Jaurald af

Materials
Processing
Technology
ELSEVIER Journal of Materials Processing Technology 56 (1996) 786-797

C U T T I N G F L U I D S : P A R T I. C H A R A C T E R I S A T I O N

M.A. E1 Baradie

School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering,

Dublin City University,
Dublin 9, Ireland

ABSTRACT

The selection and application of cutting fluids in industry have not always been
accomplished in an optimal manner. When properly applied, cutting fluids can increase
productivity and reduce costs by making possible the use of higher cutting speeds, higher
feed rates and greater depths of cut. Effective application of cutting fluids can also increase
tool life, decrease surface roughness, increase dimensional accuracy and decrease the amount
of power consumed.
Part I of this paper presents an overview of the cutting fluids, their classification and
composition. While Part II addresses the issues of clean machining technology, mainly
recycling and disposal of cutting fluids.

1. INTRODUCTION

There is a large range of cutting fluids and a number of alternative methods for their
application which are available for industry today. However, the economic justification and
the proper selection of these fluids is not always as rational an operation as it could be. This
paper outlines the different groups of cutting fluids and their basic actions and forms a
foundation on which selection procedures can be based.
For many years it has been recognised that cutting fluids have three basic actions by which
they can affect the cutting process [1]. These are:
(i) Cooling
(ii) Friction reduction (lubrication)
(iii) Reduction of the shear strength of the work material
Cutting fluids initially were thought to act primarily as coolants. In fact they were referred
to as such. By flowing over the tool, chip and workpiece, a cutting fluid can remove heat
and thus reduce temperatures in the cutting zone [1].
Generally a reduction in temperature results in a decrease in wear rate and an increase in
tool life. This occurs because, first, the tool material is harder and so more resistant to
abrasive wear at lower temperatures, and secondly, the diffusion rate of constituents in the
tool material is less at lower temperatures. Opposing these two effects, a reduction in the
temperature of the workpiece will increase its shear flow stress, so that the cutting force and

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 M.A, El Baradie / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 56 (1996) 786-797 787

power consumption may be increased to some extent. Under certain conditions this can lead
to a decrease in tool life [2].
In addition to influencing tool life, the cooling effect is of importance in reducing thermal
expansion and distortion of the workpiece. The cooling action, as such, does not have a very
significant effect on the surface finish produced. It can, however, bring about some small
improvements in finish at medium to low speeds. This is probably in the chip. which
increase chip curl and reduce built-up edge formation.
Reduction of tool/chip/workpiece temperatures can be achieved both by conducting the heat
away from the cutting zone and by lubricating the chip/tool interface.
A satisfactory liquid coolant must have high thermal conductivity and high specific heat.
Water fulfils this requirement and has the additional advantage of being inexpensive, but it
is a poor lubricant and therefore is not effective in reducing friction between chip and tool
face. In addition it is corrosive to ferrous metals, so cannot be tolerated in expensive
machine tools, moreover, it tends to wash the lubricating oil from the sliding and rotating
the surfaces of the machine, thus reducing the smoothness of running and increasing wear.
An alternative and relatively cheap coolant is a mineral lubricating oil. It has the
characteristics required for lubricating the chip/tool interface, and is also satisfactory for
lubricating the moving parts of the machine tool and protecting the machine from corrosion.
The thermal conductivity and specific heat of mineral oil are inferior to those of water. To
enhance the performance of mineral oils as lubricants in the cutting process (as distinct from
their performance as coolants) certain additives are incorporated to improve anti-friction
properties.
With lower friction between chip and tool, the cratering tendency (partly caused by
welding) is decreased. Because the chip comes away more easily, the degree of plastic
deformation is also decreased, which further reduce the heat generated.
For very severe machining operations, the additives employed are known as EP (extreme-
pressure) agents. The excellent cooling provided by water can be utilized if the
disadvantages of poor lubrication and corrosive tendency are overcome. This can be effected
in two ways. The traditional method has been the addition of a so called soluble oil, to
create a mixture that combines the cooling properties of water with the lubricating and anti-
corrosion properties of oil.
In this paper the three main groups of cutting fluids, i.e. water-soluble fluids, neat cutting
oils and gases (Fig. 1) are discussed.

Cutting Fluids

I
Neat Cutting Oils Water-Soluble Fluids Gases
(Water-Miscible)

Fig. 1 Classification of Cutting Fluids

788 M.A. El Baradie / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 56 (1996) 786-797

2. WATER-SOLUBLE (WATER-MISCIBLE) FLUIDS

"Soluble" oils do not in fact dissolve. They are fundamentally mineral oils blended with
emulsifiers, when the blend is added to water and stirred, a dispersion of oil droplets in a
continuous phase of water is produced, forming an oil-in-water emulsion [4].
The water-soluble (Water-miscible) cutting fluids are primarily used for high speed
machining operations because they have better cooling capabilities. These fluids are also best
for cooling machined parts to minimize thermal distortion.
Water soluble cutting fluids are mixed with water at different ratios depending on the
machining operation. For high speed chip making operations, they are normally mixed 1
part concentrate to 20 to 30 parts water. For many grinding operations where it is desirable
to have a lighter fluid with more cooling action, the ratio is 1:40 or 1:50. Water soluble
fluids form mixtures ranging from emulsions to solutions when mixed with water. Because
water has a high specific heat, high thermal conductivity and high heat of vaporization, it is
one of the most effective cooling media known. Blended with water, the water soluble fluids
provide the combined cooling and moderate lubrication required by metal removal operations
conducted at high speeds and lower pressures.
The water soluble fluids can be classified as emulsifiable oils (soluble oils), chemical
(synthetic) fluids or semichemical (semisynthetic) fluids, as shown diagrammatically in Fig.
2. Fluids within these classes are available for light, medium, and heavy duty performance.

Water-Soluble Fluids

i
Emulsifiable
I
Chemical
i
Semichemical
Oils (Synthetic) (Semisynthetic)
Fluids
I Fluids I

I ! I I I I
General Purpose Clear-Type Fatty Soluble EP Soluble True Solutions Surface-Active
Soluble Oils Soluble Oils Oils Oils Chemical Fluids

Fig. 2 Classification of Water-Soluble Fluids

2.1 Emulsifiable Oils (Soluble Oils)

Emulsifiable oils are commonly called soluble oils, emulsions or emulsifiable cutting fluids.
An emulsion is a suspension of oil droplets in water made by blending the oil with
emulsifying agents and other materials. These emulsifiers (soap or soap like materials) break
the oil into minute particles and keep the particles dispersed in water for long periods of
time.
Bactericides - usually nonphenolic organic compounds - are added to control the growth of
micro-organisms such as bacteria, algae and fungi. If disposal is of no concern, phenolics
may be used. The soaps, wetting agents, and couplers used as emulsifiers in water soluble
fluids reduce surface tension significantly. As a result, the liquid has a greater tendency to
foam when subjected to shear and turbulence. For this reason, water soluble fluids
sometimes cause foaming problems in operations such as gundrilling and double-disk
grinding. With the use of special wetting agents and foam depressants, however, water
soluble fluids can be rendered sufficiently nonfoaming to be effective in almost all
operations.
 M.A. El Baradie / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 56 (1996) 786-797 789

Emulsifiable oils combine the lubricating and rust prevention properties of oil with water's
excellent cooling properties. Emulsions, with their cooling lubricating properties, are most
effectively used for metal cutting operations with high cutting speeds and low cutting
pressures accompanied by considerable heat generation.
Advantages of emulsifiable oils over straight or compounded cutting oils include greater
reduction of heat, cleaner working conditions, economy resulting from dilution with water,
better operator acceptance and improved health and safety benefits. They can be used for
practically all light and moderate duty cutting operations, as well as for most heavy duty
applications except those involving extremely difficult to machine materials.
Emulsifiable oils can be used for practically all grinding operations with the exception of
severe grinding operations, such as form, thread and plunge grinding where wheel form is
a critical factor. Extreme pressure, compounded emulsifiable oils do not suffer from this
limitation.
Cutting fluid manufacturers supply emulsifiable oils as concentrates that the user prepares
by mixing with water. Mixtures range from 1 part oil in 100 parts water to a 1:5 oil water
ratio. The leaner emulsions are used for grinding or light duty machining operations where
cooling is the essential requirement. Lubricating properties and rust prevention increase with
higher concentrations of oil. The four types of emulsifiable oils are summarised in Table 1.
General - Purpose Soluble Oils: They are milky fluids with mineral oil droplets of
0.005mm to 0.2mm diameter. They are commonly used at dilutions of 1:10 to 1:40 for
general purpose machining.
Clear - type (or translucent) Soluble Oils: Clear type soluble oils contain less oil (with
higher proportions of corrosion inhibitors) and considerably more emulsifier than do milky
emulsions. The clear type, therefore, consists of oil dispersions with smaller oil droplets
which are more widely distributed. Since there is less dispersion of transmitted light, the
fluid is less opaque, and the result is a translucent liquid. The translucency is not permanent,
though, because often with times the tiny oil droplets tend to coalesce and from larger
droplets. These oils are generally used for grinding or light duty machining.
Fatty Soluble Oils: They have animal or vegetable fats or oils or other esters added to the
mineral oil content to provide a range of fluids with enhanced lubricating properties.
Extreme Pressure (EP) Soluble Oils: EP soluble oils contain sulphur, chlorine or
phosphorus additives to improve load carrying performance. Since the EP concentrate is
diluted 5 to 20 times when the emulsion is prepared, the lubricating capability is reduced.
Where the lubricating capabilities of soluble oil emulsions and the cooling properties of
cutting oils are inadequate, EP soluble oils can satisfy both requirements in many cases.
These fluids, commonly known as heavy duty soluble oils, have in some cases replaced
cutting oils for broaching, gear hobbing, gear shaping and gear shaving [4].

2.2 Chemical Fluids

Chemical (synthetic) fluids are chemical solutions consisting of inorganic and/or other
materials dissolved in water and containing no mineral oil. All of these fluids are coolants,
some are also lubricants. Chemical agents that go into these fluids include, amines and
nitrites for corrosion inhibitors, nitrates, for nitrite stabilization, phosphates and borates, for
water softening, soaps and wetting agents, for lubrication and reduction of surface tension,
phosphorus, chlorine and sulphur compounds, for chemical lubrication, glycols, as blending
agents and humectants, and germicides, to control the growth of bacteria. (N.B. The use of
fluids containing nitrites may present a hazard and is presently under review in the U.S. by
the National Institute of Occupation Safety and Health (NIOSH).
790 M.A. El Baradie /Journal of Materials Processing Technology 56 (1996) 786-797

TABLE: 1 Water Soluble (Water Miscible) Fluids

CLASS TYPE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Emulsifiable (1) General Purpose Used at dilutions between 1:10 and 1:40 to
Oils Soluble Oils give a milky emulsion. Used for general
purpose machining
(2) Clear Type Used at dilutions between 1:50 and 1:100.
Soluble Oils Their high emulsifier content results in
emulsions which vary from translucent to
clear. Used for grinding or light duty
machining.
(3) Fatty Soluble Used at similar concentrations to (1) and of
Oils similar appearance. Their fat content makes
them particularly good for general machining
operations on nonferrous metals.
(4) EP Soluble Oils Generally contain sulphurized or chlorinated
EP additives. Used at dilutions between 1:5
and 1:20 where a higher performance than
that given by (1), (2) or (3) is required.
Chemical (1) True Solutions Essentially solutions of chemical rust
(Synthetic) inhibitors in water. Used at dilutions
Fluids between 1:50 and 1:100 for grinding
operations on iron and steel.
(2) Surface Active Contain mainly water soluble rust inhibitors
Chemical Fluids and surface active load carrying additives.
Used at dilutions between 1:10 and 1:40 for
cutting and at higher dilution for grinding.
Most are suitable for both ferrous and
nonferrous metals.
(3) EP Surface Similar in characteristics to (2) but
Active Chemical containing EP additives to give higher
Fluids machining performance when used with
ferrous metals. Used at dilutions between
1:5 and 1:30.
Semichemical Essentially a combination of a chemical fluid
(Semisynthetic) and a small amount of emulsifiable oil in
Fluids water forming a translucent, stable emulsion
of small droplet size. EP additives are
usually included permitting their use for
moderate and heavy duty machining and
grinding applications.
 M.A. El Baradie / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 56 (1996) 786-797 791

Chemical fluids are usually classified into two general groups, true solutions and surface
active types (see table 1).
True Solution: True solution fluids (without wetting agents) also called chemical solutions
or chemical grinding fluids, primarily contain rust inhibitors (inorganic and organic nitrites)
sequestering agents, amines, phosphates, borates, glycols or ethylene or propylene oxide
condensates. Some of these fluids contain highly developed corrosion inhibitors such as
sodium nitrite (for cast iron) triethanolamine (for both cast iron and steel) and sodium
mercaptobenzothiazole (for reducing corrosion on brass, zinc and aluminum). True
solutions, used at 1:50 or 1:100 ratios, are clear in appearance but are often coloured with
dies to indicate their presence in water. These fluids are restricted to grinding operations
where they prevent rust and permit rapid heat removal. True solutions have high surface
tension (about equivalent to water). They have a tendency to leave a residue of hard or
crystalline deposits formed by water evaporating.
Surface active: Surface active chemical fluids are extremely fine colloidal solutions
composed of inorganic and organic materials dissolved in water with the additions of wetting
agents (surface active agents). The wetting agents improve the wetting action of the water
and provide greater uniformity of both heat dissipation and anti rust action. This type of
fluid may include anti foaming agents, humectants, mild lubricants (organic or inorganic) and
water softeners.
The surface active type of chemical fluid has fair lubricity, low surface tension, and good
rust inhibiting properties and usually leaves a dry, hard or powdery residue that is easily
removed. The slight tendency of these fluids to foam is usually not a serious problem in
most operations. They are usually used at dilution of 1 part concentrate in l0 to 40 parts
water.
EP Surface Active: EP surface active chemical fluids are similar to the plain (general
purpose) surface active type but have chlorine, sulphur or phosphorus additives to provide
extreme pressure lubrication effects. These fluids are diluted at one part concentrate to
between 5 and 30 parts water for tougher machining operations.

2.3 Semichemical Fluids

Semichemical fluids or semisynthetic fluids are essentially a combination of chemical fluids
and emulsifiable oils in water. These fluids are actually performed chemical emulsions that
contain only a small amount of emulsified mineral oil, about 5 to 30 percent of the base
fluid, which has been added to form a translucent, stable emulsion of small droplet size.
Since the usual EP additives can be incorporated, the lubricating performance can be varied
to permit using such fluids for moderate and heavy duty machining and grinding applications.
Semichemical fluids combine some of the best qualities of chemical fluids and emulsifiable
oils. The advantages and limitations are similar to those described for chemical fluids,
except that semichemical fluids have better lubricating properties than do chemical fluids.
They are also cleaner, with better rust and rancidity control than emulsifiable oils. [4].

3. NEAT CUTI'ING OILS

The term neat cutting oils refers to those based predominantly on mineral oil and used as
supplied i.e. not mixed with water. They may be wholly mineral oil or they may contain a
large percentage of load carrying additive. The main groups shown diagrammatically in
Figs. 3 and 4 are as follows:
792 M.A. El Baradie / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 56 (1996) 786-797

Fatty Oil
1 Chlorinaled J : S u. .p.h. .u r z e d I : :,JC
: hloro-Fatty o,J +Sulphur Monochloride
I

I Paraffin I :~:::: l-auy u,, J ~ :I I (S2CI2)

/
Sulpho-Chlorinated
: Mixture : :: Mixture Fatty Oil

..... ~4:"-' "." ," -+':~:<~:..*> . . Chlorinated

. . . . Paralhn
. .-'.:-,:..'.:.:.:,,:.'.:-.~+.,..,>
L,.~.,.:,::~.:~:::::~:;,~.:~ .................. Ch 0re-Fall Y 0
,:,::~:..:,,:~::t | ~...............
.............. +:,-.:,..:.:..:.
*:.~* ..............~,.:.:,.,.--..:-,..,.~.~;
~;~i:'-'.~: ...........
..........
.<',.:.::::~
~ , ~ : :~,~;!:;~,$~ • . ;:.>::.~:>.**~:~:~;~ :.$~:~..',..:~:: . • * : ::*:~::..::~:.~::'.~* :." • .~.~.!-.,.'.t,~-~.-.:
[~.~::,~3,:li:~::::~:,:~;~.-.::::.:;~] SU phunzed Fatty Od ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::: + Mineral 0~1 |!::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~j~:..,.:,'.:s....',~:.~:::~:.::~......
E.~2.~;.::l~::~:~','-~--.':~:~.~*~:~.::] !:.;~::::~.~:~::~.~:~::::::::~i¢'~ ~`.`:~:~.`::i:::::~<:~:;~;~;:~::::~::~;:~;~:~:~:::~s~:::~h~:~::::``~ ::::::::::::::::::::: ~ ~ . , ' . ~ :
.., .......~.,..>,
I~:~:~:-Lx:~|i~:,,:+~ ...:~..~..++..,.
x::~:x-.:>::e.':.~x:.:.:. ..-..~.. ~ .~.,..?.;::&.~,..~:.w....vs...,.............:.~:.:.x.:...
:.:,:.:.',x.:~.~'.x,'e;;,~::.:~.5~$;?....:" ... : ........ ~::':
•
.::r~::~:~:: ~ .,..~.~
:.;~-::'...- ..>.....:....<...........~>...+
,- ....... :" • ...~.....~....... ,....,,....,.......~.:.:..s........-....-.,...:
':?.":':': .................. :':-: . . . . . . . . < •
, ,.~,.........,.-.-.
~.":i.:-:-::.:.:-~.¢i:i:: ,
:...-... • '~' "1" ...................... i!~:~!~.~:.~$-'..~.~-., ~ "~":: .'::.-::'+::"~ • : :~:~:~::.:*~:~:i~:*i:~: :;: ::: i:;:i:i: ' ~:"ff "~:
~i Chlorinated |~!~1i~}~!| _.. _. I~,~:,~,~,~,~,~,~,~ Sulpho-Chlorlnated f~
~};..,~] .... i~'g~!i~:~ ~':'.'~:~.;:~i~).! L;hlOrO-I-ally UII ~.~:;~3~.i;~ii!~-!i~! I .... |i~.~!:
~.-'.;:*.~
.*:::*] t-aran n ~:.'.'-~i~-!~'.~
t;~:::::::.:~:'..~.~,~,~ ~ : ~ ; ~ ; ~
:::::::::::::::::::::::: ,- ,_ ._ ,., e
ou _ooun,-eu re=try_ r.,
.... ,,,Ji
!~:~.-~:~:".~::~:::~1
I~:;::,.~E~#!~!2.::::::t:f:::~|
t-any u, 1~.' ..:~..':~:~:
l::?:,~::':~:
,<.:.:.: ~ .~<..~::..~::~..,, ~: it....~;?:.:~:., . ~..<,..×.~,1....:+.:.:.>:....., . , :.:, ,.:,,.:..:
~ ! ] + Mineral Off ~ , ' i i ! ~ : ~ t ! : ~ : ~ ~.-::;:~*L.~;~I - Mineral Oil I~.~!~.~'.'*;'~] + Mineral Off I~i~
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ~:'::'.:::.~.:;::',:::.:::::::~:::':.~::::..::~" " ".:.:...:::,::':..':'::', '~:~-~::':~.':: .'[.'.::. "" "".:"" :~:::~::.'.::.'::$~ S:.:.::?.::"2:~::'::~::::::~: ::::r!::x:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :.:~.:.~-):.:~:?..::::::.,~.,.:-.:::::::~...:.:,::~: :~:+::: ::::::

i!!]:~i:~:i[![:]~i:;:!]!]i!i]:i~;;:!:]:!:]:U:!!.~:i!F:i~t?:):-:::::i:]:::i:?:: ~;:? :: :.~;;:.::!:~i:i~:~]::: ~,:~:~:~: i,:i :~:~?:!:~:]:!I:]~:!:i:]:~i[]~i~i !]:.]~-~i~:~;~;~;;~!~]i!]~i]i]]]i];:~:

]!~!;!;!~:~.:;~-":~:;;:;:~:]?::]:~:3:!:[:;:~:~:~:;:;:~i:;:]:~:;:~:i:i:i:i:i:;:;:11:;:~:i~:':i:i:i:i:]?::i:[ :::': ;::?.:~:i:;:~:~:!:;:i: :~:;:E:i:i:]:~;~r;:;:;:i:;:;:]:~:i:]~i:i :~!:i:ii]i~];~;~;~2;~::]:]~;;i]']]i;;!:ff~:!:i:1!:1:;:!:!:i:?:;::

Fig. 3 Main Groups of Neat Cutting Oils

::: :, ": , i

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Additives !
~iii:ili;!::i:i.:iiiii~i;iizi:.i:;::F::::i!i!i!i!
ii:ii::!:~:::::::::::::::::::::::::
: .. : :!:. : " ...... :. ....... : .

Sulphurized mineral oil: . |

mineral oil with e l e m e n t a l sulphur fatty oil with elemental
d i s s o l v e d and l o o s e l y c o m b i n e d : | sulphur fully combined
Up to 0 . 5 % sulphurif blending (Up to 18% sulphur)
reaction is at 60 C.
Up to 2 . 0 % if at 160 C. II
: ":!

Elemental
Sulphur
. ~ ::....:.:.2.
-"

:,::,:::~:,:.:
! "::. !::!"f ¸ :if:

Sulphurized m i n e r a l oil Sulphurized fatty oil Sulphurized fatty oil

+ S u l p h u n z e d fatty oil + Elemental sulphur + Mineral oil
+ Mineral oil + Mineral oil

Sulphurized mineral oil Active - will stain

+ M i n e r a l oil yellow metals

Inactive - will not '

stain yellow metals

Fig. 4 Main Groups of Neat Cutting Oils

 M.A. El Baradie / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 56 (1996) 786-797 793

(a) Mineral cutting oil

(b) Fatty oil
(c) Blends of mineral oil and fatty oil
(d) Blends of mineral oil and sulphurized fatty oil
(e) Blends of mineral oil, sulphurized fatty oil and elemental sulphur
(f) Blends of mineral oil and sulphurized mineral oil
(g) Blends of mineral oil, sulphurized fatty oil and sulphurized mineral oil
(h) Blends of mineral oil and chlorinated paraffin
(i) Blends of mineral oil, chlorinated paraffin and sulphurized fatty oil
(j) Blends of mineral oil and chloro fatty oil
(k) Blends of mineral oil, chloro fatty oil and sulphurized fatty oil
(1) Blends of mineral oil and sulpho chlorinated fatty oil

3.1 Mineral Oils

Straight mineral oils (that is, those without additives), do not have as good lubrication
properties as do the compounded types (i.e. combined with polar additives and/or chemically
active or inactive additives or compounds), but they are lower in cost. Straight mineral oils
are generally restricted to light duty operations on metals that are easier to machine, such as
aluminum, magnesium, brass and sulphurized or leaded free machining steels, where the
lubrication and cooling requirements are not severe. The oils are non-corrosive and stable
and, if kept clean, can be used almost indefinitely. They lubricate all exposed moving parts,
and minor leakage into or from gear boxes, bearings and hydraulic systems does not upset
a machine's performance.

3.2 Fatty Oils

Fatty oils were once widely used as cutting oils. The most common types were lard and
rape oil (a non drying vegetable oil obtained from the seeds of the rape plant). Their use has
declined, partly because they are now difficult to obtain and are expensive, but mainly
because modern additives blended with mineral oil are much more effective. Fatty oils are
very polar and have high "oiliness" anti-friction performance, but they have poor anti-weld

characteristics. They oxidize readily and display a tendency to fume and to emit unpleasant
odours [4].

3.3 Blends of Mineral Oil and Fatty Oil

Although neat fatty cutting oils have almost completely disappeared from the machining
scene, blends of mineral and fatty oil are quite effective for many operations. The
advantages are not great, and are confined mainly to improvement of finish in the machining
of mild steel, brass, copper and aluminum.
Such blends are particularly suitable for machining the harder types of brass and copper,
where straight mineral oil may not give the standard of finish required and the use of more
active oils would cause staining.
Neat cutting oils are fortified by additives because in some machining operations the load
carrying properties of a straight oil are inadequate for the severe conditions experienced in
the immediate cutting zone. Small additions of the fatty oils have the effect of markedly
improving anti-friction characteristics under conditions of "boundary" lubrication when the
rubbing faces are so heavily loaded that a straight oil would be unable to keep the faces apart
the fatty additives forms a thin and highly tenacious layer of metallic soap, created by
794 M.A. El Baradie / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 56 (1996) 786-797

chemical activity between the fatty acid molecules and the metal of the tool, the chip and the
workpiece. This layer has very low shear strength and continues to lubricate even after the
normal oil film has broken down. These fatty oils are known as compounded oils.

3.4 Extreme Pressure (EP) Additives

Extreme pressure (EP) additives are added to fluids used for machining operations where
cutting forces are particularly high, such as tapping and broaching, or for operations
performed with heavy feeds. Chemical or EP additives provide a tougher, more stable form
of lubrication at the chip-tool interface. These additives include sulphur, chlorine or
phosphorus compounds that react at high temperatures in the cutting zones to form metallic
sulphates, chlorides and phosphides. In addition to providing extreme pressure lubrication,
these additives provide a film on the tool surface with anti-weld properties that minimize the
built-up edge. Sulphurized fatty mineral oil blends have sulphur added in a strongly bonded,
inactive form which may be totally nonstaining.
EP cutting oils are said to be "active" if they stain copper based metals at normal room
temperature, and "inactive" or "mild" if they do not stain.

3.5 Blends of Mineral Oil and Sulphurized Fatty Oil

Sulphurized fatty oils are additives used to produce inactive EP cutting oils. They are
formulated by the solution of elemental sulphur in a fatty oil such as sperm oil, if the
reaction is properly controlled, up to 18% sulphur can be fully combined, to form a
compound with little or no sulphur remaining in the free or uncombined form. During a
machining operation the sulphur reacts with its metallic surroundings to form a "sulphide"
film of very low shear strength.

3.6 Blends of Mineral Oil, Sulphurized Fatty Oil and Elemental Sulphur
The addition of elemental sulphur to an inactive sulphurized fatty oil renders it active.
Active sulphurized oils have better EP properties than inactive ones, and are particularly
suitable for machining the tougher ferrous alloys. The amount of elemental sulphur that can
usefully be included in such oils is 0.5%.
3.7 Blends of Mineral Oil and Sulphurized Mineral Oil
There are two types of sulphurized mineral oil, both produced by dissolving sulphur in
specific mineral oils. In the first, the sulphur is dissolved in the oil at about 60°C and up
to 0.5 % is taken up; the second method involves mixing at 160°C at which temperature up
to 2 % is dissolved.
Both methods produce oils in which the sulphur is very loosely combined, these oils are
active and will stain the yellow metals. Sulphurized mineral cutting oils have good EP
properties and are cheaper to produce than those containing sulphurized fatty oils, the latter,
although generally without such good EP properties, have better "oiliness" or anti-friction
properties, and usually give better tool-life and finish.

3.8 Blends of Mineral Oil, Sulphurized Fatty Oil and Sulphurized Mineral Oil
This blend combines the oiliness of sulphurized fatty oils with the EP properties of
sulphurized mineral oils, and is sometimes used in preference to type 6. Oils in this category
are again of the active type. and therefore are not recommended for use in the presence of
the yellow metals. They are very effective for the heavy duty machining of ferrous metals.
 M.A. El Baradie / Journal of Materials Ppvcessing Technology 56 (1996) 786-797 795

3.9 Blends of Mineral Oil and Chlorinated Paraffin

Cutting oils produced from chlorinated paraffins have lower EP properties than oils
containing combined sulphur in the same proportion, but they have better anti-friction
characteristics. However, the poor EP performance is balanced by the higher levels of
chlorine that can be taken into solution. Chlorinated paraffins with a chlorine content of
70% by weight are available, as are cutting fluids contained up to 40% chlorine. The
chlorinated oils are used in the machining of mnemonics and nickel alloys, particularly in
broaching operations. Carefully selected and blended oils of this type do not stain, and can
be used satisfactorily with yellow metals.

3.10 Blends of Mineral Oil, Chlorinated Paraffin and Sulphurized Fatty Oil
Cutting oils of this type combine the best properties of chlorinated paraffins and sulphurized
fatty oils, they can be used for a wide range of materials and operations. The anti-friction
properties of the two oils combine to give a good finish and good tool life, augmented by the
EP anti-weld properties of the sulphur. An interesting fact is that two such additives
sometimes display a synergistic effect, their combined benefit to a cutting fluid is greater
than the sum of their individual effects.

3.11 Blends of Mineral Oil and Chloro Fatty Oil

Chloro fatty oils, produced by combined chlorine with a synthetic fatty ester, are suitable
for machining a wide range of materials and are non staining to booth ferrous and non-
ferrous metals. When blended with suitable base oils they are used for honing, grinding,
turning and deep boring.

3.12 Blends of Mineral Oil, Chloro Fatty Oil and Sulphurized Fatty Oil
These oils are similar to type 10, and have good anti-friction and anti-weld properties.
They are suitable for a wide range of materials and operations, and the best of them should
not stain ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Since the sulphur and chlorine are contained in
separate additives, the formulation can be tailored to the user's requirements.

3.13 Blends of Mineral Oil and Sulpho Chlorinated Fatty Oil

In sulpho chlorinated fatty oils both elements sulphur and chlorine are combined in the
same molecule. By the use of suitable metal de-activators, cutting oils can be blended which
are inactive at room temperature but are very active at the temperature of the cutting area.
Oils of this type are suitable for machining the toughest metals, such as some of the stainless
steels and the heat resistant alloys.

3.14 Clean Neat Cutting Oils

Traditionally the neat cutting oils are dark or medium brown in colour, according to their
viscosity and additive content. In recent years, advances in both base oils and additive
compounds have led to the development of light coloured neat oils with very high cutting
performance. The main virtue is that they allow the operator to see the work zone through
the coolant, this is particularly useful during a setting operation, and affords the opportunity
of finer control over very delicate machining tasks.

4. USE OF GASES AS COOLANTS

Gaseous lubricants appear very attractive when the cutting fluid penetration problem is
considered. Operations which are performed dry are actually carried out using air as a
796 M.A. El Baradie /Journal of Materials Processing Technology 56 (1996) 786-797

cutting fluid, and although the presence of the air is usually taken for granted, it is a very
effective boundary lubricant [5].
When air is considered as a coolant, however, it is not very attractive since all gases have
relatively poor cooling capacity compared with liquids.
Attempts to improve the cooling capacity of air by refrigerating it have yielded different
results. Using [5] cooled air in a milling operation reported a 400 percent increase in tool
life over air at room temperature, while Pahlitzsch [6] found a small difference in tool life
in turning with air introduced at the tool/chip interface at 10°C and -28°C.
Pahlitzsch has also presented test results using carbon dioxide gas and nitrogen gas as
cutting fluids. He found an improvement in tool life over air by 150 percent using carbon
dioxide and 240 percent using nitrogen. Tests using carbon dioxide gas at different
temperatures gave a negligible difference in tool life and Pahlitzsch concluded from these
results that the favourable action of carbon dioxide in these tests is not a cooling effect but
is due to the exclusion of air [6]. He believed that oxidation promotes friction and therefore,
the exclusion of oxygen by carbon dioxide is beneficial.
It was concluded that nitrogen must have some sort of positive boundary lubrication effect.
It has been suggested [5] that nitrides could form on a sliding metal surface in the presence
of nitrogen which would provide lower friction as a result of the increased hardness.
Further work on this problem [5] confirmed Pahlitzsch's observations regarding nitrogen
as a boundary lubricant.
Many articles have been reported on the use of high velocity jets of carbon dioxide. It is
reported that better results are obtained when the jet is directed on the work and along the
clearance face of the tool, than when the stream is applied to the chip. The relatively poor
performance obtained when the chip rather than the tool face is cooled is thought to be due
to the chip becoming stronger relative to the tool face which, in turn, results in an increased
tendency for a crater to develop on the tool face.
The widely different results that are reported with a carbon dioxide jet are undoubtedly due
in part to differences in the application of the fluids. Hence, there is no doubt that the use
of refrigerated gases, in particular carbon dioxide and nitrogen, can have a beneficial
influence on tool life an din many cases can be economically advantageous.
However, during the late 1950's there were many people who imagined that this was the
answer to most of the problems in machining and central refrigerated carbon dioxide supply
plants were installed in many factories. Then it became clear that this was not an economical
proposition in many instances. As a result much of the installed equipment became a white
elephant which was either left lying unused or was dismantled [5].
However, later on it was reported [7] that the use of refrigerated gases, describe cases
where a cost analysis has shown that the use of these fluids can be economical. It was
reported [7] that carbon dioxide can be particularly effective in reducing crater wear on
carbide tools when machining titanium alloys, inconels and other difficult to machine
materials.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Water soluble fluids are suitable in operations where cutting speeds are very high and
pressures on the tool are relatively low. Such conditions produce high chip temperatures,
so cooling is of paramount importance.
 M.A. El Baradie / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 56 (1996) 786-797 797

Neat cutting oils are straight mineral oils, or mineral oils with additives. They are
preferred when cutting pressures between chip and tool face are very high, where the
primary consideration is lubrication.
Gaseous lubricants appear very attractive when the cutting fluid penetration problem is
considered. Operations which are performed dry are actually carried out using air as a
cutting fluid. Gases such as argon, helium and nitrogen are sometimes used to prevent
oxidation of the workpiece and the chips, but the high cost of these gases generally makes
them uneconomical for production applications.

REFERENCES

[1] Shaw, M.C. "Metal Cutting Principles" Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986.
[2] Carter, W.A., "Metal Machining" Part VI, "Cutting Fluids" Machinery Lloyd
(Overseas Edition), 28 (Jan 21, 1956) 69.
[3] Barth, C.F. "Cutting Fluids in Industry", chapter 4, "Handbook of High Speed
Machining Technology", (Ed. King, R.I.) Chapman & Hall, 1986.
[4] Machining Data Centre, "Machining Data Handbook", Vol. 2, 3rd edition, Metcut
Research Associates Inc., Ohio, 1980.
[5] Armarego, E.J.A. & Brown, R.H. "The Machining of Metals", Prentice Hall, Inc.
1967.
[6] Pahlitzsch, G. "Gases are Good Cutting Coolants", American Machinst, 97 (Feb.
1953), 196.
[7] Walter, L. "Carbon Dioxide as Cutting Tool Coolant Repays Research with Imposing
Savings". Canadian Machining and Metalworking, 76, No. 8 (Aug. 1965), 94.