Earth Science

Big Bang Theory

Origin of the universe → this theory provides comprehensive and accurate
view on the beginning of the universe and its key
components
Aristotle→ the universe revolves around the earth
(Geocentric Theory) Evidences supports Big Bang Theory;

Ptolemy→ showed an earth centered universe, planets, 1. Expansion of the universe

moon, and the sun were revolving around the earth 2. Redshifts

Nicolaus Copernicus → the universe’s center is the sun

(Heliocentric Theory)
The Solar System
→ first proposed by a Greek philosopher named
Aristarchus →The sun and all the objects that are held by the Sun’s
gravity are known as the Solar System
Johannes Kepler → planets moved in somewhat like
elliptical orbit around the sun (Kepler’s Law of
Planetary Motion)
Tycho Brahe → Built the first observatory and created
catalog of stars
Sir Isaac Newton → Described wide-scale movements of
planets, stars, moons, and galaxies throughout the
universe
→Proposed the Law of Universal Gravitation (gravity is
a force of attraction exists between any two bodies,
masses, or particles)
The Sun
Galileo Galilei → First used telescopes to observe the → center of the solar system
sky
→ All objects in the solar system revolve around the sun
→ Provided concrete evidences to strengthen
heliocentric theory
Albert Einstein →an energy density warps space and Layers of the Sun
time (General theory of relativity)
Core
Immanuel Kant → the celestial objects were formed a
massive of thin veil like gas (nebula) → is the innermost or central layer of the Sun

Pierre Simon Marquis de Laplace →Strengthened the
nebular hypothesis
Forest Ray Moulton T.C. Chamberlin
→ a small solid body or planet revolves around the
gaseous molecule (Planetisimal Theory)
R.A. Lyttleton → Gives better explanation on the origin
of the solar system compared to other versions of
collision theory
→ In the core, nuclear reactions combine hydrogen
atoms to form helium, releasing vast amounts of energy
in the process
Radiative zone
→ is the section of the solar interior between the
innermost core and the outer convective zone.
→The region in which energy produced in the core
radiates toward the surface of the sun

→showed that the sun is a surviving star

Fred L. Whipple → Theory of Dust-Cloud
Edwin Hubble → Demonstrated existence of galaxies
M. Schmidt →Discovered the first quasar Convective Zone

Jocelyn Bell → Discovered the Pulsars → is the outer-most layer of the interior
→ Energy is transported by convection in this region.
→The surface of the convection zone is where light
Nebular Theory (photons) is created.

→Due to increasing speed of the nebula, rings were Photosphere

formed around it forming the planets.
→ The photosphere is the deepest layer of the Sun that
→Mostly made up of hydrogen, helium gases, and other we can observe directly
heavy elements.
→ It is known as the surface of the sun which is highly
irregular.
Chromosphere
→The chromosphere is the second of the three main
layers in the Sun's atmosphere
→Its rosy red color is only apparent during eclipses
Corona
- Made up of three oxygen atoms.
- layer shields the entire earth from much of the
harmful ultraviolet radiation.
- Christian Friedrich Schönbein.
Mesosphere – cold layer which is thick enough to slow
down meteors.
Thermosphere – very sensitive to solar activity. Location
of space stations.

→ The Sun’s corona is the outermost part of the Sun’s

atmosphere.
→ The corona is usually hidden by the bright light of the
Sun's surface
GraSunspot
→is a dark area of the sun.
→they are regions of reduced surface temperature
caused by concentrations of magnetic field  → habitat for many marine and aquatic organisms.
nulation
→Small short-lived brilliant spots on the sun’s
photosphere near the sunspot’s regions.
Prominence
→ it is the intense mixtures of hot gases, tongue-like
flames of hydrogen gas, that shoot out from the sun’s
surface extending thousands of kilometers
Coronal holes
→ Temporary regions in the corona which is less dense
and is cooler than its surroundings, that may appear dark
Solar flare
→Is a sudden, brief (typically lasting only a few
minutes) and explosive release of solar magnetic energy
that heat and accelerate the gas in the sun’s atmosphere
Solar wind
→ Created by the outward expansion of plasma (charged
particles).
Hydrosphere
→ All the bodies of water such as oceans, rivers, lakes,
and even the moisture in the air which is 71% of the
earth’s surface.
→Water is a part of living cells and each cell is made up
of almost 75% water.
Lithosphere
→The solid, rocky crust covering the entire planet.
→The entire surface of the earth down to the deepest
trench.
→Large reservoir of resources which is important for the
survival of organisms
Biosphere
→Composed of organisms and their habitat
→Includes upper lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the
lowest atmosphere
Biochemical cycle
CARBON CYCLE
→Circulation and transportation of carbon back and
forth between living organisms and the environment.

Earth System Carbon - building block of life

Atmosphere
NITROGEN CYCLE
→Atmosphere acts as a filter by shielding living
organisms from harmful radiation – ultraviolet radiation →A process by which nitrogen is converted into various
chemical forms – nitrogen fixation, ammonification,
• 78% nitrogen • 21% oxygen nitrification
• 0.9% argon • 0.1% other gases Nitrogen fixation

– dinitrogen N 2 converted to ammonia NH 3

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE Ammonification

+¿¿
Troposphere – weather occurs –organic nitrogen converted to ammonium NH 3
Stratosphere – ozone (a special form of oxygen) Nitrification
Ozone layer - Layer of air containing 90% of ozone in – ammonium converted to nitrate NO 3
earth’s atmosphere.
OXYGEN CYCLE
→Oxygen cycle is often interconnected with the carbon
cycle – oxygen breath in by animals and carbon dioxide
breath out.
→The largest reservoir of earth’s oxygen is in minerals
found in earth’s crust and mantle (99.5%)

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE MAGNETIC FIELD OF THE EARTH

→Protects every living matter against harmful radiation
→The biogeochemical cycle that describes the
from the sun.
movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere. →Formation of Auroras at night.
→Rain and weathering cause of breaking down of rocks
and releasing of phosphate ions and other mineral

EARTH’S MOON
Classification Distinct Features Uses
of Minerals
Characteristics of the earth SILICEOUS -Most abundant of -Making optical
MINERALS the minerals instruments from
SHAPE OF THE EARTH -Contain chemical quartz
silicon and some -Making of porcelain
→ sphere, but not a perfect sphere aluminum, sodium, and enamel from
potassium, feldspar
hydrogen, and -Making powder for
oxygen. cosmetic purposes,
-Examples of these paints, ceramics, and
minerals are paper from talc
feldspar, mica,
amphibole, quartz

→ Luna
→ perigee (closest approach to earth) 405,503 km
→ apogee (farthest point) 384,392 km

MOTIONS OF THE EARTH

→The earth moves around its imaginary line known as
axis (movement called rotation)
→The other motion of the earth is when it is orbit
around the sun (movement called revolution)

Aphelion – when the earth is far from the sun

Perihelion – when earth is near the sun

EARTH’S SEASON
Solar eclipse and lunar eclipse elements of sulfur -Making pencil as lead
-They also contain from graphite
calcium and -Making of
magnesium which explosives, fireworks,
are metals but not and dyes from sulfur
considered as
sources of minerals
-Some examples are
calcite, sulfur, salt,
borax, gypsum,
-Making of soap,
glass, enamels, and
washing powders from
borax

METALLIC -Include common -Building

MINERALS metals ores infrastructure projects
-These ores have from iron and alloy
been formed due to a such as steel
Earths minerals large process of
chemical and
-Making roofs and
planes, cars from
physical changes aluminum
Minerals → a natural occurring inorganic crystalline -Some mineral ores -Used in thermometers
solid with definite chemical composition are found in pure from mercury
forms and do not -Making of coins, and
Crystallization – extreme heat and pressure, and exist in chemical jewelries from gold
combination with -Used in electrical
precipitation and evaporation processes other elements wires, nails and sheets
--Examples of these in buildings from
Ores – minerals taken from the ground or mined minerals are gold, copper
silver, copper, -Used in paint
platinum, iron, pigments from
titanium, mercury, titanium
uranium, aluminum,

Classification of minerals GEM -They include -Expensive in making

MINERALS precious and jewelries from
semiprecious stones diamond
-Manufacture of
cement, mortar, -Known for their -Expensive and as
building materials color, luster, used from chiefly as
from calcite hardness (using ornaments from ruby,
Moh’s scale), and jade, and sapphire
crystalline form
-Examples of these
are diamond, opal,
topaz, jade, garnet,
sapphire,
aquamarine

Rank Element % By weight Properties of minerals

1 Oxygen (O) 46.60
Crystal form
2 Silicon (Si) 27.72
→Is the external expression of the orderly internal
3 Aluminum (Al) 8.13
arrangement of atoms of a mineral.
4 Iron (Fe) 5.00

5 Calcium (Ca) 3.63 Luster

6 Sodium (Na) 2.83 → Is the appearance or quality of light reflected from the
7 Potassium (K) 2.59 surface of a mineral
8 Magnesium (Mg) 2.09 Color
9 Titanium (Ti) 0.44
→Is the most obvious property of a mineral and is often
10 Hydrogen (H) 0.14 unreliable diagnostic property
Total 99.17
Streak
All other elements (84 elements in the periodic table) 0.83
→Is the color of a mineral in its powdered form,
Over-all 100 obtained by rubbing the mineral across a piece of
unglazed porcelain
Cleavage
→Is the tendency of a mineral to break along planes of
weak bonding.

Fracture
→Is the tendency for minerals that do not exhibit
cleavage when broken like quartz are said to fracture
Specific gravity
→Is a number which represents the ratio of the weight of
the mineral to the weight of an equal volume of water
Hardness
→Is the measure of the resistance of a mineral to
abrasion or scratching.

Importance of minerals
Minerals are very important in the economy of our
country, industry, and health.
-ranked 5th as most mineralized country in the world.
-14.5 billion metric tons of metallic minerals (gold,
copper, iron, chromite, nickel, cobalt, and platinum)
-67.66 billion metric tons of non-metallic minerals (sand
and gravel, limestone, marble, and clay)