiation
▪ When a surface of emissivity ε and surface area As at an absolute temperature Ts
is completely enclosed by a much larger (or black) surface at absolute
temperature Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air) that does not intervene with
radiation
Net rate of Radiation Heat Transfer between these two surfaces is:
Here, emissivity and the surface area of the surrounding surface

do not have any effect on the net radiation heat transfer
For per unit area of the surface (Heat Flux):
OR
Where, hr = Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient
⇒
Radiation
o Qrad to or from a surface surrounded by a gas such as air occurs parallel to Conduction
(or Convection, if there is bulk gas motion) between the surface and the gas
Total rate of heat transfer from the surface is then:
▪ Radiation is usually significant relative

to conduction or natural convection, but
negligible relative to forced convection
▪ Thus radiation in Forced Convection

applications is usually disregarded,
especially when surfaces involved have
low emissivities and low to moderate
temperatures

Radiation
Example
An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are
at 25 oC. The outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature
and emissivity are 200 oC and 0.8, respectively. What are the surface emissive
power and irradiation? If the coefficient associated with free convection heat
transfer from the surface to the air is 15 W/m2 K, what is the rate of heat loss from
the surface per unit length of pipe?

Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms
▪ Heat Transfer is only by conduction in opaque solids, but by conduction and
radiation in Semi-transparent solids
⇒ a solid may involve conduction and radiation but not convection
▪ A solid may involve heat transfer by convection and/or radiation on its surfaces
exposed to a fluid or other surfaces
o outer surfaces of a cold piece of rock will warm up in a warmer environment as a
result of heat gain by convection (from air) and radiation (from sun or warmer
surrounding surfaces)
But inner parts of the rock will warm up as this heat is transferred to the inner region
of the rock by conduction.

▪ Gasesare practically transparent to radiation, except that some gases are
known to absorb radiation strongly at certain wavelengths
E.g., Ozone strongly absorbs Ultraviolet Radiation
▪ Inmost cases, a gas between two solid surfaces does not interfere with
radiation and acts effectively as a vacuum
▪ Liquids are usually strong

absorbers of radiation


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Course: Thermodynamics-Heat Transfer

▪ Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach by Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles, 5th Ed / 8th

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 1

Thermodynamics and Energy

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 2

Thermodynamics and Energy

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 3

Thermodynamics and Energy

Greater Energy Input (Food) than energy output

Application Areas of Thermodynamics

The human body

Car radiators Power plants Refrigeration systems

Systems and Control Volumes

▪ Surroundings: The mass or region outside the system

Systems And Control Volumes

▪ Open System (Control Volume): in which we permit mass to

o Most of the engineering devices are open system such as a

Systems And Control Volumes

Fluid in a Turbine as Open System Fluid in a Closed Cylinder as a Closed System

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 8

Systems and Control Volumes

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 9

Systems and Control Volumes

Example of a Control Mass Example of a Control Volume

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 10

Systems And Control Volumes

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 11

Intensive : Independent of Mass of system.

Extensive : Dependent on Mass (or size or extent) of system →

Processes and Cycles

molecules near the face of piston will

Processes and Cycles

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 14

Processes and Cycles

State 2 h=Const s=Const

Property A Volume (V) Enthalpy (h)/ Entropy (s)

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 15

The Steady-Flow Process

▪ A large number of engineering devices operate for long periods of time

▪ Steady-flow process: A process during which a fluid flows through a control

▪ Term Uniform implies no change with location over a specified region

Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

o This statement seems to be very simple

▪ Change in Volume at constant pressure or change in pressure at

o IfGraph of Temperature against Volume in the constant Pressure

A constant-volume gas thermometer would

P versus T plots of the ▪ Thermodynamic Temperature Scale: A

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 19

Comparison of Temperature Scales

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 21

1 atm = 101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar

Absolute Zero Pressure

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 24

▪ Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 25

Potential Energy Potential Energy

Energy of a system per unit mass

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 26

Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 27

Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy

▪ NuclearEnergy: tremendous amount of energy associated with the strong

o Chemical Reaction involves changes in the structure internal energy of a system

The First Law of Thermodynamics