3.

0 Measuring Horizontal Distance

A. Distance by pacing
Pacing consists of counting the number of steps or paces in a required
distance.

Pace = the length of a step in walking. It could be measured from heel to

heel or from toe to toe.

Stride = equivalent to two paces or “double step”

3.0 Measuring Horizontal Distance

A. Distance by pacing
3.0 Measuring Horizontal Distance

A. Distance by pacing
To pace a distance it is necessary t first determine the length of one’s pace.
This is referred to as the pace factor. The two methods used to calibrate
one’s pace are:

a. Determining the average length of an individual’s normal step.

b. Adjusting one’s pace to some predetermined length, such as 1 meter.
3.0 Measuring Horizontal Distance

A. Distance by pacing
The length of pace will vary with the following:
a. Speed of pacing
b. The roughness of the ground
c. The weight of clothing and shoes used
d. Fatigue on the part of the pacer
e. The slope of the terrain
f. The direction of motion either going uphill or downhill
3.0 Measuring Horizontal Distance

B. Distance by tachymetry
This procedure is based on the optical geometry of the instruments
employed and is an indirect method of measurement. Tachymetric measurements
are performed either by the following:
a. Stadia method
b. Subtense bar method
3.0 Measuring Horizontal Distance

C. Distance by graphical and mathematical methods

By graphical or mathematical methods, unknown distances may be
determined through their relationship with known distances geometrically. These
methods are widely employed in plane table surveys, and in triangulation work.
3.0 Measuring Horizontal Distance

D. Distance by mechanical devices

These devices are only applicable for low precision surveys or where quick
measurements are desired.
a. Odometer.
b. Measuring wheel
c. Optical rangefinder
3.0 Measuring Horizontal Distance

E. Distance by taping
Observations of horizontal distances by taping consists of applying the
known length of a graduated tape directly to a line a number of times. Two
types of problems arise:
1. Observing an unknown distance between fixed points
2. Laying out a known or required distance with only the starting
mark in place.
3.1 Taping on Level Ground

A. Lining In. Using range poles, the line to be measured should be marked at both
ends, and at intermediate points where necessary, to ensure unobstructed sight
lines. Taping requires a minimum of two people - a forward tapeperson and a rear
tapeperson. The forward tapeperson is lined in by the rear tapeperson. Directions
are given by vocal or hand signals.

B. Applying tension. For accurate results, the tape must be straight and the two
ends held at the same elevation. A specified tension, generally about 10 to 25lbs, is
applied.
3.1 Taping on Level Ground

C. Plumbing. When the ground is covered by obstacles, weeds, low bush, and
irregularities on the ground surface, it will be difficult or impossible to lay the tape
on the ground during measurement. Both ends of the tape should instead be held
above the ground (about the level of the waist or chest) and in a horizontal
position (by using a plumb line). It is important to determine if the tape is held
nearly horizontal thus a hand level should be used to check if the tape ends are
held correctly.
3.1 Taping on Level Ground

D. Marking Tape lengths. When the tape has been lined properly, tension has been
applied, and the rear tapepesron is over the point, “stick” is called out. The
forward tapeperson then places a pin exactly opposite the zero mark of the tape
and calls “stuck”. The marked point is check by repeating the measurement until
certainty of its correct location is assured.

E. Recording distances. After the partial tape length is obtained at the end of a line,
the rear tapeperson determines the number of full 100ft tape lengths by counting
the pins collected from the original set.
3.2 Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground

In taping on uneven or sloping ground, it is standard practice to hold the tape

horizontally and use a plumb bob at one or perhaps both ends. It is difficult to
keep the plumb line steady for heights above the chest. Wind exaggerates this
problem and may make accurate work impossible. On steeper slopes, shorter
distances are measured and accumulated to total a full tape length. This
procedure is called breaking tape. In all cases, the tape is leveled by eye or hand
level, with the tapepersons remembering the natural tendency to have the
downhill end of a tape too low.
3.2 Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground

Taping downhill is preferable to measuring uphill for two reasons:

a. In taping downhill, the rear point is held steady on a fixed object while
the other end is plumbed. In taping uphill, the forward point must be set
while the other end is wavering somewhat.

b. If breaking tape is necessary, the head tapeperson can more

conveniently use the hand level to proceed downhill a distance, which
renders the tape horizontal when held comfortably at chest height.
3.3 Slope Measurements

In measuring the distance

between two points on a
steep slope, rather than break
tape every few meters, it may
be desirable to tape along the
slope and compute the
horizontal component. This
requires measurement also of
either the altitude angle α or
the difference in elevation d.
3.3 Slope Measurements

If altitude angle α is determined, the horizontal distance between A and B can be

computed as:

If the difference in elevation d is measured, which is done by leveling, the

horizontal distance can be computed using the following expression derived from
the Pythagorean theorem:
3.3.1 Slope Measurements Example
3.4 Corrections in Taping
Corrections of taping are applied by the use of the following rules:

1st Rule: When a line is measured with a tape that is “TOO LONG”, the corrections
are applied to the observed length by ADDING.

2nd Rule: When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a tape that is
“too long”, the corrections are subtracted from the known length to determine the
corrected length to be laid out.

3rd Rule: When measuring or laying out lengths with a tape that is “too short” the
corrections are applied opposite to those stated in the first two rules.
3.4.1 Corrections due to Incorrect Length of Tape

The discrepancy is normally measured to be distributed uniformly throughout the

tape and is directly proportional to the fractional segment of the tape used.
3.4.1 Corrections due to Incorrect Length of Tape
3.4.1 Corrections due to Incorrect Length of Tape Example
3.4.2 Corrections due to Slope
3.4.2 Corrections due to Slope
3.4.2 Corrections due to Slope Example
3.4.3 Corrections due to Alignment

Error due to alignment is generally the least important among the different errors
encountered in taping. Utmost care in aligning a tape is not extremely important
since the error is practically negligible for measurements of ordinary precision.
3.4.4 Corrections due to Temperature

The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and shortens as the temperature falls.

Where: C= coefficient of linear expansion or the amount of change in length

per unit length per degree change in temperature.
L= length of the tape of length of the line measured
T= observed temperature of the tape at the time of measurement
Ts= the temperature at which the tape was standardized
3.4.4 Corrections due to Temperature Example

1. A steel tape with a coefficient of linear expansion of 0.0000116/1°C is known to be 50m long
at 20°C. The tape was used to measure a line which was found to be 532.28m long when the
temperature was 35°C. Determine the following:
A. Temperature correction per tape length
B. Temperature correction for the measured line
C. Correct length of the line

2. A steel tape known to be of standard length at 20°C is used in laying out a runway
2,500.00m long. If its coefficient of linear expansion is0.0000116/1°C, determine the
temperature correction and the correct length to be laid out when the temperature is 42°C.
3.4.5 Corrections due to Tension
3.4.5 Corrections due to Tension Example
1. A heavy 50-m tape having a cross-sectional area of 0.05cm2 has been
standardized at a tension of 5.5kg. If E=2.10x106 kg/cm2, determine the elongation
of the tape if a pull of 12kg is applied.

2. A 30-m steel tape weighing 1.45kg is of standard length under a pull of 5kg
supported for full length. The tape was used in measuring a line 938.55m long on
6
smooth level ground under a steady pull of 10kg. Assuming E=2.00x10 kg/cm and
2
the unit weight of steel to be 7.9x10-3kg/cm3, determine the following:
A. Cross-sectional area of the tape
B. Correction for increase in tension
C. Correct length of the line measured
3.4.6 Corrections due to Sag

The correction due to sag is the difference in length between the arc formed by the
tape and the subtending chord. In determining this correction, the arc is assumed
to be a parabola, and is computed with sufficient precision by the formula:
3.4.6 Corrections due to Sag Example

1. A 30-m tape is supported only at its end and under a steady pull of 8kg. If the
tape weighs 0.91kg, determine the sag correction and the correct distance
between the ends of the tape.
2. A 50-m steel tape weighs 0.04kg/m and is supported at its end points and at the
8-m and 24-m marks. If a pull of 6kg is applied, determine the following:
A. Correction due to sag between the 0-m and 8-m marks, 8-m and 25-m
marks, and the 25-m and 50-m marks.
B. Correction due to sag for one tape length
C. Correct distance between the ends of the tape
3.4.6 Corrections due to Sag Example

3. A 50-m steel tape weighing 0.035 kg/m is constantly supported at mid-length

and its end points, and is used to measure a line AB with a steady pull of 6.5kg. If
the measured length of AB is 1268.256m, determine the following:
A. Correction due to sag between supports and for the whole tape length
B. Total sag correction for the whole length measured
C. Correct length of line AB
3.4.7 Corrections due to Wind

A strong wind blowing perpendicular to the direction of taping will move the
middle and unsupported portion of the tape to one side of the line measured. This
introduces an error to the measurement which is similar to the effect of sag but is
usually much less. To avoid this type of error, it is preferable not to undertake any
taping work during windy days. If it cannot be avoided and the measurement has
to be done on windy days, efforts should be taken to support the tape from being
affected by the blowing wind.
3.4.8 Normal Tension

By exerting a sufficiently greater amount of pull on the tape when it is suspended

and sagged, the tape will be stretched and a considerable decrease in the amount
of the results. The applied pull which will lengthen the tape to equal the shortening
caused by sag is referred to as the normal tension. Its magnitude can be computed
for a particular tape or it can be measured out in the field as follows:

A. Stretch the tape on a concrete pavement (or level ground) by applying its
prescribed standard pull, and mark its ends on the pavement.
3.4.8 Normal Tension

B. Hold the tape above the ground by supporting it only at its ends, then,
pull the tape until the ends coincide with the marked points on the pavement.
3.4.8 Normal Tension Example

1. A steel tape weighing 0.85kg has a cross-sectional area of 0.05cm2. The tape
measures exactly 30m when supported throughout its length under a standard pull
of 5.5kg. If the modulus of elasticity is E=2.10x106 kg/cm2, determine the tension
required to make the tape equal to its nominal length when supported only at the
end points.
2. A steel tape having a cross-sectional area of 0.06 cm2 and a modulus of elasticity
E=2.00x106 kg/cm2, weighs 0.03kg/m. Its length is 30m when standardized at a pull
of 5kg and supported throughout its length. Determine the tension at which the
effect of sag will be eliminated by the elongation of the tape due to increased
tension.
3.5 Combined Corrections

1. A line was determined to be 2395.25m when measured with a 30-m steel tape
supported throughout its length under a pull of 4kg and at a mean temperature of
35°C. Determine the correct length of the line if the tape used is of standard length
at 20°C under a pull of 5kg. The cross-sectional area of the tape is 0.03cm2, its
coefficient of linear expansion is 0.0000116/1°C, and the modulus of elasticity of
steel E=2.00x106 kg/cm2.
3.5 Combined Corrections
- End of Slides

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