Medieval History of India
Jaidev, who composed the ‘Gita Govindam’
THE STRUGGLE OF THREE KINGDOMS
 PALS OF BENGAL
 Gopal (750-770):
o The founder (elected by the nobles).
o Son of Vapyata.
o Builder of Odantipuri monastery at Bihar.
o Conqueror of Magadha & unifier of Bengal.
o A patron of Taranath, the Buddhist
philosopher.
 Dharmapal (770-810):
o The golden age of Bengali history.
o Defeated by Dhruva, the Rashtrakut, but,
later, he conquered a large portion of
Northern India.
o Held an assembly of his vassals at Kannauj
in 790-800.
o Defeated by Nagabhata-I, the Gujar King, in
790-800.
o Founded the Vikramshila monastery and
patronized Atish Dipankar.
o Founded the Sompura monastery.
o Patronized Sankaritta, a Nalanda scholar.
o Donated 200 villages for upkeep of
Nalanda.
 Devapal (810-850):
o Nalanda Copper plate inscription.
o Annexed Orrisa (Utkal) & Pragyajyotishpur.
o ‘Lokeshvara Shatakam’ was compiled by
monk Vajradutt.
o Suleiman called him Ruhimi or Ruhma
Dharma.
o Defeated Hunas, Gujar King Mihir Bhoja
and Dravidas.
o Appointed Vir Sena the head of Nalanda
and granted it 5 villages on the request of
Sailendra King Balaputradeva.
 Mahipal-I (977-1027):
o Restored the empire in late 10th century.
o Rajendra Cholan invaded Bengal to take
Ganges’ water and defeated Mahipal in
1021-23.
 Rampal (1072-1126):
o The last strong Pal ruler.
o Estd. control over Kamrup & Kaling.
o Sandhyakar Nandi described Rampal’s
struggle against Kaivata tribesmen in his
‘Ramacharitam’.
 Madanpal:
o The last strong Pal ruler.
o Assassinated by Vijay Sena in 1095.
 Sen Dynasty (1095-1194)
 They were originally Kannadigas.
 Capital: Lakhnauti, Bengal.
Laxman Sen patronized the Vaishnav Poet
(Dashavtar).
 Art & Culture during the Pal Empire
 Charyapada: Bengali Buddhist poems.
 Islam appeared in Pal empire with Arab
merchants.
 Tantric Buddhism developed under Pals.
 Atish Dipankar composed
‘Bodhipathapradipa’.
 ‘Chikitsamgraha’, ‘Dravyaguna’ &
‘Sarvasamgrah’ by Chakrapani Dutt, King
Nayapal’s physician.
 Mandan Mishra: Mimamsa scholar defeated
by Shankaracharya in a debate.
 ‘Rug-vinischya’ by Madhavakar.
 Gaudapadacharya: ‘Mandukya Karika’ &
‘Agam Shastra’.
 Salama Dynasty of Assam (800-1000)
 Kamrupa or Pragyajyotishpur.
 HaryaraVarman declared independence in 800
and established the Salama dynasty.
 Capital: Harrupeshvara or Brahmaputra
(Lauhitya) river.
 GUJAR PRATIHARS
 Door keepers of Rama.
 Claimed their descent from Lakshman.
 This dynasty was founded by a Brahmin
named Harichandra.
 In the real sense it was founded by King Mihir
Bhoga aka ‘Adivarah’ in 885.
 Nagabhat-I (730-760):
o Resisted an Arab invasion of Sindh.
o Rashtrakut King Dhruva defeated him.
 Vatsaraj (780-800):
o Annexed Kannauj and made it his capital.
o Defeated Dhammapal of Gaud.
o Defeated by Dhruva.
 Nagabhat-II (800-833):
o Rebuilt the Somnath temple.
o Defeated Dharmapal, but was defeated by
Govinda-III.
 Mihir Bhoj (836-885):
o Most successful and popular Pratihar ruler.
o Defeated Pals & Rashtrakuts.
o His capital was at Kannauj (Mahodaya).
o Varah copper plate inscriptions –
Skandhavarah = military camp.
o Suleiman called him ‘Al-Juzr’.
o Al-Massoudi called him ‘King Baura’, who
had the best cavalry in India.
o A Vaishnav who assumed the title of
‘Adivarah’.
 Mahender Pal (885-910):
o The zenith of Gujar empire.
 oHis control extended from Sindh to Bengal
and from Himalayas to Narmada.
o Lost territories in Punjab to a Kashmiri ruler.
o ‘He had no access to the sea’, according to
Al-Massoudi.
o Adopted the title of ‘Maharajadhiraj of
Aryavrat’.
o Sanskrit Scholar Rajasekhar was his court
poet.
 Mahipal-I (913-944):
o Rashtrakut ruler Indra-III invaded Kannauj
and defeated him. He conquered Gujarat
Sea ports in 915-18.
o Rajshekhar called him the ‘Maharajadhiraj
of Aryavrat’.
o Al-Massoudi visited Gujarat in 915-16.
 Rajyapal (960-1018):
o Krishna-III, the Rashtrakut, invaded North
India and defeated him.
o Muhammad Gazni invaded Kannauj in
1018-19, but he escaped.
o Treacherous Chandel ruler Vidhyadhar
murdered him.
 Jaspal:
o The last ruler of Pratihar dynasty.
o Gadhavalas annexed Kannauj in 1090 and
replaced the Gujars.
 Art and Culture under Pratihars
 Rajshekhar:
o ‘Karpuramanjari’ in Surseni Prakrit
dedicated to his wife Avantisundari, the
only such work.
o ‘Kavyamimasa’ – Poetic guide.
o ‘Balramayan’, ‘Balabharata’ & ‘Prapanch
Pandav’.
 Bharoli temple complex.
 Bateshvar temple complex.
 Maru-Gujar architecture.
 Khajuraho temple (built by feudatory
Chandels.)
 Feudatories: Chandels, Parmars, Kalachuris,
Tomars, Chavdas, Chahamans & Shakambharis.
 RASHTRAKUTS
 They were feudatories of the Chalukyas.
 Migrated from Latur to Elichpur as one of their
rulers used the title of ‘Lalitpureshvar’.
 Capital: ‘Manyakhet’ & ‘Malkhed’ near
Sholapur.
 Dantidurga (733-756):
o The founder.
o He was a son-in-law of the Pallava ruler
Nandi Varman, who recovered Kanchi from
Chalukyans.
 Krishna-I (756-774):
o Brought a major portion of Karnataka and
Konkan under his control.
o The Kailashnath temple, the largest rock cut
temple & a UNESCO World Heritage site, at
Ellora was built during his reign – at
Satpura range.
o He shifted his capital to Ellora.
 Dhruva (780-793):
o Expanded his territory from Central India to
Kaveri River.
o Defeated Nagabhatta-I & Dharampal.
o Rashtrakuts became a pan-India power
during his rule.
 Govind-III (793-814):
o Defeated Dhammapal.
o Defeated Nagbhat-II and annexed Malwa.
o The Sanjan inscription states how his
elephants drank from the icy-cold water of
Himalayan stream.
o He compared himself to Alexander &
Arjuna.
o Subjugated Pallavas of Kanchi & installed
his puppet ruler at Vengi.
o Received two idols from a ruler of Ceylon.
 Amoghvarsha-I (814-878):
o Shifted his capital to Manyakhet.
o Suleiman called him one of the four great
rulers of the world.
o Defeated invading Chalukyans and assumed
the title of ‘Virnarayan’.
o Built the Jain Narayan temple at
Pattadakkal and the Neminath Basedi in
Karnataka.
o A tolerant ruler aka ‘the Ashoka of South
India’.
o Often compared to Vikramaditya, the Gupta
ruler.
o An accomplished poet. He composed
‘Kavirajmarga’ in Kannada 7 ‘Prashnottara
Ratanamalika’ in Sanskrit. The later was
translated into Tibetan.
o He was a disciple of Acharchya Jinsen, the
writer of ‘Adipuran’ & ‘Harivamsha’.
o Mahaviracharya authored
‘Ganitasarsamgraha’
o Sakatayan compiled ‘Amoghavrtti’, a
Sanskrit grammar.
o Chavundaraya wrote ‘Charitasara’.
 Indra-III (914-929):
o Defeated Mahipal-I & sacked Kannauj in
915.
o The grandson of Amoghvarsha.
 Krishna-III (939-967):
o The ‘Tanjavurkonda’.
o The last great Rashtrakut ruler.
 o Defeated Prantaka Cholan at Takkolam in
949 and erected a Victory pillar at
Rameshvaram.
o The conquer of Kachi & Tanjor.
o His empire extended from Narmada to
Kaveri in Toadaimandalam (North Tamil
Nadu).
o Patronized Kannada Jain poet Shri Ponna.
 Karak (972-973):
o Chalukyan ruler Tailapa defeated him and
sacked Malkhed.
 Indra-IV:
o The last Rashtrakuta king.
o He committed Sallekhana at
Shravanabelgola in Karnataka.
 Art and Culture during Rashtrakuts
 Elephanta Caves: constructed by Kalachuris.
 Kannada Literature:
o Jain poet Shri Ponna:
 ‘Shantipuran’ in Champu style.
 ‘Bhavanaika Ramabhyudaya’.
 ‘Jinaksharmale’.
o Adikavi Pampa:
 ‘Adipuran’.
 Patronized by King Arikesari.
 ‘Vikramarjuna Vijaya’ – Kananda
Mahabharata.
o Shivakoti:
 ‘Vaddaradhana’
o Ranna:
 Partonized by Tailopa.
 Works: ‘Ajithapurana’, ‘Rannakanda’,
‘Parshruramcharite’, ‘Sahasbhimavijaya’
& ‘Chakreshvaracharite’.
o Digambara poet Asoga (Asoka):
 ‘Shantipuran’.
 ‘Vardhaman Charita’, in Sanskrit.
 ‘Alocatamka-prastavana’.
 ‘Adi Samhita’.
 Sanskrit Literature:
o ‘Dhaval’ & ‘Adharval’ by Virsen.
o ‘Yasastilaka-Champu’ & ‘Nitivakyamitra’ by
Somadev Suri.
o ‘Rajavrachtika’, ‘Nyayavinishchaya’, &
‘Laghiyastaya’ by Akalanka Bhatt.
o ‘Kalyankaraka’ by Ugraditya (medicinal
work).
 Prakrit Literature:
o ‘Jasaurachariu’ & ‘Nyakumarachriu’ by
Pushpadanta.
o ‘Paumchariu’, ‘Rithunemichariu’ &
‘Swayambhu Chandas’ by Jain poet
Swayambhu.
 Rashtrakut Administration:
 Law & order was maintained by Koshthpal or
Kotwal.
 Rashtra (province) was governed by a
Rashtrapati.
 Mandal or Vishya (district) – Vishyapati.
 Pattala (cluster of villages) – Bhojapati.
 Grama (village) – Grama Mahajan.
THE CHOLAN EMPIRE
 The imperial Chola dynasty.
 A Tamil thalassocrat empire.
 Vijayala:
 The founder, an earlier feudatory of Pallavas.
 Seized Tanjavur, lower Kaveri, in 850.
 Defeated the Pallavas of Kanchi and the
Pandayan.
 Built the Vijayala Choleshvaran temple.
 Aditya-I (871-907):
 Aided the Pallavas in the battle of
Shripurambiyam against the Pandyans.
 In 893, he killed Pallava ruler Aparajita and
annexed Todaimandalam (South Tamil Nadu).
 Annexed Kongudesha from Pandayas with the
help of Cheras.
 Conquered Talked, the capital of western
Gangas.
 Prantaka-I (907-953):
 Captured Madurai and assumed the titles of
‘Madurantaka’ & ‘Maduraikonda’.
 Lost the battle of Tokkalam against Krishna-III
in 949.
 Defeated a coalition of Ceylon & Pandayas.
 Prantaka-II (957-73):
 The Sundara Cholan.
 Recovered territories seized by Rashtrakuts &
even invaded Ceylon.
 Uttama Chola:
 Retrieved most of Todaimandala from the
Rashtrakuts.
 Raja Raja-I or Arunmoli Varman (985-1014):
 The greatest Cholan ruler.
 The ‘Ulagalanda Perumal’.
 Destroyed Chera navy at Trivandrum and
imprisoned a Pandayan king.
 Invaded the Shailendra Empire and established
trade link with China.
 Renamed Northern Ceylon to Mummadi
Cholanmandalam.
 Built the Brihadeshvar temple at Tenjavur in
1010 – aka the Rajaraja temple.
 Rajendra Chola-I (1014-1044):
 Aka the ‘Pandita Cholan’.
 An aggressive expansionist.
 Conquered Southern Ceylon & brought King
Mahinda-I to Tenjavur.
 Ruled Ceylon for 50 years.
 North India expedition:
o Objective: Pilgrimage to Gange
 o Followed the exact opposite of the route
used by Samudra Gupta to invade South
India.
o Defeated Mahipal-I of Gaur and reached
Ganges.
o He assumed the title of ‘Gagaikonda
Cholan’ and founded his new capital at
‘Gangaikondacholapuram’, near the mouth
of Kaveri River.
o Built a Shiva temple and filled a tank with
the water of Ganges sent by Mahipal-I on
ships through the Bay of Bengal.
 Allowed a Shailendra ruler to build a Buddhist
monastery at Nagapatam.
 His strong navy converted the Bay of Bengal
into a Chola lake.
 Led an expedition against the Sri Vijaya Empire
and conquered its capital Kadam, Malay
peninsula and Sumatra.
 Rajadhiraja (1044-1054):
 The ‘Jayamkonda Cholan’.
 A great leader and warrior.
 Invade Chalukyan capital at Kalyani & erected
a victory pillar at Yadgir.
 The Cholans kings were famous for massacring
the people they have conquered.
 He died in the battel of Koppam against the
western Chalukyan ruler Someshvaran.
 The Cholan ruler who died on the back of an
elephant.
 Rajendra-II (1054-1063):
 Crowned on the battlefield, killed
Someshvaran & erected a victory pillar at
Kohlapur.
 Vidyaraja (1063-1067):
 Defeated Someshvaran-II & established a
Sanskrit college.
 Athirajendra (19067-1070):
 Died while suppressing a revolt.
 Kolluthunga (1070-1122):
 The ‘Shungamtvrtta’.
 Sent a 70-member embassy to China in 1077.
 United eastern Chalukya of Vengi with his
kingdom.
 Patronized Tamil poet Kamban, the translator
of Ramayana into Tamil.
 Krimikantha Cholan (Kolathunga-II):
 Persecuted Vaishnav philosopher Ramanujan.
 ‘Chakravartin’ Koluthunga-III:
 The last Cholan ruler (1218).
 Administration of the Cholan Empire:
 King – Ko, Peromal Adigal, Rajadhiraja & Ko-
Konmai Kondan.
 Kings were patrons of Vedic Dharma &
claimed to be the ‘protectors of varnashrama’
& the ‘destroyers of the evils of Kaliyuga’.
 ‘Ulakalanda Perumal’ – The one who
measured the earth like Vishnu. A title used by
Cholan monarchs.
 Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant, who came
to India in 1292 via the Coromandel coast
mentioned the self-immolation of Keralan
guards on their monarch’s funeral pyre.
 The empire (Rajyam or Rashtram) was divided
into 8 Mandalam (provinces) each governed
by a governor or viceroy.
 Administrative division:
o Kottam or Velanadu > Nandu (district) >
Autonomous villages (local self-
governments).
o Nattar – an assembly of noblemen.
o Nagarattam/Nagaram – Merchant guilds.
o Trade guilds = Shreni or pugas.
o Samaya = Corporate organization. It follows
ethical codes of conduct collectively called
‘Banaju-Dharma’.
o Super regional merchants’ association:
 Ayyavole (the Five Hundred) – estd. at
Aihole in Karnataka.
 Manigramam (a subordinate of
Ayyavole) – Located in Tamil Nadu.
 Cholan Village Administration:
 Local self-government model. Perhaps, the
earliest model of Panchayat-Raj system.
 Urr – A general assembly of local residents of
non-Brahmins or Vellavagai villages.
 Sabha or Mahasabha – Exclusive assembly of
Brahmins in the Agraharas (tax-free Brahmin
villages). 2 inscriptions from Uttaramerur
testifies close relation of Cholan rulers with
such Brahmin assemblies.
 The villages assemblies were the real owners
of land and the collected 1/6th of the produce
as tax on behalf of the emperor.
 Women too held prominent positions in such
village assemblies.
 Cholan Society:
 Periyar = Untouchable = Chandalas.
 Vellals = Farmers = Shudras.
 Garvares = Merchants = Vaishyas.
 Kayasthas = Scribes or Accountants.
 Siama = Thailand.
 Art & Literature of under Cholas
 Dravida Architecture (gates = gopurams).
 Agrahatta = Persian Wheels.
 Chalukyan Architecture = Vesara style, a
mixture of Nagara and Dravida styles.
 Gomateshvar temple at Sarvanabelagola –
Bahubali, the son of Rishabhanath.
 Nataraja – The bronze figure of dancing Shiva.
 Kailashnath temple - Kanchipuram.
 Brihadeshvara temple - Tanjavur.
 Two Brahmins introduced cotton to Japan.
  Brahmpurishvara temple.
 Uma Maheshvara temple.
 ‘Kalingathuparani’ by Jayamkonder.
 ‘Koluthunga Cholan Ola’ by Ottakuttam.
 ‘Periyapuranam’ by Sekkilar.
 Airavateshvara temple at Dvar Samudra
(UNESCO).
 Decline of the Cholan Dynasty
 The Cholas were succeeded by:
o Pandayans of Madurai.
o Hoyasalas of Dvar Samudram (UNESCO).
THE RAJPUT PERIOD
 647-1200 ad.
 Descended from association of Shudra women
with Shakas, Kushanas & Hunas men.
 Many Shudra tribes started calling themselves
Rajputs.
 Rajputs aren’t a part of the ancient Kshatriya
lineage.
 According to Rajput myths of Agnikula, the sage
Vashishta performed the Agnikula fire sacrifice at
Mount Abu & the fire altar produced different
Rajput clans, Pratihars, Chauhans of Ajmer,
Chandels of Bundelkhand & Parmars of Malwa.
 Chauhans/Chamahans of Ajmer:
 Chauhans of Shakambhari (Sambhar) ruled
Rajasthan.
 Their original capital was at Shakambhari.
 They were vassals of Pratihars.
 Simharaja (944-971):
o The founder of Chauhan dynasty.
o ‘Maharaja Dhiraj’.
 Vigraharaj-II (971-998):
o Invaded Gujarat & defeated Mularaja-I.
o Annexed Chittor.
 Ajayaraj (1110-998):
o Seized the Parmar capital of Ujjain.
o Estd. the city of Ajaymeru (Ajmer) in 1113.
 Vigraharaj-IV:
o Aka ‘Vasudev’.
o Shifted his capital from Shakambhari to
Ajmer.
o Struggle against the Parmar king Bhoj of
Ujjain.
o Composed the famous play ‘Hrikeli Nataka’.
o Built the structure that later became the
Adhai Din ka Jompra mosque.
 Prithviraj-III (1177-1192):
o He’s called Rai Pithora in Folklores.
o Defeated the Chandel ruler Paramardi,
Chalukya ruler Bhima-II and Gahadhavala
ruler Jayachandra.
o Invaded Bundelkhand and killed the twin
Chandel warriors Alha & Udal.
o Defeated Muhammad of Ghur in the first
Battle of Tarain in 1190-91.
o Ghuri defeated him in the 2nd battle of
Tarain in 1192 and made him a Ghurid
vassal for a while. Later Chauhan was
executed for treason against the Ghurids.
o 2 poems are dedicated to him:
 ‘Prithviraj Raso’ by Chandrabardai.
 ‘Prithviraj Vijaya’ by Jayanka.
 Hariraja (1193-1194):
o Ghuri made Govind, the son of Prithviraj, his
vassal.
o Hariraja, Prithvi’s brother, removed Govind
from the throne & seized Ajmer.
o Govinda estd. a branch of Chauhan family
at Ranastambhpur (Ranthambore).
o Qutb-ab-Din Aibak defeated him and took
over Ajmer in 1192.
 Allaudin Khilji annexed Ranthambore in 1301
& supplanted the last Chauhan stronghold.
 Chandels of Bundelkhand:
 Famous for their Nagara architecture:
o Laxman temple (930-950).
o Visvanatha temple (999-1002).
o Kandriya Mahadev temple (1030).
o Jayapura Durga = Modern Ajaygarh.
o Kalanjara = Modern Kalinjr.
o Mahotsavnagar = Modern Mahoba.
 Nanuka or Chandra Varman (831-845):
o The founder of Chandel dynasty.
o His capital was at Khajuravahaka
(Khajuraho).
o A vassal of the Pratihars.
 Vakpati (845-865):
o Defeated several foes.
 Jayashkti & Vijayshakti (865-885):
o Jayashati = Jaya (Jayabhukti, mentioned in
Mahoba inscription = Chandel territory).
o Vijayshakti = Vija.
 Rahila (885-905).
 Shri Harsha (905-925):
o Restored Pratihar ruler Mahipal after Indra-
III’s invasion.
 YashoVarman (925-950):
o Annexed Kalinjr fort – Khajuraho inscription
(954).
o The beginning of Chandel style of
architecture.
o Commissioned the Laxmana temple at
Khajuraho.
o Sifted his capital to Mahoba.
 Dhanga Dev (950-999):
o The 1st Chandel ruler to assume the
‘Maharajadhiraj’ title.
o Khajuraho inscription.
o Commissioned Vishwanatha temple at
Khajuraho.
 Gandha Dev (999-1002):
  Vidyadhar (1003-1035):
o Killed Pratihar King Rajyapal for fleeing his
kingdom when Gazni invaded Kannauj in
1018.
o Mahmud Ghazni besieged Gwalior fort
(Gopadri), which was controlled by a
Chandel feudatory Kachchapaghat, in
1022. Ghazni besieged Kalinjr and forced
him to pay tributes.Meanwhile, the
Kalachuri King Gangeya Deva seized
eastern Chandel territories.
o He commissioned the Kandriya Mahadev
temple.
 Vijayapal (1035-1050):
o Defeated Gangeya Deva.
o Decline of Chandel started during his reign.
 Parmal Dev (1165-1203):
o The last strong Chandel ruler.
o Prithviraj sacked Mahoba in 1183,
according to Madanpur stone inscription,
and killed Alha & Udal.
o Qutb-al-Din Aibuk defeated him in 1203.
 Sher Shah Suri ended the Kalinjr branch of
Chandels in 1545.
 Parmars of Malwa:
 Parmars = Slayers of enemies.
 Upendra:
o Was made the governor of Deccan by
Govind-III, the Rashtrakuta, in 9th century.
o Estd. his capital at Dhara (MP) & founded
the Parmar dynasty.
o Pratihars annexed Malwa, but in 10th
century Virsimha-II liberated it.
 Siyaka-II or Siyaka Harsh (948-972):
o Harsola copper plate inscription, 949.
o In 972, he declared his independence from
Rashtrakuts & defeated King Khottiga at
Kalighat near Narmada River, he sacked
Manyakhet in the same year.
 Manuja or Utpal or Vakpati Raja (972-990):
o Tailapa-II, the western Chalukya, defeated
him and annexed Parmar territories south
of Narmada.
o He adopted titles of ‘Amoghvarsha’,
‘Prithvivallabh’, & ‘Srivallabh’.
 Sindhu Raja (990-1010):
o Brother of Manuja -defeated W. Chalukyan
King Satyashraya & recovered territories
lost to Tailopa-II.
o His court poet Padmagupta composed
‘Nava-Shashanka-Charita’.
 Bhoj (1010-1055):
o The zenith of Parmars.
o The most famous Parmar ruler.
o Defeated the Chalukyans of Lata (Gujarat)
around 1018.
o Subjugated Konkan that was under Shilhar
dynasty in 1018-20.
o Helped Rajendra Chola & Gageya Deva
Kalachuri against Kalyani Chalukyan King
Jayasimha-II.
o Jaiyasimha’s son Someshvar-I invaded
Malwa in 1042 & sacked Dhara.
o His southernmost boundary shifted from
Godavari to Narmada.
o Killed Viryaram Chauhan of Shakambhari.
o Adopted the title of ‘Parmareshvara
Parambhattrka Bhoja’ (Param Dev).
o Aided Hindu Shahi ruler Anand Pal against
the Ghaznavid.
o Helped his neighbors in expelling Mahmud’s
governors from Hansi, Thanesvar & nearby
regions.
o A great patron of learning:
 Estd. Bhojshala Sanskrit College & a
Sarasvati Temple at Dhar.
o Estd. the city of Bhojpur, built the
Bhojeshvar temple & wrote 84 Sanskrit
texts.
 Jayasimha-I (1055-1070):
o He sought help from Chalukyans of Kalyani
against a joint invasion by Kalachuris &
Solankies, according to Bhilana.
 Laxman Dev (1086-1094):
o The Nagpur Prashasti inscription, 1105.
 Mahakal Deva:
o The last Parmar ruler.
o Allaudin Khilji killed him in 1305 & annexed
western Malwa.
 Contribution of Ujjain:
o Halayudh:
 The first person who came up with the
idea of Pascal’s triangle which he called
the staircase of Mt. Meru.
 A mathematician of Rashtrakut Emperor
Krishna-III.
 He migrated to Ujjain & King Munja
patronized him. He dedicated his
‘Mrtasanjivani’, a commentary of
Pingala’s Chandsastra, to Munja.
 ‘Kavyarahasyam’ – dedicated to Krishna-
III.
 ‘Abhidhana Ratna’ – A lexicon.
 ‘Halayudhakosha’ – A dictionary.
o Bhaskaracharya (1114-1185):
 He was born in Karnataka, but died at
Ujjain.
 ‘Sidhantshuromani’ – Lilavati, Bijaganita,
Grahaganita etc.
o Bhaskara-II:
 ‘Karan Kautuhala’.
 His work on calculus predated Newton &
Leibniz.
 Solankis of Gujarat:
 The Chalukyans of Gujarat (950-1300).
 They never used the word Chalukya to describe
themselves.
 The Lata branch of Chalukyas was founded by
Barappa at Bhrigukachcha (Baroch).
 Another branch in Gujarat, with its capital at
Anahilapataka (Pattan) was estd. by Mula
Raja-I (940-995):
o Led expedition against Saurashtras, Kutch &
Abhiras.
o Defeated by Parmars & took refuge under
the Rashtrakuta King Dhruva.
o Patronized Jainism and built:
 Mulavastika temple for Digambaras.
 Mulanath Jindeva temple for
Shvetambars.
 Bhima-I (1022-1064):
o During his reign Mahmud Ghazni invaded
Gujarat & plundered Somnath temple in
1025.
o Built the Sun temple in at Modhera.
o His wife Udyamati buit the Rani-ki-Vav
(UNESCO) in his memory.
o Hi minister Vimlasha built 5 Dilwara
temples & a Vimal Vashi temple (dedicated
to Rishabnath) in 1031.
 Karan (1065-1091):
o Defeated a Bhil warlord & estd. Karnavati
(today’s Ahmadabad).
 Jai Simha Siddharaja (1092-1142):
o He annexed Saurashtra, Kutch & Malwa. He
besieged the Junagarh fort & captured
Ranakdevi, the wife of Rana Rakhengar.
The woman committed sutti & Jayasimha
built the Ranakdevi temple to honor her at
Wadhwan.
o He patronized Jain monk Hemchandra.
o The Rudra Mahakal temple at Siddhpur was
built during his reign.
 Kumarpal (1142-1171):
o The zenith of Gujarat’s prosperity.
o A patron of Jain monk Hemchandra.
o Rebuilt the Somnath temple.
 Bhima-II (1177-1240):
o Repelled Muhammad Ghuri at the Battle of
Kayadara in 1178.
o Aibuk invaded Gujarat in 1195-97, but
Bhima-II defeated him & adopted the title
of ‘Abhinav Shiddharaja’.
 Decline of Solankis:
o The Valghelas of Dholka replaced the
Solankis after 1243 & ruled Gujarat for 76
years.
o After 1292, the Vaghelas became vassals of
Seuna (Yadava) dynasty of Devgiri in
Deccan.
o Allaudin Khalji seized Gujarat in 1297 &
ended the Seuna dynasty.
 Art & Culture under Solankis:
o Luna Vashi temple at Dilwara – Neminath.
It was built by two brothers Vastupal &
Tejpal (ministers of Vaghela ruler Virdhaval)
in 1230.
 Tomars:
 Earlier feudatories of Pratiharas.
 They ruled Haryana with their capital at
Dhilika (Delhi).
 Medieval bards called them ‘Taurs’.
 According to the Mehrauli inscription (11th
century), the city of Delhi was estd. by
Anandpal Tomar, aka Shri Samant Dev, in 736.
 Mahipal Tomar captured Thanesar, Hansi &
Nagarkot in 1043.
 Anandpal-II founded the Lalkot citadel in
Mehrauli & built the Anandpal lake.
 The Surajkul reservoir was built by Suraj Pal
Tomar.
 The Chauhans captured Dehli in 12th century &
the Tomars became their vassals.
 Gahadavalas:
 The Rathore of Kannauj (1090-1194).
 Kanyakubja = Kannauj.
 Chandra Dev:
o The founder (1090).
o Annexed Delhi from Pratihars &
Rashtrakuts.
 Jaya Chandra (1170-1194):
o The last great Rathore ruler of Kannauj.
o Ghurid General Aibuk invaded Kannauj &
killed him in the Battle of Chanawar in
1194.
o Another source states that he committed
suicide by drawing in the Ganges River.
o His son Harishchandra became a Ghurid
vassal.
 Rao Siha escaped to Mewar in 13th century &
estd. a new branch of Rathore dynasty.
 The Gahadavala dynasty ended with the
invasion of Iltutmish in 1233.
 Sisodia Dynasty of Mewar:
 Estd. by Guhila King Rana Simha, but the
lineage ended when Khilji besieged Chittorgarh
in 1303.
 Guhila dynasty was estd. by Bapa Rawal in
728.
 Rana Kumbha built Vijay Stambha at Chittor in
1448 to commemorate his victory over
Mehmud Khilji.
 Reestablished by Hamir Singh Guhila in 1326.
  Allaudin Khilji defeated Rawal Rattan Singh of
Mewar in 1307.
 Rana Sanga (1482-1528):
o Babur, despite of losing 1526’s Battle of
Bayana, defeated him in the Battle of
Khanwa in March 1527.
o Real name: Maharana Sangram Singh.
 Maharana Pratap:
o Lost the Battle of Haldighati on 18 June
1576 against Akbar.
o Defeated Akbar in the Battle of Dewair in
September 1582.
KASHMIR & NORTH WESTERN KINGDOMS
 Karkota Dynasty (625-855):
 Durbalbha Vardhan:
o The founder.
o Reigned from 598 to 634.
o Aka. Prajnaditya.
o Xuan Tsang visited Kashmir during his
reign.
o Capital – Parishapura.
 Lalitaditya Muktipada:
o Reigned from 697 to 733.
o Defeated King Yashovarman of Kannauj.
o Built the Martand Sun Temple, the
oldest, in Anantnag.
 Vajraditya (734-741):
o During his reign Arabs started raiding
Kashmir.
 Jayapida (745-776):
o Imposed heavy taxes on the advice of
Kayasthas.
 Utapala Dynasty:
 Avanti Varman (855-883):
o Estd. the Utapala dynasty in 855.
o Estd. control over Damras landlords.
o Mahapadma Lake = Wular Lake.
o Founded the cities of Avantipur
(Avantishvara & Avantiswari Temples) &
Suryapur.
 Sankara Varman (883-902):
o Led military campaign against Punjab &
Gujarat.
o Plundered Delhi.
 Yashaskara Dynasty:
 Queen Didda (958-1033):
o A disgusting adulteress, who killed her
own sons & grandsons for power. She
was a wife of King Kshemagupta.
o Kalahana was in great disapproval of her
rule.
o Estd. Diddapur & Kanakpur.
o Installed her nephew Sangamraja Lohara
on the throne of Kashmir.
 Lohara dynasty (1003-1320):
 Belonged to the Khasa tribe.
 Estd. by Sangamraja after murdering Tunga,
the herdsman paramour of Didda.
 Harsha of Kashmir (1089-1101):
o Harshadeva was murdered by Damara
landlords.
o Claimed to be the ‘Devotpatana Nayaka’
– the destroyed of gods – after destroyed
many Hindu & Buddhist shrines.
o Kalhana calls him ‘that Turushka’ as he
behaved like the Turks.
 In 1320, Dalucha (Zulju), a Turkic warlord
invaded Kashmir & Suhadeva, the last king of
Lohara dynasty, left his kingdom. He was
murdered by Shamshudeen Shah in 1339.
 Rishi Sufi saints of Kashmir combine Sufism
with Shaivism. Shaik Nuruddin Nurain was
called ‘Nund Rishi’.
 Kota Rani (1323-1339) was the last ruler of
the Hindu Lohara Dynasty.
 Hindu Shahi Dynasty of Northwest India:
 Kallar (890-95):
o A Brahmin.
o The founder.
o Shifted his capital from Kabul to
Udabhanda (Rawalpindi) in 870 after
being defeated by the Arabs.
 Jayapal (964-1001):
o Died after signing a treaty with the
Ghaznavids in 1010.
o Historians compared him to Puros for
struggling against Mahmud Ghazni, son
of Sabuktigin.
 Trilochan Pal (1010-1022):
o Annexed Rai Sharwa’s territories in the
Shivalik hills. His kingdom extended from
Indus to Ganges.
o Rebelled against the Ghaznavids, but
was assassinated by Rai Sharwa.
o The last Punjabi ruler of Punjab,
according to folklores.
 Bhim Pal (1022-1026):
o The last ruler of Hindu Shahi dynasty.
o Mahmud Ghazni ended this dynasty &
annexed Punjab in 1021.
o Ghazni plundered Somnath temple in
1026.
 Other Medieval Dynasties:
 The Chedies of Tripura:
o Estd. by Kakkala-I in 845.
o Yuvraja: Rajshekhara composed
‘Viddasalabhanjika’ to commemorate his
victory against Rajashekara.
o Gangeya-deva: ‘Trikanga Adhipati’.
o The last ruler: Vijayasimha (1211).
 Sens of Bengal:
 oEstd. by Viajya Sena in 1095.
 Shriharsha composed ‘Vijayaprashasti’ in
his honour.
o Balhal Sena:
 Consolidated the Kingdom.
 Capital: Nabadveep.
 Revived Kulin Dharma in Bengal.
 Wrote ‘Danasagara’ & ‘Adbhutsagara’.
o Laxman Sena:
 The zenith of the Sena empire.
 Defeated Jai Chand of Gahadhavalas.
 The first Bengali ruler to expand his
kingdom beyond Benares.
 Poet Halayudha, the composer of
‘Adbhutsarga’, was his minister.
 Patronized Vaishnav poet Jaya Deva, the
writer of ‘Geeta Govindam’.
 Other poets: Dhyohi & Umapati Dhar.
o Bakhtiyar Khalji annexed Bengal & Bihar in
1203-4.
 The Gangas/Chodagangas of Orissa:
o Estd. by King AnantaVarman Chodagang in
1076.
 The Trikalinga Adhipati – Kalinga
(South), Utkal (north) & Kosala (West).
 He constructed the Jaganath Puri
temple.
o Narsimhadeva:
 Constructed the Konark Sun temple, a
UNESCO world heritage site, in 13th
century.
THE ISLAMIC CONQUEST OF THE NORTHERN INDIA
 Foundation of the Islamic Cult:
 Muhammad estd. Islam in 604.
o He declared himself to be a prophet in 613.
o Battle of Bar: The first Islamic conquest of
Arabia.
 Ummayid Caliphate (611-650):
 The first Islamic invasion of India.
 General Muhammad Bin Qassim invaded
Sindh in 712 & defeated King Dahir. He was
sent by governor Hajjaj of Iraq.
 ‘Chachanama’ by Abu Bakr Kufi in Persian.
 Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258).
 Samanids (10th century):
 Alptagin: The governor of Balkh.
 Subuktagin:
o Alptagin’s son-in-law.
o He conquered Ghazn & estd. the Ghaznavid
dynasty in 977.
o His son Mahmud of Ghazn (997-1030) was
the first ruler to assume the title of Sultan.
 Mahmud of Ghazn:
o The Butshikan.
o He was a patron of Persian poet Firdausi.
o Invaded India 17 times b/w 1000-1027 to
loot wealth from India & to spread Islam.
o He first invaded Afghanistan & Pakistan
in 1000 & defeated Jayapala in the
Battle of Wahind.
o Defeated Jayapala’s son, Anandpal, in
Second Battle of Wahind in 1008.
o Annexed Thanesar & plundered Mathura
in 1014.
o In 1018, he sacked Kannauj & killed
Vidyadhar Chandel. He annexed Lahore
& Rahib by killing Trilochan Pal & his son
Bhimpal.
o He plundered Somnath temple in
Kathiawar-Saurashtra in 1025. He
retreated to Ghazn when Bhima-I
(Gujarat Chalukya) had assembled an
army to face him. Bhima-I then repaired
the temple.
o In 1026 he invaded Indian again &
punished Jat tribes for revolting against
him.
o He patronized Persian historian Al-
Biruni, who visited India in 11th century &
wrote ‘Kitab-al-Hind’ & translated
‘Vrihatsamhita’.
o Poet Firdausi wrote ‘Shahnamah’ in
Persian.
o His court historian Utbi wrote ‘Kitab-ud-
Yamani’.
o He was the first Turk to invade India.
o Mahmud Ghazni was more successful
than Muhammad Ghori as he never lost
any battle in India & Central Asia.
THE GHURID DYNASTY
 They were vassals of Ghaznavids.
 Muhammad of Ghor (1149-1206):
 The founder of Islamic empire in India.
 His conquest on India was more impactful than
Ghazni’s.
 Annexed Multan in 1175 & Uchch Sindh from
Bhatti Rajputs in 1178.
 Defeated Solanki ruler Bhima-II in the Battle
of Kayadara in 1178.
 Annexed Peshawar in 1179, Sindh in 1182 and
Punjab & Lahore in 1190 from the Ghaznavids.
 First battle of Tarain (1191):
o Fought near Karnal in Haryana.
o Conflict over ‘Tabarhinda’ (Bhatinda).
o Prithviraj defeated him & annexed
Bhatinda.
 Second battle of Tarain (1192) aka ‘the
turning point of Indian history’:
o Prithvi was caught near Sarasvati & he was
made a Ghurid vassal.
 o Prithvi struck coins in Muhammad’s name,
but he was executed for conspiring against
the Ghurids.
 Battle of Chandawar (1194):
o Ghuri defeated Jaichandra & annexed
Kanauj.
 Ghurid General Aibuk annexed Aligarh,
Ranthambore, Bundelkhand & Gujarat in
1195.
 General Bakhtiyar Khilji captured Bihar in 1197
and Bengal in 1202. He destroyed Vikramshila
& Nalanda monasteries.
 Khokhar Revolt: Ghuri himself came to India
to suppress this revolt by Pujabi Khokhar tribe
in 1205.
 Ghuri was assassinated near Jhelum in 1206.
DEHLI/ILBARI/MAMLUK SULTANATE
 Mamluk means slave or owned in Arabic.
 The Qutbi Dynasty (1206-1211):
 Qutbdin Aibuk
o became the Sultan of Delhi in 1206 and
ruled from his capital at Lahore.
o Defeated Yalduz & ended all relations with
Ghazni.
o Built the Qutb-al-Islam Mosque, the first
mosque in India, at Delhi. It was originally a
Vishnu temple.
 The first Islamic monument in India.
 It was completed by Iltutmish after
Aibuk’s death.
o Converted a Hindu monument at Ajmer to
the ‘Adhai-din-ka-Jhopdi’ mosque.
o Patronized Hasan Nizami (‘Taj-ur-Musir’) &
Fakhurdin (‘Tariqi-e-Musbarakshahi’).
o Was called ‘Lakh Baksh’ for his generosity.
o Died playing chaugan or polo in 1210.
 Aramshah (1210):
o Aibuk’s incapable son, who was overthrown
by Iltutmish (Aibku’s son-in-law) in 1210.
 First Ilbari Dynasty (1210-1236):
 Iltumish:
o The founder.
o Belonged to the Ilbari tribe.
o Started his career as the governor of
Badayun, but ended up being the Sultan of
Delhi.
o The real consolidator of Turkish rule in
India.
o He shifted capital from Lahore to Delhi.
o Defeated Yalduz in 1215 & Qubacha of
Multan in 1215; both of these men were
Ghurid governors.
o Temujin Genghis Khan destroyed
Khwarazm empire in 1220 & the Khwarazm
prince Jalauddin Mangburni was denied
asylum by Iltutmish. Thus, he prevented any
conflict with the Mongols.
o His son Nasiruddin Muhammad conquered
Bihar & Bengal in 1125.
o Annexed Ramthambore in 1226 & by 1231
he subjugated Mandore, Jalore, Bangana &
Gwalior.
o He was defeated by the Chalukyas of
Gujarat.
o He introduced Iqtedari System in which
transferable land was granted in lieu of
salary.
o Stopped an invasion led by Genghis Khan in
1221.
o He set up a council, called Turkan-i-
Chahalgani, of 40 Turkic noblemen.
o He was sent a Mansur, a latter of
recognition, by the Abbasid Caliphate of
Baghdad in 1229.
o Issued the first Arabic coins, silver Tankas &
copper Jittals, in India.
o Known as the father of tomb building for
completing the Qutb Minar, a 238 ft tower.
o He patronized historian Minhas-ul-Siraj
who wrote the ‘Tahaqut-i-Nasuri’.
o Declared his daughter Razia to be his heir.
 Ruknudin Firuz Shah (1236):
o He was enthroned by the councils of Turkish
nobles, but the govt. was controlled by his
maid Shah Turkan.
o Was a generous ruler who frequented his
subjects on an elephant.
o Razia murdered both Firuz & Shah Turkan.
 Razia Sultan (1236-1239):
o The first & only female Islamic ruler of
medieval India.
o Her rule was disapproved by the Chahalgani
nobles.
o She was killed by her brother Behram Khan.
 Second Ibari Dynasty (1266-1290):
 Ulugh Khan Balban (1266-1286):
o The founder.
o He poisoned Nasruddin, his son-in-law.
o The policy of blood & iron.
o Introduce the Persian festival of Nauruz and
customs of sijda (prostration) & paibos.
o A strict ruler concerned with the moral
welfare of his subjects.
o Prohibited drinking, singing, dancing & even
laughing in the court.
o Spied on nobles.
o He was a Turkic elitist & was disgusted by
non-Turks.
o Separated finance (Unzarat) department
from military (Arz) department.
 o The first ruler to establish a separate
military dept.
o An autocrat – centralized all power in his
own hands.
o Called himself the right-hand man of the
Caliph.
o His son, Muhammad, died in a battle
against the Mongols.
o Kayumars, the last Mamluk ruler, was
murdered by Jalal-ud-din Khalzi (Firuz) in
1290.
KHILJI DYNASTY (1920-1320)
 Pashtunized Huns.
 Jalaludin Khilji (1290-1296):
 The founder.
 The first Sultan to adopt a tolerant policy
towards his Hindu subjects.
 Married his daughter to the Mongol warlord
Ulugh Khan.
 His nephew Allaudin Khilji (Ali Gurshap)
murdered him in July 1296 near Kara (UP).
 Allaudin Khilji (1296-1316):
 Introduced chehra & daag system to
standardize horses.
 The first Islamic ruler to invade Deccan
(1294).
 Adopted a policy of oppression.
 Prohibited parties. Banned alcohol & other
intoxicants.
 Patronized Amir Khusrao, the Tota-e-Hind &
inventor of Sitar & Tabla.
 Amir Khusrao invented a new Persian verse
called Sabaq-i-Hind or Indian style. He wrote
‘Khazain-il-Fatah’ which describes Allaudin’s
conquests & ‘Tughlaq Nama’ which describes
the ascension of Giyaz-ud-Din Tughlaq.
 Maintained a permanent standing army.
 He was illiterate, but patronized Khusrao &
Hasan Delhvi.
 Founded a new capital called ‘Siri’ at Delhi &
erected the Siri fort.
 Called himself ‘Sikandar-i-Sani’, the Second
Alexander.
 He believed that “Kingship knows no kinship”.
 He prohibited hoarding of food grain by the
peasants.
 Built Alai Darwaza & Alai Minar at Delhi.
 Biswa was the standard measure of land
during his rule.
 He levied heavy taxes on the Hindus to weaken
their financial position.
 He refused to submit to the Caliphs of Bagdad
& according to Birani, he was considering
conversion to some other religion.
 Reforms brought by Allaudin:
o Introduced market price control policy:
Sehna-i-Mandi.
o Collected revenue in cash.
o Abolished the Iqtadari system.
o Paid salaries in cash.
 Military expeditions of Allaudin Khilji in North
India:
o Gujarat – Rai Karan of Vaghela dynasty
(Allaudin married his wife Kamala Devi) –
General Ulugh Khan & Nusrat Khan. Karna
escaped to Balgaon in Deccan.
o Ranthambore – Hamirdeva (punished for
giving shelter to Mongol soldiers).
o Chittor (Allaudin renamed it to Khizrabad
after his son Khizr Khan) – 1303 – Rai Ratan
Singh – Queen Padmavati – Malik
Muhammad Jayasi wrote ‘Padmavat’ in
1540 in Awadhi.
o Malwa - 1305.
o Siwana - 1331 – Raja Sheetal Dev.
o Jalore – 1311.
 His expedition to Southern India:
o Deogir – 1307-7 Ram Chandra (later
accompanied Allaudin to South India).
o Warangal (Telangana) – 1309 – Pratap Dev
Kakatiya – General Malik Kafur obtained
the Kooh-i-Noor diamond.
o 1310 – Hoyasala – Veer Bhallala – General
Kafur.
o 1311 – Pandyas – Veer Pandya (he fled to
Madurai) – Kafur.
o Malik Kafur reached as far as Rameswaram
& there he erected a mosque, according to
Khusrao’s accounts.
 Qutbdin Mubarak Shah (1316-20):
 He executed Malik Kafur who had taken the
control of the Sultanate in his own hand.
 Declared himself to be a Caliph & assumed the
title of ‘Al-Wasiq-Billah’.
 He was murdered by Nasiruddin Khusarao
Shah.
 Fall of the Khilji Dynasty:
 Ghazi Malik, the governor of Punjab,
conquered Delhi in 1320, killed Sultan
Nasiruddin Khusrao Khan, the only Hindu
convert to sit on the throne, & assumed the
title of ‘Ghiyaz-ud-din Tughlaq’.
TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320-1414)
 Ghiyaz-ud-Din Tughlaq (1320-1325):
 The founder.
 The first sultan to assume the title ‘Ghazi’
meaning Islamic Crusader.
 The first Sultan to work on irrigation
infrastructure.
 Founded the city of Tughlaqabad.
  His son Juana conquered Bengal, Utkal &
Warangal (Kakatiya).
 Didn’t like Nizam-ud-Din Auliyah.
 Was crushed to death in 1325 by a wooden
structure prepared for his reception at Kara.
 According to Ibn Battuta, his death was pre-
planned by Prince Juana Muhammad.
 Firuz Shah Tughlaq was his nephew.
 Muhammad bin Tughaq (1325-1351):
 Aka Juana Muhammad.
 The first literate Sultan of Delhi.
 Ibn Battuta visited India during his reign in
1334 & acted as his Qazi for a while.
 The first ruler to establish a famine prevention
department.
 Established Diwan-i-Kohi (agricultural dept.) &
became the first ruler in India to issue crop
loans (Tachavi) to pheasants.
 Estd. cities of Jahanpanah & Adilabad.
 Led and expedition to Kullu-Kangra region in
1333, but he was defeated by Prithvi Chandra
of Kangra.
 The first Sultan to appoint Hindus in state
administration.
 Built a road from Peshawar to Sonargaon.
 In the end of his reign South India became
independent and got disintegrated into:
o Vijayanagar Kingdom – Harihar & Bukka
Rai, 1336.
o Bahmani Kingdom – Hasan Gangu, 1347.
o Sultanate of Madurai – Hasan Shah.
 His reign was full of experiments, some were
successful, but most of them were failures.
 Ziauddin Barani mentions five of his bold
experiments:
o Shifted his capital from Dehli to Deogir,
which he named Daulatabad, in 1325. This
led to famines so, he reversed his decision in
1335.
o After Mongol invasion, he planned to
occupy Khurasan & Iraq.
o Imposed heavy taxes on the people of
Ganges-Yamuna doab:
 Dari (Home tax).
 Chari (Cattle tax).
 These taxes resulted in famine, plague &
mass migrations.
o The first king in India to issue token
currency (copper & brass coins), but people
started forging them in large quantities.
Later, he had to withdraw the currency.
o His Kumaon expedition was a total failure.
 Kublai Khan issued Jiaochao, backed by silk, in
1260 in China.
 Gaykhatu, the Buddhist Mongol ruler of Iran,
issued paper money in 1294.
 Paper money called ‘Jaozi’ was first used in
China during the Song Dynasty (960-1279).
 Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388):
 Elected by nobles.
 Patronized Ziauddin Barani, author of ‘Futwa-
i-Jahandari’ & ‘Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi’.
 Another ‘Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi’ was written by
his court historian Shams-us-Siraj-Afif.
 He himself wrote, ‘Futuhat-i-Firuz Shahi’, his
autobiography.
 Withdrew all Tachavi loans.
 Besieged the Kangra fort in 1361 to punish
Rup Chand, according to Ferishta’s accounts.
 Sacked Jwalamukhi temple & got 1300
Sanskrit manuscripts translated into Persian
by Izzudin Khalid Khani.
 ‘Ragdarpan’ was translated into Persian
during Firuz’s reign.
 Zia-ud-Din Nakhshabi translated
‘Sukasaptati’, Seventy Tales of the Parrot,
into Persian ‘Tutinamah’.
 Invaded Bengal in 1353 & 1359.
 A Telugu Brahmin convert, Khan-i-Jahan
Maqbul, was his wazeer.
 Sacked Jaganath temple, that was under
Gajapati dynasty of Puri, in 1353.
 The first ruler to imposed Jizya as a separate
tax on Hindus.
 He had 1,80,000 slaves.
 Claimed to be a deputy of the Caliph of
Egypt.
 Economic reforms introduced by Tughlaq:
o Imposed four taxed:
 Kharaj – 10% of crops.
 Khams – 20% of war booty.
 Jizya.
 Zakat – religious tax on Muslims.
o Introduced two new coins: Adha (50% Jittal)
& Bitch Bikh (25% Jittal).
o Estd. Diwan-i-Bandagan (Slave dept.) &
Karkhanas.
o Estd. Dar-u-Shafa – Hospitals – Unani
medicine.
o Introduced drip irrigation system to India.
 Brought two Ashokan pillars from Meerut to
Delhi & erected one of them on the roof of his
fort at Kotla.
 Nasiruddin-Muhammad (1390-1398):
 Timur invaded India in 1398 & plundered Delhi
for three days.
 Timur left India in 1399 after weakening the
Tughlaq dynasty.
 His successor Daulat Khan was killed by Khizr
Khan, the founder of the Sayyid Dynasty, in
1414.
 Fall of the Tughlaqs: Timur invaded India in 1398
& caused the annihilation of the Tughlaq dynasty.

SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-1451)
 Khizr Khan (1414-21):
 Assumed the title of ‘Rayati-Ala’.
 Read Khutbah & struck coins in Timur’s name.
 Allaudin Alam Shah (1443-1451):
 His wazeer Hamid Khan invited Bahlol Lodhi to
invade Delhi so, he fled to Badaun.
LODHI DYNASTY (1451-1526)
 They were ethnic Pashtuns.
 The last dynasty of the Sultanate period.
 The first Afghan dynasty to rule Delhi.
 Bahlol Lodhi (1451-1489):
 Considered himself to be an Afghan hermit,
not a king.
 Conquered Sharqi Dynasty & issued Bahlol
copper coins.
 Sikander Lodhi (1489-1517):
 The greatest & noblest ruler of the Lodhi
Dynasty.
 Introduced the ‘Gaz-i-Sikandari’ measuring
unit & a new system of auditing accounts.
 He reimposed Jizya on infidels.
 He founded the city of Agra in 1504.
 He composed Persian poems under his
penname ‘Gulrakhi’.
 Loved Shehnai music.
 Conquered Bihar.
 His rival Man Singh Tomar, a patron of
Dhrupad music, of Gwalior composed ‘Man
Kotuhal’. Tansen was earlier in Man Singh’s
court.
 Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-26):
 Arrogant, but a tolerant ruler.
 Treated nobles and even his own family with
contempt & disgust.
 Rana Sanga of Mewar defeated him in a
battle. The Rana invited Babur to invade Delhi.
 Other historians say that Daulat Khan Lodhi,
Lahore’s governor, invade Babur, the ruler of
Kabul, to invade Delhi.
 Killed by Babur in the Battle of Panipat fought
in 1526.
 The Delhi Sultanate began with the Battle of
Tarain in 1192 & ended with the Battle of
Panipat in 1526.
 Babur defeated Mahmud Lodhi in the Battle of
Ghagra in 6 May 1529.
 Land Economy:
 Iqta – Land assigned to officials.
 Khalisa – Land under direct control of Sultan.
 Inam – Land granted to religious leaders.
 Khuts – Small Landlords.
 Rais – Autonomous warlords.
GUJARAT SULTANATE
 The Muzaffarid Dynasty was founded by
Muzaffar Shah, a Khatri convert, in 1407. He
estd. his capital at Pattan.
 Ahmad Shah (1411-41):
 Founded the city of Ahmadabad in 1413.
 Moti Chand & Manik Chand were his ministers.
 Built Jami Mosque (1413) & Teen Darwaza.
 His son Muhammad Shah (Zar-Baksh) was
killed by the supporters of his grandson.
 Muhammad Begarha (1459-1511):
 Conquered Girnar & Junagarh forts.
 Founded the city of Mustafabad, his second
capital.
 Sacked Dwarka to prevent piracy.
 Lost a battle against the Portuguese in 1507 &
lost Diu.
 Patronized Sanskrit poet Udairaja who wrote
‘Rajaoinoda’ in his honor.
 Akbar annexed Gujarat in 1573.
 Famous for his gluttony.
MALWA SULTANATE
 Delabar Khan Ghori shifted his kingdom from
Dhar to Mandu. He declared his independence
from Tughlaqs in 1401 & assumed the title of
Sultan. He died in 1405.
 His son Alp Khan took the title of Hoshang Khan
(1406-1434):
 Promoted Jainism.
 He issued the Lalitpur temple inscription.
 Developed Mandu into a strong fort.
 His son Muhammad was murdered by
Mahmud Khalji.
 Mahmud Khilji (1436-1469):
 The zenith of Malwa.
 Defeated Rana Kumbha in a battle & erected a
seven storied at Mandu. Interestingly, Rana
too claimed victory & erected a Kirti Stambh at
Chittor.
 Succeeded by his son Ghiyaz-ud-Din in 1409.
 Ghiyaz-ud-Din (1469-1500):
 He built the Jahaz Mahal at Mandu.
 He was defeated by Rana Raimal of Chittor.
 Mahmud Shah II (1510-1531):
 The last Khilji to rule Malwa.
 Bahadur Shah of Gujarat annexed Malwa in
1531, but lost it to Humayun in 1535. In 1537,
Humayun too lost it to Qadir Khan who lost it
to Sher Shah Suri in 1542. Suri appointed
governor Sujat Khan.
 Sujat Khan’s son, Baz Bahadur, declared
Malwa’s independence in 1555.
 Baz Bahadur (1555-1561):
 The last Sultan of Malwa.
 Roopmati was his queen.
 Akbar’s generals Adham Khan & Pir
Muhammad invaded Malwa & defeated Baz
 Bahadur in the Battle of Sarangpur. Baz fled
to Mandu & the Mughals appointed Pir
Muhammad to govern Malwa.
 Pir Muhammad invaded Khandesh, but was
defeated by Mubarak Shah of Khandesh, Tufel
Khan of Berar & Baz Bahadur.
 In 1562, Akbar deployed Abdullah Khan to
defeat Baz Bahadur.
 Baz Bahadur lived as a refugee in Chittor, but
at last in 1570 he surrendered to Akbar.
 Architecture at Mandu:
 Jahaz Mahal.
 Hindola Mahal.
 Roopmati Mahal.
 Hoshang Khan’s Tomb.
 Jami Masjid.
MEWAR OR UDAIPUR KINGDOM
 Originally called Medhpat.
 Rulers used the titles of Maharana (governor)
instead of Maharaja as they considered
themselves to be deputies of Shiva, the
Medhpateshvar.
 Rana Kumbha (1433-1468):
 Sisodia Dynasty.
 Suluva Dynasty (1485-1505)
 Rana Kumbh-Karan.
 A skilled veena player.
 Assumed the title of ‘Sangeet-Shiromani’.
 Wrote ‘Sangeet Raj’, ‘Sangeet Mimamsa’,
‘Sangeet Ratnakar’, ‘Kamraj Ratisar’ &
‘Suddhprabandh’.
 Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570)
 Founded the city of Basantpur.
 Built 5 forts – Kumbhalgarh, Achalagarh,
Maddan, Kolana & Vairat.
 Murdered by his son Udai Singh.
 Rana Sanga (1482-1528):
 Sangram Singh-I.
 Babur adopted the title of ‘Ghazi’ against
Rana Sanga.
 Defeated Ibrahim Lodhi at Ghatoli (Gwalior)
in 1518.
 Invited Babur to India in 1526.
 Vaishnav female poet Meera Bai was his
daughter.
VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE
 Capital – Hampi near Tungabhadra in Karnataka.
 It was kind of cooperative commonwealth at first.
 Sangama dynasty (1336-1485):
 Founded by Harihara & Bukka.
 Harihara Rai (1336-1356):
o Annexed the entire Hoysala territory by
1346.
 Bukka Rai (1356-1377):
o Wiped out the Sultanate of Madurai by
1377.
 Deva Raya-I (1406-1422):
oDefeated Firuz Shah Bahamani in 1406, but
was defeated in 1419.
o Nicolo Conti (1420).
o Married his daughter to Firuz Shah
Bahamani.
 Deva Raya-II (1427-1446):
o The Gajabategara (elephant hunter).
o Fought three important battles against
Gajapati rulers of Orissa in 1427, 1436 &
1441.
o His commander Lakhana successfully
sacked Ceylon.
o Forced Zamorin of Calicut to pay tributes.
o Nicolo Conti (1421) & Abdur Razzak (1446)
visited his court.
o Wrote ‘Sobagin Sone’, ‘Mahabharata
Sudhanidhi’ (Skt) & ‘Amaruka’.
o Patronized Kannada poets Chamarasa &
Kumar Vyasa.
o Employed Muslim mercenaries in his army.
 Praudha Raya (1485):
o The last ruler of Sangama dynasty.
o Killed by Suluva Narsimha Deva Raya in
1485.
 Narsimha Raya (1485-1491):
o The founder.
 Immadi Narsimha Raya-II (1491-1506):
 The last ruler of the Suluva dynasty.
 Assassinated by Tuluva Veer Narsimha.
 Tulu speaking Kshatriyas of the Naga lineage.
 Founder - Veer Narsimha.
 Krishna Dev Raya (1509-1529):
o The ‘Andhra Bhoja’.
o The ‘Kannda Rajyam Rama Ramana’.
o The ‘Mooru Rayara Ganda’.
o Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes (1520)
& Ferão Nunes (1535-37) visited Hampi
during his reign.
o Thimmarusu was his minister.
o His main enemy Bahmani Sultanate
disintegrated into 5 small states,
Ahmadnagar, Berar, Bedar, Golkonda &
Bijapur, by the year 1526.
o Wrote ‘Amuktamalayadu’ (She Who
Offered Garland After Wearing It) in Telugu.
o Wrote ‘Usha Parinayam’ & ‘Jambavathi
Kalyanam’ in Sanskrit.
o Fought two battles against Bijapur for
Raichur-Doab:
 1509 – Defeated Shamsuddin Zafar Khan
of Bijapur, killed Yusuf Adil Shah &
captured the doab.
  Battle of Raichur (1520): Ismail Adil Shah
invaded the doab, but Deva Raya
successfully defended the Raichur doab
& annexed Gulbarga, the capital of
former Bahamani Kingdom.
o Besieged Udayagiri (Kalinga) & Warangal in
1512:
 Imprisoned Gajapati King Pratap Rudra
Deva who died in 1529.
o Annexed Dwar-Samudram (Karnataka) in
1510.
o He had good relations with Arabs &
Portuguese.
o The Eight Giant Elephants (Ashtadiggajas)
of Krishna Deva Raya:
 Allasani Deddana – Father of Telugu
Literature/Pitamah of Andhra Kavya. He
wrote ‘Manu Charitam’.
 Nandi Thimmana –
‘Praijatapaharanamu’.
 Madyyadari Mallana – ‘Rajshekhar
Charitam’.
 Dhurjati – ‘Kalasteeshvara Mahatyam’ &
‘Shatakam Sukalaniti’.
 Ayyalaraju Ramambhadrudu:
‘Ramabhyudayamu’.
 Pingali Surana – ‘Garuda Puranam,
‘Raghvapandveeyam’, ‘Prabhavati-
Pradhyumanu’ & ‘Kalapurnodayamu’.
 Ramarajabhushanudu –
‘Vasucharitamu’,
‘Harishchandrabhupaleeyamu’,
‘Kavyalankara Sangrahamu’ &
‘Narasabhupaleeyamu’.
 Tenali Raman – ‘Panduranga
Mahatmyam’.
 The Battle of Talikota (13 January 1565):
o Location – Talikota, Karnataka.
o Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golaconda & Bidar
Sultanates led a joint expedition against
Aliya Rama Raya, KDR’s son-in-law.
o Result – Deccani Sultanates won. Rama
Raya was beheaded.
 After Rama Raya’s death Tirumala Raya
established the Aravidu Dynasty (1565-1646).
 Shriranga-III was the last ruler of
Vijayanagara Empire. He lost the Battle of
Virinchipuram in 1652.
 Temples & Monuments at Hampi:
o Virupshaka temple – 7th century, the oldest
temple at Hampi (UNESCO site).
o Kodanda Rama temple.
o Hazara Ramalaya temple.
o Vithalswami Chariot temple – Musical
pillars.
o Elephant stable.
o Queen’s bath
o Lotus palace.
BAHAMANI KINGDOM (1347-1526)
 An Afghan named Allaudin Hasan, aka Hasan
Gangu, estd. the Bahamani Sultanate in 1344. He
was raised by a Brahmin & to honor his master
he assumed the title of ‘Allaudin Hasan
Bahaman’.
 Firuz Shah Bahman (1397-1422):
 Defeated Vijayanagar forces in 1398 & 1406.
 Married Dev Raya’s daughter.
 Defeated Narsingh Rai of Kerala.
 Saint Ahmad Shah ‘Wali’ Bahamani (1422-
1436):
 Shifted his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar in
1432.
 An associate of Sufi Saint Gesu Daraz.
 Muhammad Shah-III (1463-1482):
 Mahmud Gawan of Iran was his wazeer,
Malik-ul-Tujjar.
 Annexed Tungabhadra doab, Konkan &
Kanchi.
 He made Bidar an industrial hub of metal work
 Built Muhammad Gawan Madarsa.
 Supported Afaqi/Persian faction against local
Deccanis.
 Persian governor of Golconda Sultan ‘Quli’ estd.
the Qutub Shahi Dynasty in 1518 & assumed the
title of ‘Qutub-ul-Mulk’.
 The Bahamanid Empire disintegrated after 1518
into 5 Deccani Sultanates:
 Nizam Shahi (Ahmandnagar):
o Estd. by Ahmad Nizam Shah, a former
Brahmin, in 1490.
o Capital – Junar/Daulatabad/Aurangabad.
o Shahjahan conquered it in 1633.
 Qutb Shahi (Golaconda):
o Estd. by Qutb-ul-Mulk in 1518.
o Capital – Golaconda/Hydrabad.
 Barid Shahi (Bidar):
o Estd. by Qasim Barid-I, an ethnic Georgian,
in 1492.
o Capital – Bidar.
o Bijapur conquered Bidar in 1619.
 Imad Shahi (Berar):
o Estd. by Imad-ul-Mulk in 1490.
o Capital - Ellichipuram
o Ahmadnagar annexed Berar in 1574.
 Adil Shahi (Bijarpur):
o Estd. by Yusuf Adil Shah in 1489.
o Capital – Bijapur.
o Religion – Shia Islam.
o Aurangzeb annexed Bijapur in 1686.
DECCANI SULTANATES
 Bijapur Sultanate:
  Ibrahim Adil Shah-II (1580-1627):
o The ‘Jagatguru’.
o The ‘Abala Baba’, friend of the poor.
o wrote ‘Kitab-e-Navras’ in Deccani. Starts
the book by invoking Sarasvati.
o Introduced the theory of Navras to
Persians.
o Patronized the Skt. Scholar Waman Pandit
& Persian poet Nusrati.
o Patronized Ferishta, the only Persian author
to write South Indian history – ‘Gulsha-i-
Ibrahim’ & ‘Tarikh-i-Ferishta’.
 Muhammad Adil Shah (1627-1656):
o Gol Gumbaz, the second largest tomb in the
world, is his tomb. It was designed by Yakut
of Dabul & commissioned by Ali Adil Shah-I
(1665-1672), who died after struggling
against the Mughals on one side the
Marathas on the other side.
o His reign witnessed the ascension of the
Marathas under Shivaji.
o World’s largest dome is Singapore Stadium.
 Ali Adil Shah-II is buried at the Ali-ka-Rouza in
Bada Kaman at Bijapur.
 Aurangzeb conquered Bijapur in 1686-87.
 Golconda Sultanate (1565-1612):
 Estd. by Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk.
 They patronized Telugu so exclusively that
they were called ‘Telugu Sultans’.
 Gola Konda means ‘Shepherd’s Hill’ in Telugu.
 The Golconda fort was built by the Kakatiyas.
 Koh-i-Noor diamond was discovered in
Golconda mines.
 Ibrahim Qutb Shah supported the Deccani
Sultanates in the Battle of Talikkota.
 Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (1565-1612):
o Issued a farman to allow Dutch merchants
to trade at Masulipatanam in 1606.
o Wrote poetry in Urdu, Persian & Telugu.
o The first Shaheb-e-Diwan of Urdu poetry.
o Built the city of Hyderabad on the southern
bank of Musi river in 1591.
o Hyderabad was originally called
‘Beghnagar’.
o Built the Charminar in 1592.
 Muhammad Qutb Shah (1612-1626):
o Started the construction of Mecca Mosque
in Hydrabad.
o Aurangzeb annexed Golconda in 1687 &
completed the Mecca Mosque in 1694.
 Abdul Hasan Qutb Shah (1672-86):
o The ‘Tana Shah’.
o Brahmin brothers Madanna & Akkana
were his ministers. Aurangzeb executed
them publicly in 1686, but spared the
Sultan.
THE ARRIVAL OF THE PORTUGUESE
 Bartholomew Diaz crossed the Cape of Good
Hope for the first time in 1488.
 Vasco De Gama reached Calicut (Karela) in 1498
& again in 1502.
 Pedro Alvarez Cabral arrived at Calicut (Karela)
in 1500.
 Francesco De Almeida was appointed the viceroy
of Indian Portuguese territories on 25 March
1505.
 Don Albuquerque seized Goa from Bijapur in
1510.
 The Portuguese captured Daman & Diu in 1531.
 Suleiman Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Cairo,
besieged Diu in 1538. Two months later, the
Portuguese Armada arrived at Diu & Turks were
forced to retreat.
 Ottoman Emperor sent two mor expeditions to
India against the Portuguese under Peri Rais in
1551 & Ali Rais in 1554.
 In 1566, the Portuguese signed a peace treaty
with the Ottoman Empire
 The Portuguese opened the Indian trade with
Japan.
 They introduced Potato, Tobacco, Maize &
Peanuts.
 Ali Adil Shah of Bijapur & the Zamorin of Calicut
invaded Goa in 1570, but they were successfully
repelled by the Portuguese.
STRUGGLE FOR DOMINANCE IN THE NORTH INDIA
(1400-1526)
 The Sur Empire (1540-1556):
 Sher Shah Suri (1472-1545)
o Son of Hassan Khan Sur.
o Claimed to be the Emperor of Hindustan.
o Annexed Bengal in 1537.
o Defeated Maldeo of Marwar in the Battle of
Sammel in 1544.
o Built the Purana Quila & Sher Mandal,
erstwhile library of Humayun, in Dehli.
o Sacked Malwa in 1542 & killed Puran Mal.
o Commissioned the Rohtas fort (UNESCO
World Heritage site), built by Todar Mal, to
prevent Ghakkar raids in Pakistan.
o Patronized Malik Muhammad Jayasi, the
author of ‘Padmavat’.
o Patronized historian Abas Khan Sarwani –
‘Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi’.
o Sher Shah introduced two new documents:
 Patta – amount due from each pheasant.
 Qabuliyat – agreement.
o Renewed the Grand Trunk Road built by
Chandragupta Maurya.
o Introduced Dam copper coin & silver Rupia.
 o Defeated Humayun in the Battle of Chausa
- Bihar (1539) & the Battle of Bilgrama
(Kanauj) in 1540.
o Died during the siege of Kalijr fort on 22
May 1543.
 Islam Shah codified the law.
 Bengal Shahi:
 Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah in unified Bengal 1352
& estd. the Bengal Shahi.
 Giyasudin Azam Shah (1390-1411):
o Patronized Persian poet Hafiz of Shiraz.
o Chittagong trade port.
o Patronized poet Maladhar Basu, the
compiler of ‘Shri Krishna Vijaya’ & granted
him the title of Gunraja Khan.
 Allaudin Hussain Khan (1493-1519):
o Patronized Bengal literature.
o Chaitanya Mahaprabhu lived under his
reign.
 Bengal became a stronghold of Vaishnavism
during the medieval period:
o Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534).
o Shankardeva (1449-1568):
 Assamese.
 Vaishnav reformer.
 Compiled ‘Kirtana Ghosha’.
 Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir (1339-1561)
 Shamsuddin Shah Mir (1339-1342):
o The founder of the Shah Mir Dynasty.
o The first Muslim ruler of Kashmir.
o Came to Kashmir from Swat during
Sahadeva’s reign in 1313.
o Influenced by Sufi Saint Bulbul Shah who
introduced Islam to Kashmir
 Sikander Shah (1389-1413):
o Sikander, the Butshikan.
o His minister Sahu Bhat converted to Islam
& oppressed Kashmiri Hindus in order to
convert them too.
o Imposed Jizya on infidels.
o Destroyed Buddhist monasteries
 Zain-ul-Abdin (1395-1470):
o The Bud Shah.
o His reign is described by Jonaraja in
‘Rajatarangini-II’ & Srivara in
‘Rajatarangini-III’.
o Abolished Jizya & prohibited forced
conversions.
o A patron of Sanskrit literature.
o Ordered translation of ‘Mahabharata’ &
‘Rajatarangini’ into Persian.
o Allowed Hindus to build temples & follow
Dharmashastras.
o Granted land to Brahmins.
o Shriya Bhatt was his minister.
o Raja of Gwalior sent him two rare Sanskrit
works on music.
o Introduced paper making & bookbinding
to Kashmir.
o Built Zain Lanka Island in the Woolar Lake
(fed by Jhelum).
o Conquered Ladakh, Baltistan & unified
Kashmir.
THE ERA OF MUGHALS (1526-1857)
 A Turko-Mongol Tribe of Uzbekistan.
 Spoke a Turkic language.
 Homeland – Samarkand & Fergana.
 Babur (1526-30):
 A Turko-Mongol warlord from Uzbekistan.
 Conquered Kabul in 1504 & Lahore in 1524.
 Defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the first Battle of
Panipat on 21 April 1526 & captured Agra.
Daulat Khan, the Lodhi governor of Punjab,
deflected & supported Babur.
 Defeated Rana Sanga in the Battle of Khanwa
on 16 March 1527 by assuming the title of
‘Ghazi’ & declaring Jihad against him.
 Annexed Chanderi after defeating Medini Rai
in 1528.
 Defeated Afghans of Eastern India in May
1529.
 Wrote his biography, ‘Tuzuk-i-Baburi’ in Turkic.
 Humayun (1530-1549/Reign-I) & (1555-
1556/Reign-II):
 Eldest son of Babur.
 Name means ‘Fortune’.
 His brothers:
o Kamran – Kabul & Kandahar.
o Askari – Sambhal.
o Hindal – Alwar.
 Two major rivals:
o Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujarat:
 Humayun annexed Mandu &
Champaner in 1535.
o Sher Shah Suri (Sher Khan) of Bihar:
 Defeated Humayun in the Battle of
Chausa in June 1539.
 After losing the Battle of Bilgram against Sher
Shah in 1540, Humayun retreated to
Baluchistan & Iran & spent 15 years in Exile.
 Shah Tahmasp of Iran helped him to recover
Kabul & Kandshar in 1545.
 Recovered Delhi in 1555.
 In 1514, the Turkish Sultan defeated the Sah of
Iran in the Battle of Chaldiran.
 Ottoman Turks conquered Syria, Egypt,
Eastern Europe & Arabia in 1529 & claimed to
be Padshah-i-Islam.
 Akbar (1556-1605):
 Born at Amarkot.
 Defeated Hemu Vikrmaditya & Afghanis in the
second Battle of Panipat on 5 November 1556.
 Governor Bairam Khan acted as his guardian
for the first five years of his reign.
 Defeated Maharana Pratap in the Battle of
Haldighati in 1576.
 Annexed Chittor (Udai Singh) in 1568 &
Ahmadabad in 1572.
 Captured Bihar (Daud Khan) in 1576 & ended
the last Afghan kingdom in North India.
 Introduced Dahsala system with Todar Mal in
1580 – Zabti or Bandobast.
 Land under Zabti system was divided into 4
categories:
o Polaj – cultivated annually.
o Prauti – cultivated once in 2 years.
o Chachar – once in 3 or 4 years.
o Banjar – once in 5 or more years.
 Introduced Mansabdari System, Social Credit
System, that originated under Genghis Khan.
Every noble & officer was assigned mansabs
(ranks) from 10 to 5,000.
 Credits were divided into two categories:
o Zat – Personal credit. 0-500 Zat =
Manabdar; 500-2,500 Zat = Amirs; & Zat
above 2,500 = Amir-i-Umda.
o Sawar – Credit indicating the number of
cavalrymen under a rank-holder. Every
cavalryman was required to keep 2 horses.
 Annexed Kashmir & Baltistan in 1586.
 Constructed Fatehpur Sikri in 1572.
 Boland Darwaza was built to commemorate
his victory in Gujarat.
 Invaded Khandesh in 1576, but annexed it in
1601 after defeating Malik Ambar at Nandor,
Telangana.
 Khan-i-Khanan defeated combined forces of
Amhmadnagar, Bijapur & Golaconda in 1616.
 Religious outlook of Akbar:
o Abolished Jizya in 1564.
o Abolished pilgrimage tax on Hindus.
o Introduced the policy of Sulj-e-Kul.
o Introduced Deen-i-Illahi in 1582.
o Built the Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri in
1572 for philosophical & spiritual
discussions among scholars of different
faiths.
o Issued Muhzarnama (Decree of Infallibility)
in 1579 declaring his right to be the
supreme arbiter in religious matters.
o Introduced Tauhid-i-Illahi (Divine
Monotheism).
o Ordered translation of ‘Sinhasan Battisti’,
‘Athrv-Veda’ & Quran, for the first time,
into Persian.
 Amar Das was given the title of Sangram
Shah by Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
 Dasvant & Baswan were famous painters of
Akbar’s court.
 Nine gems of Akbar’s court:
o Abul-Fazal: Akbarnama (Ain-i-Akbari).
Translated bible into Persian.
o Raja Todar Mal: Finance Minister – Patwari
System. Translated ‘Bhagwat Puran’ into
Persian.
o Abdur-Rahim Khan-i-Khanan: Bairam
Khan’s son. Wrote ‘Khetakautukam’ &
‘Dwatrishadyogavali’ on astrology.
o Raja Birbal (Brahmin Mahesh Das): Advisor
& Commander.
o Faizi: A peot who wrote ‘Tabashir-al-Subah’
& translated ‘Mahabharata’ & Bhaskara’s
‘Lilavati’ into Persian.
o Fakir Aziao Din: Akbar’s Sufi religious
minister.
o Tansen (Ramtanu) of Gwalior: a disciple of
Swami Hari Das & Hazrat Muhmmad
Ghauz. Master of Drupadh music. Wrote
‘Ganesh Strotra’ & ‘Sangit Sara’.
o Raja Man Singh: Kachwaha Raja of Amer.
Fought Haldighati against Pratap.
o Mulla-Do-Pyaza: Rival of Birbal.
 Built Agra fort, Jahangir Mahal, Jodha Mahal,
Panch Mahal & Govind Deva Temple
(Vrindavan).
 Tulsidas lived during his reign.
 Persian Mahabharata = Razmnamah.
 Hamzahnamah = A book of 1200 paintings by
Ghalib Lakhnavi.
 Bestowed Diwani-i-Ashraf upon Todal Mal in
1582.
 Akbar died from Dysentery at Fatehpur Sikri in
1605.
 Jahangir (1605-1627):
 Prince Salim assumed the title of ‘Jahangir’.
 He executed his son Khusrao Mirza & Sikh
Guru Arjun Dev for treason.
 Sent a farman to Adil Shah of Bijarpur &
referred to him as his son.
 He married Noor Jahan in 1611.
o Daughter of Itimaduddaula.
o Issued coins in her own name calling herself
Begum Badshah.
 Issued a farman to Sir Thomas Roe of I.E.C. in
1618.
 Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) revolted in 1622.
He resented Noor Jahan’s influence in politics.
 Mahabat Khan captured Jahangir at Jhelum.
 Noor Jahan coaxed the nobles into freeing
Jahangir & Mahabat Khan fled.
 Defeating Mahabat Khan was Noor Jahan’s
greatest political success.
 Wrote ‘Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri’, his autobiography,
& ‘Farhang-i-Jahangir’, a Dictionary.
  ‘Padshahnameh’ by Abdul Hamid Lahori.
 ‘Muntakhab-i-Lubab’ by Khafi Khan.
 The practice of pieta durra (wall art) started in
India during his reign.
 Built Moti Masjid, Shalimar Bagh & Nishant
Bagh at Lahore.
 The zenith of Mughal paintings:
o Halo effect in paintings started under his
reign.
o Abu al Hasan – king’s favorite.
o Bishan Das – portraits.
o Madhu.
o Anant.
o Manohar Das.
o Govardhan.
o Ustad Mansur – animal art. Aka ‘the Shirin-
Kalam’ & ‘the Rafael of the East’.
 He was a keen naturalist & his preference was
for painting of hunting scenes, birds & flowers.
 Shah Jahan (1628-58):
 Son of Jagat Goasain.
 Husband of Mumtaz Mahal.
 The Golden age of the Mughal Empire.
 Defeated the Portuguese at Hugli in 1632.
 He coaxed Ali Mardan Khan, the Iranian
governor of Kandhar, to deflect to his side in
1638.
 In 1651, he initiated a program to construct
ships for wealthy merchants.
 Guru Har Govind, supported by Paida Khan
Pathan, clashed with Shah Jahan over a hawk.
 The Afghan Campaign:
o Nazr Muhammad requested Jahangir to
help him recover Kabul & Gazni from the
former’s son, Abzul Aziz.
o Shah Jahan sent a large army to Kabul.
o Prince Murad annexed Nazr Muhammad’s
Balkh fort, forcing him to flee away.
o Aurangzeb replaced Murad & defeated
Abdul Aziz & Uzbeks at Balkh.
o It was hard to maintain control over warlike
Afghan tribesmen.
o The Iranians conquered Kandhar in 1649,
but Aurangzeb (The Hero of Balkh)
successfully defended the fort & repelled
the invading Iranians. The fort, however,
remained under the Persian control.
o Dara Shikoh was sent to recover the fort in
1653, but he failed.
 François Bernier, his chief physician
(danishmand), accompanied him to Lahore &
Kashmir in 1658.
 It took him 22 years to complete the Taj
Mahal the construction of which was started
in 1622.
 Architects of Taj Mahal – Ustad Isa & Isa
Muhammad Effendi. The dome was designed
by Ishmael Khan.
 Other monuments built by him:
o Moti Masjid – Agra.
o Sheesh Mahal – Agra.
o Mussaman Burj – Agra (here he spent his
last days with his daughter Jahan Ara).
o Red Fort – Delhi.
o Jama Masjid – Delhi.
o Shalimar Bagh – Lahore.
o Shah-Jahanbad – Lahore.
o Peacock Throne – built by Bebadal Khan in
1628.
 Inayat Khan wrote ‘Shah Jahan Nama’.
 Darah Shikoh translated Bhagwat Gita &
Upanishad into Persian. He works include
‘Majma-ul-Bahrain’ or ‘The Confluence of Two
Sea’ (Sufism & Vedanta), ‘Sakinat-l-Auliya’,
Safinat-ul-Auliya’, ‘Hasannat-ul-Aarifin’, ‘Iksir-
i-Azam’, ‘Sirr-e-Akbari’ or ‘The Great Secret’
(Upanishads), ‘Risaala-i-Haq-Numa’ &
‘Tariqat-ul-Haqiqat’.
 Shah Jahan signed a treaty with Golconda &
Bijapur in 1630 stating following conditions:
o He’ll cede 1/3rd of Ahmednagar to them if
they break their alliance with the Marathas.
o The Mughals would never invade Golconda
& Bijapur.
 Aurangzeb (1658-1707):
 The Mughal Empire became the largest
empire in the Indian history during his rule.
 Darvesh/Zindapir/Alamgir.
 Killed Darah Shikoh & imprisoned his father at
the Agra fort.
 Was an accomplished Veena player.
 Shah Jahan declared Dara Shikoh to be his
successor & raised his mansab from 40,000 zat
to 60,000 zat.
 Shah Jahan sent Suleiman Shikoh, Darah’s son
to punish Shuja, who had coronated himself.
Shuja was defeated at Benares in Dec 1652.
 He defeated Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur, sent by
Shah Jahan, at Dharmat on 15 April 1658.
 He defeated Darah Shikoh in the Battle of
Samugarh on 29 May 1658.
 He besieged the Agra fort & forced Shah Jahan
to Surender.
 He defeated Darah again in the Battle of
Deorai in March 1659 with the help of Jaswant
Singh of Mewar.
 Darah was crossing the Bolan Pass while an
Afghan warlord captured & handed him over
to Aurangzeb. Darah was killed.
 General Mir Jumla forced Shuja to flee to
Arakan in April 1660. Arakanese warlords
executed Shuja with his family.
 In 1686, he imprisoned his own son Mauzzam
for 12 years for conspiring with a Golconda
ruler. After being released he was made
governor of Kabul.
 ‘Zawabil-i-Alamgiri’ – A collection of his
decrees.
 He forbade inscribing of Kalmas on coins.
 Prohibited gambling, use of intoxicants,
singing & dancing for the moral welfare of his
subjects.
 He appointed Muhtasib for public welfare.
 He discontinued Hindu practices of
Jharokhadarshan & Tula Daan.
 He discontinued the official department of
history.
 He banned celebration of Dushera & dismissed
astrologers & astronomers from his court.
 He reimposed Jizya & pilgrimage tax in 1679.
 He invaded Deccan to punish the Deccani
Shias.
 He copied Quran & sold its copies to meet his
personal expenditure.
 Ordered demolitions of Hindu temples in
1665.
 Converted Vishnunath temple at Benares &
Kashav Rai temple, built by Bir Singh Deo
Bundala, into mosques.
 Mustaid Khan wrote ‘Maasir-i-Alamgiri’.
 Wanted to convert India from Dar-ul-Harb to
Dar-ul-Islam.
 Mir Jumla annexed Guwahati in 1638, but
Ahoms recovered it in 1667. Ahoms led
guerrilla warfare against the Mughal army.
Mir Jumla, the governor of Bengal, was
replaced by Shaista Khan.
 Jats, led by Gokala, rebelled against
Aurangzeb in 1669. The rebellion was
suppressed & Gokala was executed.
 Jats, led by Rajaram, revolted again in 1685,
Aurangzeb deployed Kachawhah ruler Bishan
Singh to crush the revolting Jats & by 1691
Rajaram & his successor Churaman were
forced to submit.
 Afghan leader Bhagu enthroned Muhammad
Shah & declared himself to be Shah’s wazeer
in 1667.
 Akmal Khan proclaimed himself to be the King
of Afghanistan & read the Khutba in his own
name in 1672.
 Aurangzeb assassinated Guru Govind Singh in
1706 in Deccan.
 Invaded Mewar in 1679.
 His son Akbar revolted against him in alliance
with Durga Das Rathore of Ajmer.
 Aneexed Kalyani & Bidar in 1657 & Parenda by
bribe in 1660.
 Jai Singh advised Aurangzeb to pursue a
forward policy in Deccan.
 Jai Singh’s Bijapur campaign failed in 1665 &
he died in 1667.
 Mughals secured the surrender of Sholapur by
bribe in 1668.
 Madana & Akhana, Brahmin brothers, raised
to power under Shah of Golconda & caused
great trouble to the Mughals by establishing
alliance with Bijapur & Shivaji.
 Mughal viceroy Diler Khan attempted to
capture Bijapur, but failed in 1679-80 as he
was too weak to face combines forces of
Deccani Sultanates & matchlock rifle armed
Karnataka infantry.
 He ordered his vassals to send reinforcements
& expel the Anti-Mughal Bijapuri noble Sharza
Khan in 1681, but Adil Shah neglected the
Mughal decree & asked Golconda &
Shambhaji for help.
 Aurangzeb personally led the campaign
against Bijapur & annexed it in 1686.
 The Mughals invaded Golconda in b. Qutb
Shah was pardoned, but infidels Madana &
Akhana were executed publicly in 1686.
 Aurangzeb ordered Mir Jumla to besiege
Golconda in 1687. Aurangzeb acquired the
Nur-ul-Din, the Great Stone, Kara, Darya-e-
Nur, the Hope, the Wittelsbach & the Regent
diamonds from this campaign which made him
the richest monarch in the world.
 The Mughal forces captured the infidel
Shambhaji at his Sangameshvar hideout in
1689 &, later, he was executed.
 Jini fort fell in 1698, but Raja Ram escaped.
 He built the Biwi-ka-Maqbara (Aurangabad,
MH).
 He built Moti Masjid (Delhi) & Badsahi
Mosque (Lahore).
 ‘Wakai-i-Hydrabad’ by Nimat Khan.
DECCAN & SOUTH INDIA
 Mughals, under Akbar, conquered Gujarat in
1572 & Khandesh in 1576.
 Akbar invited Deccani Sultans to accept the
Mughal suzerainty in 1591, but except Khandesh
all of them rejected his proposal.
 Burhan Nizam Shah was killed by Ibrahim Adil
Shah in 1595. His minor son was proclaimed to
be the king by his father’s aunt Chand Biwi.
 Hoever, Miyan Magu, wanted to enthrone
Ahmad Nizam Shah-II. So, he invited Mughal
Prince Murad, the governor of Gujarat, to invade
Ahmednagar in November 1595.
 Chand Biwi ceded Berar to Murad in 1596 & the
Mughals retreated.
 Chand Biwi requested her nephews, Adil Shah-II
of Bejapur & Muhammad Quli Shah of Golconda,
to unite against the Mughals.
 The Mughal forces, led by Khan-i-Khanan &
Mirza Shahrukh defeated the combined Deccani
forces in 1597 at Sonpeth.
 Chand Biwi committed suicide in despair.
MALIK AMBER
 Khan-i-Khanan defeated Amber at Nander in
1601.
 Khan-i-Khanan received the fort of Kandhar in
Telengana from Adil Shah-I.
 Khan-i-Khanan defeated combined forces of
Ahmednagar, Bijapur & Golconda in 1616 & the
Mughals occupied Nizam Shahi’s capital, Khirki.
 Shah Jahan appointed Mahabat Khan the
viceroy of Deccan.
 Mahabat Khan annexed Daulatabad in 1633 &
ended the Nizam Shahi dynasty of Ahmednagar
(Maharashtra).
THE MARATHAS
 Shivaji (1674-1818):
 Bhosale Clan.
 Poona Jagir.
 Son of Shahji Bhosale & Jijabai.
 Patronized Dadaji Konda Deva, Samarth Das.
 Annexed Torana, Kalyan, Kondana & Mavali
from Bijapur.
 Bijapur deployed general Afsal Khan to take
care of Shivaji in 1659, but Shivaji assassinated
him.
 He sacked the Mughal port city of Surat in
1664.
 Aurangzeb deployed Shaista Khan to deal with
Shivaji. He occupied Poona, but Shivaji
attempted to assassinate him in 1660.
 He conquered Javli from Chandra Rao More in
1656.
 Aurangzeb deployed Raja Jai Singh to
besieged the Purandar fort in 1665 & forced
the Marathas to sign a peace treaty.
 Mughals granted mansab of 5,000 zat to
Shambhaji, Shivaji’s son.
 The Mughal-Maratha alliance failed.
 Shivaji felt insulted & left Aurangzeb’s birthday
party. Aurangzeb imprisoned him at Agra, but
he escaped in 1666.
 He sacked Surat again in 1670 & recovered
Purandar fort.
 Gaga Bhatt declared Shivaji to be a Kshatriya
& coronated him at Rajgarh in 1674.
 He claimed to be ‘Haindva Dharmodharaka’.
 He designated Ashtpradhana to govern his
kingdom:
o Peshwa – Prime Minister.
o Senapati/Sat i Naubat – Commander-in-
Chief.
o Amatya/Majumdar – Accountant.
o Waqianavis – Intelligence officer.
o Surunavis/Chitni – Correspondence Officer.
o Dabir/Sumant – Foreign minister.
o Nyayadhisha – Chief Justice.
o Pandit Rao – Head Priest.
 The Maratha revenue system was modelled
after Malik Amber’s.
 Annaji Datto completed a revenue assessment
in 1679.
 Developed the concept of ‘Hindvi Swarajya’.
 1/4th of revenue = Chauth.
 Shambhaji Maharaj (1681-89):
 Defeated the Portuguese & Chikka Deva Raya
of Mysore.
 Never lost a battle of fort to Aurangzeb.
 Mubarak Khan ambushed him at
Sangameshvar in 1689.
 Raja Ram (1689-97):
 His wife Tarabai assumed the control of
Marathas in the name of her son Raja Ram.
 Shahuji Maharaj:
 Bahadur Shah released him after Aurangzeb’s
death in 1707.
 Shahu challenged Tarabai’s claim over the
throne.
 Estd. states of Satara & Kohlapur (by Tarabai)
in 1707.
 Concluded the Treaty of Lonavala in 1714 with
Kanhaji Angre.
 Marathas marched towards Delhi in 1779 after
defeating the Mughal governor of Deccan,
Sayyid Hussain Ali.