PLANETARY GEOLOGY

Origin of the Universe

o Steady State Theory

→ Fred Boyle, Hermann Bondi & Thomas Gold
→ Universe is always expanding but maintaining a constant average density matter being continuously created
to form new stars and galaxies at the same rate that old ones become unobservable as a consequence of their
increasing distance and velocity of recession
→ No beginning, no end
o Pulsating Theory
→ Universe is supposed to be expanding and contracting alternately
→ It is possible that a certain time, the expansion of the universe may be stopped by the gravitational pull at it
may contract again
o Big Bang Theory
→ George Lamaitre; most accepted theory
→ Around 13.7 Ga, the beginning starts as a concentrated, densely hot fireball
→ Started with a single point and continues to expand
→ Evidence:
▪ Doppler effect – effect produced by a moving source when there’s an upward shift (high) as observer
moves toward the source and downward shift (low) as the observer moves away from the source
▪ Red shift – (Edwin Hubble; Hubble telescope) light moves closer or farther; color spectrum varies (red
= moves away; blue = moves closer)

GALAXY – gravity bounded system of stars, stellar remnants, gas, dust and dark matters

Tuning Fork Diagram – classification of galaxies according to its shape; by Edwin Hubble

o Spiral galaxy
→ Consist of:
▪ Bulge – central concentration of stars
▪ Disk – arms consisting of young stars
▪ Halo – consist of old, globular clusters
→ Example: Milky Way and Andromeda
o Elliptical galaxy
→ Ellipsoidal, smooth shape; evolved from spiral galaxy
→ Stars are much older than spiral
→ Example: Centaurus
o Irregular galaxy
→ No particular shape
→ Example: Magellanic clouds

Origin of Solar System

o Solar Nebular Theory

→ Immanuel Kant & Pierre Laplace

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→ Everything was made from the same materials (solar nebula) at the same time
❖ Solar nebula – clouds of gas & dust; hydrogen and helium; matter of dead stars
→ At 5 Ga (4.57 Ga), solar nebula had coalescence and contract due to gravity. As the solar nebula contracts, it
rotates in counterclockwise direction and flattens out in disk shape. While rotating, heavier materials
accumulated and concentrated on the center forming a nuclei (protosun)
→ Protosun ended the contraction as gravity is converted into thermal/heat energy
→ Planetisimal around the sun have accreted to form protoplanets

Formation of Protoplanets

→ Difference in size is caused by solar winds

STARS – luminous sphere of plasma held by its own gravity

Generation of stars

1. Nucleosynthesis – creation of elements up to 26Fe

2. Supernova – creation of heavier elements greater than 26Fe

Classification of Stars

1. Hertzsprungg-Russel Diagram – Albert Michaelson; based on luminosity of the sun

2. Morgan Keenan System – based on their temperature (O-hottest to M-coolest)

Star Luminosity Temperature

Blue star 100-1M times the sun 30 000K
Yellow Dwarf star 0.8 – 1.4 times the sun 5 200K to 7 500K
Orange Dwarf star 0.08 – 0.6 times the sun 3 700K to 5 200K
Red Dwarf star 0.0001 – 0.8 times the sun 4 000K
Blue Giants 10 000 times the sun 10 000K to 33 000+K
Blue Super Giants 10 000 – 1M times the sun 10 000K to 50 000K
Red Giants 100 – 1000 times the sun 3 300K to 5 300K
Red Super Giants 1 000 – 800 000 times the sun 3 500K to 4 500K
White Dwarf 0.0001 – 100 times the sun 8 000K to 40 000K
Neutron Dwarf Very low 600 000K
Black Dwarf Dead star (still theory)
Brown Dwarf Very low 300K to 2 800K
Pulsar On&off or appears to flicker

Star events

Nebula

→ birthplace of stars; mostly hydrogen and helium

▪ Emission Nebula – emit their own light at optical wavelengths; glows brightly (example: Orion Nebula)
▪ Reflection Nebula – created when light from a star is scattered or reflected off a neighboring dust cloud

Nova

→ explosion from the surface of a white-dwarf star in a binary star system

→ occurs when the white dwarf, which is the dense core of a once-normal star “steals” gas from its nearby
companion star

Supernova

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→ violent stellar explosion that can shine as brightly as an entire galaxy of billions of normal stars

Oldest star in the universe – HD 140283 (~800Ma) Brightest star in the constellation Orion – Rigel Star

Brightest star in the sky – Alpha Canis Brightest red star in the orion that nearing to its end
Majoris/Sirius/Dog Star – Betelgeuse

Largest star – VY Canis Majoris

SUN

→ yellow dwarf star; radius: 695 508km; temperature: 5 800K (surface) 15 600 000K (core)
→ layers:
▪ Core – center
▪ Radioactive Zone – zone of radiation
▪ Convective Zone – zone of convection
▪ Photosphere – layer of light, visible layers of sun; solar flare, sunspot, solar prominence
▪ Chromosphere – thin layer of the sun; magnetic lines contain plasma
▪ Corona – outermost layer; hottest part (1 000 000K); solar wind, eclipse
→ Features of the sun
▪ Solar flare – explosive energy release
▪ Solar prominence – trap flows of plasma
▪ Sunspots – dark, cool areas. Have intense magnetic fields
▪ Faculae – light around sunspot, increase energy

Formation of Planets theory

o Planetisimal Theory
→ T.C Chamberlain, F.R Moulto & Victor Safronov
→ Smaller masses quickly cooled ad become solid bodies

TERRESTRIAL PLANETS

o Mercury → Same size, density, and mass as the Earth

→ Swiftest planet and smallest planet → No liquid water, no oceans
→ Absorb most sunlight → No moons
→ No atmosphere, biosphere or hydrosphere → Density: 5.243 g/cm3; radius: 6 051.8 km
→ Weak magnetic field, no moons → Regions:
→ Density: 5.427 g/cm3; radius: 2439.7 km ▪ Maxwell Montes – highest mountain
→ Regions: exosphere ▪ Alta Regio – shield volcano
▪ Thetis Regio – highland Plateau
o Venus → Only one that rotates clockwise
→ Hottest planet (470°C), slowest planet
(177.4°rotation)

o Earth
→ Densest planet
→ One moon (Luna)
→ 70% hydrosphere

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→ Density: 5.513 g/cm3; radius: (equatorial) 6 371 km, (Polar)6 357 km

→ Regions:
▪ Everest – tallest mountain
▪ Chimborazo – tallest mountain in its perfect shape
▪ Mauna Kea – tallest feature on Earth without ocean

o Mars
→ Red planet (due to iron oxide); only planet where rovers were sent
→ 1% density of CO2 (atmosphere)
→ Contains polar caps (frozen carbon dioxide)
→ Heavily cratered, lack magnetic field
→ Has two moons (Phobos & Deimos)
→ Density: 3.934 g/cm3 ; radius: 3 390 km
→ Regions:
▪ Valles Marineris – longest canyon
▪ Olympus Mons – tallest shield volcano in the solar system
▪ Alba Patera – largest volcano based on base diameter

ASTEROID BELT

o Ceres
→ Dwarf planet, largest object in the asteroid belt
→ Discovered by Guiseppe Piazzi (1801)
→ First dwarf planet to receive visit from a space
craft
o Vesta
→ Second most massive body in the asteroid belt
→ Brightest asteroid in the sky
→ Dawn mission orbited Vesta in 2011
o Pallas
→ Most likely a remnant of a protoplanet
→ 2nd asteroid to be discovered after 1Ceres
→ Constitutes arounf 7% of the mass of asteroid
belt
o Hygiea
→ Could steal the title “smallest dwarf planet in
the solar system”
→ 4th largest rock in the asteroid belt

JOVIAN PLANETS

o Jupiter
→ Largest planet, 11x greater than Earth; fastest rotation (3.1°)
→ Contains H, He, methane & ammonia
→ Has 79 moons
▪ 53 confirmed
• Io – innermost, volcanically • Ganymede – largest
active • Callisto – heavily watered
• Europa - smallest
▪ 29 undiscovered
→ Has rings (very faint of dust)
→ Region:
▪ Great Red Spot – storm bigger than Earth that spans hundreds of years
→ Density: 1.326 g/cm3; radius: 69 911 km
o Saturn
→ Jewel of the solar system; lightest planet; 2nd largest planet
→ Ringed planet (alternating light and dark rings)

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→ Least dense planet

→ Has 62 moons
▪ 53 known moons
• Titan – largest moon
• Enceladus – 6th largest moon, one of the most scientifically compelling bodies in solar system
▪ 29 undiscovered
→ Density: 0.687 g/cm3; radius: 58 232 km
o Uranus o Neptune
→ Sideways planet (rotates sideways 8°) → Windiest planet
→ Greenish blue planet, composed of methane → Has 14 moons
→ 1 planet discovered. Discovered by William
st
• Triton – coolest region in the solar
Herschel (1781) system
→ Has 13 rings & 27 moons → Has 5 main rings
→ Density: 1.270 g/cm3 ; radius: 25 362 km

KUIPER BELT – donut shaped rings of icy objects

o Pluto → Has 5 moons

→ Dwarf planet
• Charon – largest • Kerberos
• Styx • Hydra
• Nix
→ Density: 2.050 g/cm3; radius: 1 151km o Eris
o Haumea → Dwarf planet
→ Dwarf planet → Has one moon (Dysnomia – very small)
→ Have rings
→ Has two known moons (Namala & Hi’aka)
→ Radius: 620km

OORT CLOUD

→ Most distant region

→ Giant spherical shell surrounding the solar system

Criteria to be Planet

1. Must orbit around the sun

2. Has sufficient mass to overcome rigid body forces
3. Has not cleared its orbit
4. Is not a satellite

Minor members of the Solar System

o Asteroid
→ Large, rocky bodies is space which orbits around Sun
→ Micro planets, found mainly between Mars & Jupiter (Asteroid belt)
→ Airless remnant from the formation of the Solar System
→ 989 631 known asteroids

o Comets
→ Frozen left overs from the formation of Solar System

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→ As they heat up, they spew gases and dust into a glowing head
→ Parts:
▪ Nuclei – core
▪ Coma – head
▪ Tail – point away to the sun; solar wind
→ Came from Oort cloud
→ Famous comet: Halley’s Comet (76 years;29 appearance)

o Meteoroids
→ Space rocks
→ Objects in space from dust rains to small asteroid
o Meteors
→ Meteorite thatvaporized, did not survive as it attempt to travel through Earth’s atmosphere
→ Shooting star
o Meteorite
→ Survives a trip through the atmosphere
→ Types:
▪ Stony Meteorite – mainly stones, silicate minerals with other inclusion
a) Chondrite – made up of droplets of silicate minerals mixed with small grains of sulphides and
iron-nickel metals
• Carbonaceous chondrite – contains 5% organic compound; have amino acids, DNA, &
RNA; rare, heat sensitive
• Ordinary chondrite – most abundant; oldest: 4.56Ga
b) Achondrite – include meteorites from asteroids, Mars and Moon; igneous
▪ Iron Meteorite – consist mainly of iron-nickel metal with small amounts of sulphides and carbide
minerals; heavy, commonly collected: Hexahedrite, Ataxites, Octahedrite
▪ Stony-Iron Meteorite – consist of almost equal parts of iron-nickel metal & silicate minerals; most
beautiful meteorite
a) Pallasite – contain big, beautiful olive-green crystals -form of Mg-Fe silicate (Olivine) –
embedded entirely in metal
b) Mesosiderite – breccias; form when debris from a collision between two asteroid is mixed

Meteorites in the PH

Bondoc Stony Iron Meteorite (Mesosiderite)

South Tagalog (Bondoc Peninsula)
Calivo Stony Meteorite
West Visayas
Pantar Stony Meteorite
Central Mindanao
Pampanga Stony Meteorite
Central Luzon
Pantain Stony Meteorite
Ilocos
Tektites – gravel-sized bodies composed of black, green, brown natural glass formed from terrestrial debris ejected
during meteorite impacts

Astroblemes – crater scar, remnant

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Moon Formation Theories

o Giant Impact Theory

→ As the Earth forms, a mars-sized body called “Theia” collided with Earth
→ Age: 4.53 Ga
o Fission Theory
→ Moon was once part of Earth and separated in the early history
o Capture Theory
→ Moon was formed somewhere else in the solar system and later on captured by the gravitational field of the
Earth
o Condensation Theory
→ Moon and Earth condensed individually from the Nebula, thus they were formed at the same time

Lunar Surface:

Moonquakes – lunar equivalent to earthquake

▪ Deep moonquakes – 700km caused by tides ▪ Thermal Quakes – crust expansion

▪ Vibration – impact of meteorite ▪ Shallow Moonquakes – 20-30km

Apogee – farthest point of the moon to the Earth

Perigee – closest point of the moon the the Earth (Supermoon)

ECLIPSE – blocking of light from celestial bodies
o Solar eclipse – moon covers the sun – high
tides
o Lunar eclipse – earth covers the sun – low tides
▪ Umbra – partially covered
▪ Penumbra – shadows dark center
portion (completely)
▪ Antumbra – lighter part of the shadow
that begins where the umbra ends
SOLSTICE – two times a year, when the sun is farthest
(north or south)
o Winter Solstice – (December 21-22) longest
night; shortest day
o Summer Solstice – (June 20-22) longest day;
shortest night
Perihelion – (January) 147.1M km from the Sun; 2
weeks after December solstice
Aphelion (July) 152.1M km from the Sun; 2 weeks after
June Solstice
EQUINOX – sun is directly overhead at noon, day and
night are equal of length
o Vernal Equinox – March 20-21
o Autumnal Equinox – September 22-23
TIDES – alternating rise and fall of sea level due to
gravitational pull of moon
o Spring tide – full/new moon; very strong tide
o Neap tide – quadranture; weak highland low
tides

Syzygy – alignment of three heavenly bodies (Sun,Moon, Earth)

Spaghettification – “noodle effect”; vertical stretching & horizontal compression of objects due to extreme tidal force

55 Cancri E

→ “super earth”
→ Zooms around its star in 18 days
→ Has surace temperature of 2700°C
→ Diamond planet

Parallax – computation of distance of heavenly bodies from the Earth

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