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Effect of Martensite Start and Finish Terhadap Hasil Pengelasan Cr-Ni
Effect of Martensite Start and Finish Terhadap Hasil Pengelasan Cr-Ni
WELDING RESEARCH
Effect of Martensite Start and Finish
Temperature on Residual Stress
Development in Structural Steel Welds
The experimental electrodes with lower Cr-Ni contents were found capable of
promoting compressive residual stresses in welds
ABSTRACT. Martensite start and finish tigue performance of the weld because this alloy, martensitic transformation in an
temperatures are very important in struc- these initial stresses, when superimposed unconstrained specimen starts at about
tural steel welding because they control on the applied stresses, elevate the overall 180°C and ends right at ambient tempera-
the residual stresses in a weld. Tensile mean stress (Refs. 1–4). Several proce- ture. By contrast, normal steel welding al-
residual stresses amplify the effect of ap- dures have been developed to relieve the loys have transformation temperatures
plied tensile stress. On the other hand, tensile residual stresses in welded joints. around 400°–500°C. As illustrated in Fig.
compressive residual stresses are alge- Postweld heat treatment (PWHT) and 1A, the net strain on cooling between
braically added to the applied tensile shot peening are two common methods TMs and ambient temperature is contrac-
stresses to result in a lower net stress level used to improve fatigue properties (Ref. tion in the case of the conventional alloy,
experienced by a weld, thus inhibiting 3). Another way to reduce or eliminate un- whereas there is a net expansion for the
crack initiation and increasing the fatigue desirable residual stresses in welded parts new welding wire. As such, local tensile
life of the welded component. is to modify the welding process itself. For residual stress results in the conventional
The residual stress state, i.e., whether example, low heat input and small weld wire and compressive residual stress for
compressive or tensile, and its magnitude pool are known to reduce residual stress. the low-Ms alloy at ambient temperature
will depend on the expansion that accom- Physical and mechanical properties such — Fig. 1B.
panies the austenite-to-martensite trans- as heat capacity, density, thermal expan- When fatigue tests were conducted on
formation and the thermal shrinkage due sion coefficient, and strength of the base welded sections, the structures joined
to cooling. High martensite start temper- metal and filler metal contribute to the using the low-Ms alloy weld metal exhib-
ature and low martensite finish tempera- magnitude of the residual stresses gener- ited much higher fatigue strength (Ref. 8).
ture will both minimize the effect of trans- ated in a weld (Refs. 4–6). This improvement of approximately 20%
formation-induced compressive stress It has long been recognized that phase is attributed to the compressive residual
generation. To obtain a full martensitic transformations in steels can radically af- stress, which reduces the effective stress
structure in a weld metal within an optimal fect the development of residual stresses. range that the structure experiences dur-
range of temperatures will depend mainly For example, Jones and Alberry (Ref. 7) ing fatigue testing (Ref. 8). The achieve-
on the filler metal composition. A new showed how transformation temperatures ment is based entirely on the fact that the
type of welding wire capable of inducing a influence the evolution of stress as a con- reduction of the transformation tempera-
local compressive residual stress state by strained sample cools from the austenite ture allows the expansion originated from
means of controlled martensitic transfor- state. It is significant that their experi- martensite transformation to compensate
mation at relatively low temperatures has ments showed that the residual stress at for the accumulated thermal contraction
been studied. ambient temperature is smaller when the strains. The improved results and the sub-
In this study, several low-transforma- transformation temperature is reduced. stantial benefits are expected to bring rad-
tion-temperature welding (LTTW) wires Ohta et al. (Ref. 8) designed a welding ical changes in fatigue design philosophies
have been developed and investigated to alloy containing 10% Cr and 10% Ni, with for structural components. This effect has
determine the martensite start and finish an exceptionally low austenite-to-marten- recently been confirmed by Eckerlid et al.
temperatures of the welds. Also studied site transformation temperature, TMs. In (Ref. 9), Martinez Diez (Refs. 10, 11), and
was the effect of the martensite start and Darcis et al. (Ref. 24).
finish temperatures on microstructural
development and hardness in single- and Low-Transformation-
multi-pass weldments. KEYWORDS
Temperature Welding (LTTW)
Martensitic Transformation
Wires
Introduction
Martensite Start Temperature Martensitic Transformation Approach
It is well known that high tensile resid- Low Transformation Temperature
ual stresses near a weld decrease the fa- Welding Electrodes Martensitic Transformation — Volume Change
LTTW Electrodes and Residual Stress
Weld Metal Phase
M. C. PAYARES-ASPRINO is with Universidad Transformations The principal decomposition products
Simón Bolivar, Caracas, Venezuela. H. KAT- Compressive Residual Stress of austenite during cooling are precipi-
SUMOTO is with Sumitomo Metal Industries, Dilatometric Measurements tated phases that include carbides and ni-
Ltd., Kashima-City, Ibaraki, Japan. S. LIU is with Consumable Development
Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colo. trides, or the polymorphic phases of al-
WELDING RESEARCH
A B
Stress σ (MPa)
Elongation
Fig. 1 — Comparison between the designed low-TMs wire (10% Cr-10% Ni) and conventional steel wire. A — Transformation of weld metal during uncon-
strained cooling; B — development of stress during constrained cooling (Ref. 8).
loyed iron, which includes the low- austenite undergoes the much more dy- ature, T0, at which the parent and trans-
temperature ferrite (α) and the diffusion- namic martensite transformation, involv- formed phases are in thermodynamic
less transformation products, BCT α- ing short-range atomic rearrangements equilibrium. The relative stability of the
martensite, and HCP ε-martensite (Ref. over broad interfaces at high velocity. The austenite phase is very important in order
12). The BCT martensite phase can be diffusionless shear-type martensitic trans- to induce martensitic transformation at a
thought of as a variant of the thermody- formation requires considerably greater desired temperature or stress level. The
namically favored α-ferrite, which would driving force than the diffusion-controlled strain due to phase transformation can
have formed from the austenite upon growth of ferrite in austenite, due to me- alter the state of residual stress or strain.
cooling were it not for the severe limita- chanical shearing of the austenite lattice. It is well known that the martensitic trans-
tion of the diffusional processes due to fast Consequently, martensitic transformation formation of the carburized surface of a
cooling (Ref. 13). In the absence of ferrite usually requires a considerably greater un- steel component puts the surface under
formation by nucleation and growth, dercooling below the equilibrium temper- compression as a result of the expansion at
the surface due to the formation of the
lower-density martensite from austenite.
Table 1 — Compositions of the Welds (in wt-%) Produced Using the CSM Experimental
Metal-Cored Wires Martensitic Transformation Temperature
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 2 — Compositions of the welds plotted on the Schaeffler diagram. Fig. 3 — Cylindrical specimens according to the
Gleeble standard specimen were extracted from
the welds. (All dimensions are given in mm.)
A B C
WELDING RESEARCH
fect the martensite transformation behav-
A B
ior. All these metallurgical factors need to
be carefully considered in order to man-
age the martensite transformation behav-
ior of an alloy.
This paper describes the development
and characterization of several LTTW
consumables that contained lower com-
bined alloy contents (than the 10% Cr and
10% Ni developed by Ohta et al. (Ref. 8))
for the management of weld residual
stresses and improvement of weld joint fa-
tigue properties. Metal cored electrodes
Fig. 5 — Microstructures of A1 in single-pass weld bead and Gleeble specimen. A — Single-pass weld were manufactured and welds prepared.
bead; B — Gleeble specimen. The welds were analyzed for chemical
composition and specimens were ex-
tracted for dilatometric analysis for TMs
determination. The welds were also cross-
A B sectioned for metallography and hardness
testing.
Experimental Procedures
Chemical Composition of the Weld
Dilatometric Measurements
WELDING RESEARCH
Microstructural Development
A B
The specimens were prepared to a mir-
ror-finish using standard metallographic
techniques and etched with the Kalling
No. 2 reagent (1.5 g CuCl2 + 33 mL HCl
+ 33 mL ethanol + 33 mL H2O) accord-
ing to ASTM E407 and E340 testing tech-
niques. Photomicrographs were taken
using a LECO Olympus PMG-3 field mi-
croscope, coupled to a PaxCAM camera.
Area fractions of martensite and ferrite
were measured using the point counting
technique. Fig. 8 — Microstructures of C5 in single-pass weld bead and Gleeble specimen. A — Single-pass weld
bead; B — Gleeble specimen.
Microhardness Distribution in the Weldments
WELDING RESEARCH
–0.6%). Assuming that the welded struc-
ture was entirely rigid, the contraction of
austenite would have resulted in tensile
residual stresses. However, with the for-
mation of martensite and its more open
body-centered tetragonal (BCT) crystal
structure, the contraction reversed to ex-
pansion. Finally, at room temperature, the
strain reached around zero.
The martensite transformation start
temperature (TMs) is identified as the tem-
Fig. 10 — Macrophotograph of weld B5 showing Fig. 11 — Macrophotograph of the multipass perature at which the slope changed from
the three layers and six weld beads. weld B5 with lines designating the different weld positive to negative during cooling. Simi-
zones: as-solidified weld metal, once-reheated larly, the martensite transformation finish
zone, and twice-reheated zone. temperature (TMf) can be identified as the
temperature when the negative slope
turned to positive. Even though it is not
A B necessary for all the austenite to decom-
pose into martensite at Mf to control resid-
ual stress, the magnitude of the expansion
is important since it is responsible for off-
setting the residual tensile stress state that
originated from thermal contraction.
Sample C5 exhibited the lowest TMs
temperature and the largest amount of ex-
pansion. The expansive strain also re-
mained at room temperature. These re-
sults indicate that compressive residual
stresses can be induced in the vicinity of
the weld metal in a welded joint produced
using the C5 welding wire.
Martensite transformation initiated in
sample A1 at 390°C and the amount of ex-
pansion was around 0.5% (from –0.3% to
0.2%). Nevertheless, the martensite trans-
formation completed at a relatively high
temperature, around 284°C. Thus, a part
of the effect of expansion would be offset
Fig. 12 — Microstructures of as-solidified and once-reheated areas. A — As-solidified fifth pass; B — by subsequent cooling and contraction of
once-reheated fourth pass. thermal origin. The overall strain (εf) for
sample A1, measured from the onset of
martensitic transformation to room tem-
A B perature, was only 0.244% as indicated in
Fig. 4. It is clear by comparing sample C5
with A1 that the onset and the end of
martensite transformation are just as im-
portant as the magnitude of the expansion
in controlling the final residual stress state
in a welded joint. For comparison, the TMs,
TMf, and εf of sample A6 are 360°C, 190°C,
and 0.244%, respectively. For sample B5,
these values are 300°C, 225°C, and
0.578%. Lower TMs and TMf, and larger εf
will maximize the compressive residual
stress in a welded joint.
On the contrary, a phase transforma-
tion was observed to start at 645°C and fin-
ished at 580°C during cooling in sample
ER70S-3. Microscopic observation con-
cluded that ferrite transformation oc-
curred instead of martensite transforma-
tion. The lower alloying content of this
Fig. 13 — Microstructure of twice-reheated areas in weld A1. A — Twice reheated with the fifth and sixth welding wire certainly supports this obser-
passes; B — twice reheated with the fourth and sixth passes. vation. After the transformation, cooling
has amounted to a contraction of 0.57%
and then the strain reached around zero at
room temperature. These measurements
WELDING RESEARCH
A B C
Fig. 14 — Microstructure of as-solidified first, second, and third passes in weld A6. A — As-solidified in the first pass, HV398; B — as-solidified in the second
pass, HV375; C — as-solidified in the third pass, HV380.
A B C
Fig. 15 — Microstructure of as-solidified fourth, fifth, and sixth passes in the A6 weld. A — As-solidified fourth pass, HV354; B — as-solidified fifth pass,
HV258.5; C — as-solidified sixth pass, HV228.5.
indicate that tensile residual stresses will perature (TFs). were martensitic in nature. However, the
result in the welded joint. The character- As can be seen in Table 3, the Ghosh two microstructures, i.e., single-pass weld
istics of the microstructures will be dis- and Olson methodology appears to better and Gleeble specimen, are slightly differ-
cussed later. predict the TMs temperatures for these ex- ent because the Gleeble specimens were
Table 2 shows the summary of the perimental alloys. Since the Self-Olson extracted from bead-on-bead (BOB)
dilatometric analysis. Equations were derived statistically based welds, which experienced multiple ther-
on a number of alloys, this equation is ex- mal cycles.
Comparison between Measured and Predicted pected to provide more accurate results Figure 9 shows the microstructures of
Ms Temperatures for alloys whose compositions fall within the ER70S-3 single-pass weld bead and
the range of the database. the Gleeble specimen. Ferrite clearly pre-
Experimentally measured martensite dominated in the microstructure. More
transformation temperatures (TMs) of the Weld Microstructure specifically, acicular ferrite and grain
designed wires are listed in Table 3, which boundary ferrite veining were the two
also contains the TMs temperatures as es- Comparison of Microstructure between Single- major features observed in the single-pass
timated using the Self-Olson equation Pass and Gleeble Specimen weld while 100% polygonal ferrite was
(Refs. 17, 18) and the Ghosh-Olson found in the Gleeble specimen.
methodology (Refs. 19–21). The tempera- Figures 5–8 are micrographs of the sin- The volume percents of the matrix mi-
ture of the conventional wire, ER70S-3, gle-pass weld beads and the Gleeble spec- crostructure (white in the figures) and car-
indicates ferrite transformation start tem- imens from each of the designed wires. All bides (black or gray) were determined
WELDING RESEARCH
A C
B
F
D
Fig. 16 — SEM micrographs and EDS analysis of weld A6. A — SEM image in the first pass; B — EDS result in the first pass; C — SEM image in the fourth pass;
D — EDS result in the fourth pass; E — SEM image in the sixth pass; F — EDS result in the sixth pass.
using the point counting technique. The reheated zone marked “1-RH,” and c) graphs of as-solidified first pass, second
results for the single-pass welds and the twice-reheated zone named “2-RH.” pass, and third pass, respectively, all with
Gleeble specimens are listed in Table 4. fully martensitic microstructure. Since
Hardness profiles were measured on Multipass Weld A1 carbon is low in these welds, the marten-
the dilatometric specimens and single- site is lathy in nature.
pass weldments. The average hardness Figure 12A and B show the as-solidi- Different from the first, second, and
readings are listed in Table 5. All readings fied microstructure in the fifth pass and third pass, the as-solidified fifth and sixth
corresponded to martensitic microstruc- the once-reheated microstructure in the passes did not show 100% martensite in
ture. Comparing the hardness test results fourth pass, respectively. The as-solidified the microstructure. Instead, the marten-
from the actual single-pass welds, the val- weld metal, Fig. 12A, was fully martensitic site appeared as islands in the ferrite ma-
ues of the Gleeble specimens were lower, with a hardness reading of 383 on the trix as shown in Fig. 15A–C. These mor-
again due to the multiple thermal cycles Vickers scale. The reheated weld metal in phologies are similar to those reported in
experienced. Fig. 12B showed martensite and bainite, the literature, which described the undi-
with an average hardness of HV292, which luted microstructure of a weld metal of
Microstructure of Multipass Weld is lower than that measured in a fully Type 403 martensitic stainless steel that
Specimens martensitic microstructure. Bainite contained 0.11% C, 12.38% Cr, and 0.28%
formed as a result of tempering. Ni (Ref. 23). The amount of martensite in
Characterization of the weld metal and Figure 13A and B show the mi- A6 wire weld was less than that of a type
reheated zone microstructures of the crostructures of twice-reheated regions. 403 stainless steel weld due to the lower
welds is described in this section. A These microstructures are more bainitic carbon content of A6. The appearance of
macrophotograph of the three layer (six- as compared to that of the single-reheated ferrite together with martensite will be ex-
pass B5) weldment is shown in Fig. 10. The regions. The lower hardness values of 288 plained in the next section on EDS analy-
solid lines trace the weld interfaces of each and 248 confirm the effect of multiple sis results.
individual bead, identified by numbers; 1 thermal cycles. Figure 16A shows an SEM photograph
indicates the first bead and 6 indicates the of the as-solidified first pass. Some iso-
sixth bead. As shown in Fig. 11, the weld- Multipass Weld A6 lated carbide particles are observed in the
ment was composed of three zones: a) as- martensitic microstructure. EDS analysis
solidified zone marked “As-S,” b) once- Figure 14A, B, and C show the micro- in Fig. 16B showed Cr, Si, Ti, Mn, Al, and
WELDING RESEARCH
A B
Fig. 17 — Martensitic microstructure of as-solidi- Fig. 18 — Microstructures of as-solidified and once-reheated areas. A — As-solidified sixth pass; B —
fied first pass in weld B5. once-reheated fifth pass.
WELDING RESEARCH
welds are fully martensite with micro-
A B hardness reading between 350 and 380,
even in the reheated regions.
Nomenclature
Acknowledgments
Conclusions The amount of the expansive strains for 1. Metals Handbook, 9th Ed., Vol. 6, Weld-
B5 and C5 are larger than those of A1 and ing, Brazing, and Soldering. 1983. ASM Inter-
national, Materials Park, Ohio.
The low-transformation-temperature A6. The expansion resulted in a compres- 2. Mochizuki, M., Hattori, T., and
welding (LTTW) consumables design in sive stress state. On the contrary, contrac- Nakakado, K. 2000. Residual stress reduction
this investigation exhibited expansion tive strains and tensile residual stress re- and fatigue strength improvement by control-
during cooling in a weld thermal cycle. sulted for the commercial E70S-3 wire. ling welding pass sequences. Journal of Engi-
Therefore, the experimental electrodes • In single-pass welding, the mi- neering Materials and Technology 122: 108–112.
with lower Cr-Ni contents are capable of crostructures of the designed wires are 3. Löhe, D., Lang, K. H., and Vöhringer, O.
promoting compressive residual stresses martensite due to the high chromium 2002. Residual stress and fatigue behavior.
in welds. Chemical composition proved to and/or nickel content of the experimental Handbook of Residual Stress and Deformation
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be critical in determining the martensite
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designed to use single beads will be opti- • The microstructures of multipass A6 Residual Stress and Deformation of Steel. G. Tot-
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finding of this research is listed below. passes, where dilution exerts the greatest ternational, Materials Park, Ohio, pp. 11–26.
• Martensite transformation start effect; those in the fifth and sixth passes 5. Withers, P. J., and Bhadeshia, H. K. D. H.
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17: 355–365.
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6. Withers, P. J., and Bhadeshia, H. K. D. H.
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645°C. served to segregate along the grain gins. Materials Science and Technology 17:
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WELDING RESEARCH
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