KNJ1053 FLUID MECHANICS 1

ASSIGNMENT 1

TOPIC: INTRODUCTION OF FLUID MECHANICS

GROUP MEMBERS
Name Matrix Number
AHMAD SYAFIQ BIN MAT YUSOP 63036
NOOR IZAIREEN AZRIE BIN SEPAWI 63526
AMIRUL IZZAT BIN MOKSIN 63092

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QUESTION 1: 10 MARKS
In your own words, explain what have you learnt from fluid mechanics course.
NAME
AHMAD SYAFIQ BIN MAT YUSOP
INDIVIDUAL REFLECTION
I have learnt that fluid is an interesting substances that can be use
in any mechanical object. For example, fluid use in brake, act as
coolant, cutting like in industrial that use water jet to cut glass
and the others. Fluid have many characteristics that make it
unique such as viscosity, surface tension, easily flow, follows the
shape of the containers and others. Fluid statics involve the
calculating of pressure filed such as atmosphere, gauge and
vaccum. I also learnt how to calculate the pressure in manometer
and also pressure with different type of fluid. Lastly, our learning
just get into hydrostatic force which is the calculation of force
that affect to the wall or container. In simple word, fluid will give
pressure and force in any directions including to the inclined
plane.

NOOR IZAIREEN AZRIE BIN SEPAWI
I have learned that fluid mechanics has wide range of
applications. I also learned that fluid mechanics can be divided
into fluid statics and fluid dynamics which is new to me. Some
other things that I have learned were the properties of fluid, the
principle of pressure using barometer and manometer and
hydrostatic force.

AMIRUL IZZAT BIN MOKSIN
I have learned that fluid mechanics is consists of many things that
is new to me. I did not think that in fluid we can calculate
something. There are fluid that is flowing (fluid dynamics) and
does not moving (fluid statics). I also learned how to read and
calculating the pressure using barometer and manometer.

QUESTION 2: 40 MARKS
Refined crude oil has been used to lubricate moving parts in a wide variety of machines and engines.
These petroleum-based lubricants are extracted from natural crude oil, and must be refined, desalted,
dewaxed, and distilled from crude feedstock. However, recently, engineers are moving towards non-
petroleum based lubricants or known as synthetic lubricants. Obtain information about non-petroleum
based lubricants and summarize your findings in a brief report by following the format given below. The
report should contain minimum 1500 words (excluding figure and table title and content, references)
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: Categories and types of available petroleum based lubricants
Section 3: Categories and types of available non petroleum based lubricants
Section 4: Difference between petroleum based and non-petroleum based lubricants
Section 5: Issues and challenges with petroleum based lubricants
Section 6: References (website url, date assessed AND/OR name of journal/ book, author)
Minimum 3 references

2
INTRODUCTION

Lubricant is common part in any machine or engine as they acting as “slippery” agent. Lube is a
substance that reduce the friction between two moving objects to improve the efficiency and
reducing wear that can be higher cost. Lubricant also can be the agent to remove the excessive
heat or act as coolant refer to the base substance to the lubricant. Back to 17th century BC,
lubricant based of olive oil has been used to move large stones and other heavy objects. This
period was the first time lubricant been introduces. Then, in 1850s the first oil well was drilled in
Titusville, Pennsylvania. In 1920, industry begin processing the lubricant based petroleum. That
is petroleum lubricant history. The most uses of lube is in form of motor oil that will protect the
internal combustion engines in motor vehicles and powered equipment. Lubricants consist of
90% base oil and 10% of additives. This was the petroleum based lubricant. However, engineers
are looking forward to the replacement of petroleum based lubricant as petroleum in one day will
replenished because it is non-renewable source. So engineers have come with the lubricant
synthetic. Synthetic stands for a compounds that formed through a chemical process by human
made to oppose the natural material. Lubricant synthetic was found in 1950s. For that time, the
synthetic lube was used primarily in aviation and aerospace industries. Synthetic lube is an oil
consisting of chemical compounds that are artificially made. In other words, synthetic is the
clone as the properties of substances seem fully same to the original. But for synthetic, they will
always can be improve because they are artificial, that is mean, by laboratory research, synthetic
lubricant can be far away better from lubricant based on petroleum. As stated in 1950s, synthetic
lube was used in aerospace and aviation industry because they can operating in extreme
temperature. In conclusion, this paperwork will discuss the petroleum based lubricants, synthetic
lubricants, differences between two substances and also issues and challenges has to overcome.

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TYPES OF PETROLEUM BASED LUBRICANT

Mineral oil

Mineral oil is a liquid by-product of refining crude oil to make gasoline and other petroleum
products. This type of mineral oil is a transparent, colourless oil, consists of hydrocarbon
components such as alkanes (isoparaffincs), saturated cyclic alkanes (naphthentics) and alkylated
aromatics. It is prepared from naturally from crude petroleum oil. Crude oil is distilled first at
atmospheric pressure and then under high vacuum to yield vacuum distillates and residual
fractions that can be further refined to mineral oils. The application of the mineral oil is through
the insulating medium for transformers (electrical industry), lubricants and greases (lubricant
industry), fining-tune and adjusting final performance properties of tyre like rolling resistance
and traction (tyre industry).

Gear oil

Gear oil is a fluid lubricant used in gears (gearboxes) for reduction of friction and wear of the
gear tooth surfaces, removal of the heat generated by the operating gear and corrosion protection
of the gear parts. Gear (gearbox) is a mechanical assembly transmitting energy of rotational
motion and changing its parameters (torque, speed, direction) by means of toothed wheels and
cylinders. Gear oil must have proper viscosity, ability to withstand extreme pressures, thermal
and oxidation stability, corrosion and rust protection. Viscosity of gear oils (lubricants) is a
compromise between the gear parameters requiring low viscosity and those requiring high
viscosity. Low viscosity is favourable for: high speed, low loaded gears with a good tooth
surface finish. High viscosity is favourable for: low speed, highly loaded gears with a rough
tooth surface.

Hydraulic fluid

A hydraulic fluid is the transmitting medium of a hydraulic system. The most common liquid
that is used as a medium in fluid power systems is petroleum-based mineral oil. For a fluid to
perform efficiently, the hydraulic fluid must have ideal viscosity, good lubrication capability,
low flammability and low volatility. The most basic desirable property of a hydraulic fluid is
optimum viscosity. When viscosity is low, the fluid flows easily. On the other hand, when
viscosity is high, the fluid flows with difficulty. Therefore, the hydraulic fluid should have an
optimum viscosity. Hydraulic fluids must have good lubricity to prevent friction and wear
between the closely fitted working parts such as vanes of pumps, valve spools, piston rings and
bearings. There are many hazardous applications where human safety requires the use of a fire-
resistant fluid. A fire-resisting fluid is one that can be ignited but does not support combustion
when the ignition source is removed. A fluid should possess low vapor pressure or high boiling
point. The vapor pressure of a fluid varies with temperature and hence the operating temperature
range of the system is important in determining the stability of the fluid.

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TYPES OF NON-PETROLEUM BASED LUBRICANT

Synthetic oil

Synthetic oils are specifically manufactured to provide consistent, superior performance. Their
main advantage over mineral oils is that they protect the engine across a far wider range of
temperatures - up to an engine's maximum temperature and beyond. They do not have the
impurities found in mineral oils or degrade as quickly, and they are thinner, helping to improve
fuel efficiency. There are two types of synthetic oil; full synthetic and semi-synthetic. Fully
synthetic oils are purely synthetic with no mineral oil. They offer the highest levels of
performance and are an essential requirement for many modern engines. Semi synthetic oils are
cheaper than fully synthetic as they are a mixture of synthetic and mineral oil. Engines requiring
semi synthetic oil must use at least semi synthetic oil but may benefit from upgrading to fully
synthetic oil for increased protection and performance.

Krytox

Krytox is for high-performance synthetic lubricants used for a variety of applications. The oils
are made from only fluorine, carbon, and oxygen—a mixture of compounds collectively known
by many names—including perfluoropolyether (PFPE), perfluoroalkylether (PFAE), and
perfluoropolyalkylether (PFPAE). These perfluorinated oils and greases deliver high
performance, perform at wide temperature ranges, and provide superior quality lubrication under
extreme conditions in comparison to hydrocarbon alternatives. And, with a global distribution
network and world-class technical service, it is the lubricant of choice for extreme conditions and
performance.

Dry lubricant (graphite)

Graphite as a dry lubricant requires atmospheric contact for optimal performance. Water vapor in
the air reduces molecular bonding of the graphite, causing it to slip, thereby reducing friction.
The downside of graphite as a lubricant is that it does not bond well to the surfaces it lubricates.
It easily falls off and needs to be applied often. Graphite has advantages in situations where wet
lubricants might not be practical, such as where electricity might be a hazard. Another situation
is when lubricating porous substances such as wood. Wood is easily stained by oil or other
common lubricants. Graphite can dissipate more heat than some other lubricants. For example,
graphite grease can often handle more heat than natural bearing grease.

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PETROLEUM BASED AND NON-PETROLEUM
LUBRICANT

The main differences between both of this petroleum based and synthetic based lubricants is the
base fluid. Petroleum based lubricants are extracted from natural crude oil whereas synthetic
based lubricants are made of from different base fluids. (H. Tucker, 1998) All base fluids have
different characteristics. Some the base fluid properties are viscosity limitations and the viscosity
index, oxidation and thermal stability, volatility and hydrolytic stability. (Bennett Fitch) The
base fluid has some other functions including providing the fluid layer to separate moving
surfaces. Others are like removing the heat and wear particles to minimize the friction.

In petroleum-based lubricants, the components of crude oil can be classified into other categories.
From hydrocarbons, it consists of alkanes, alkenes, alicyclics and aromatics. Alkanes or known
as paraffins have low densities and viscosities compare to their molecular weight and boiling
points. Alicyclics known as naphthenes rather have higher densities and viscosities for their
molecular weight compared to paraffins. The advantage is that the melting points are low and
does not produces wax. However, the disadvantages are that the viscosity characteristics are
inferior. Aromatics have densities and viscosities that relatively higher than both paraffin and
naphthenes. Aromatics also have the better solvency power for additives but the oxidation
stability is very poor. (Dean E.W. 1929)

In synthetic-based lubricants, there were many compounds discovered and have been
investigated as possible base stocks for synthetic lubricants. There were over 25 that has been
identified in 1962. (Gunderson R.C. 1950). Some the compound are polyalphaolefins and
polybutenes. Polyalphaolefins or PAO refers to hydrogenated oligomers of an α-olefin.
Oligomerisation is the method to produce the α-olefin. After oligomerisation, the unwanted
products are separated from reaction mixture, unwanted monomer removed and the intermediate
hydrogenated using nickel catalysts. Polybutenes used in lubricants mainly composed of
isobutene and often referred as poluisobutenes or PIB. Compared to PAO of same viscosity,
polybutenes have different physical properties from PAOs. Polybutenes are synthesised from
higher molecular weight and straight-chain, α-olefin. Polybutenes also have the ability to
depolymerise and burn completely. They are mostly use as viscosity index improvers as the base
fluids themselves. (Souillard G.J. 1971)

6
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES WITH PETROLEUM-BASED LUBRICANTS

This type of lubricants has the impact to others especially to people health and the environment.
About 50% of all lubricants that were sold worldwide end up in the environment via total loss
applications, volatility, spills or accidents and more than 95% of them are petroleum-based
lubricants. Petroleum-based lubricants have low biodegradability and high eco-toxicity lead that
will lead to threat for the environment compared to synthetic lubricants which has higher
biodegradability and lower eco-toxicity. Usually, when the lubricants were drained from the
engines, gearboxes or others, the oil is already contaminated with wear debris and the lubricating
base oil has deteriorated and degraded to acids. The molecule that potentially the most harmful is
the Polycylic aromatic hydrocarbon, PAH. Petrol engines mostly produces the most PAH. Thus,
any release of used oil to the environment by accident or otherwise will threatens ground soil and
surface water with oil contamination will endanger the drinking water supply and aquatic
organisms. That is the reason why high expenses is needed to decomposed petroleum-based
lubricants professionally compared to synthetic-based lubricants. Some of the lubricants can also
be recycled by filtering but also cause some expenses and the process is not that easy.
(Madanhire and C. Mbohwa, 2016)

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REFERENCES

1. Tucker, H. (1998, January 3). How to Decide Between Synthetic and Petroleum-based
lubricants. Retrieved from http://www.controleng.com/single-article/how-to-decide-between-
synthetic-and-petroleum-based-lubricants

2. Mortier, R. M., Fox, M.F., Orszulik, S.T. (2010). Chemistry and Technology of Lubricants.
New York, NY: Springer.

3. Dean, E.W. and Davis, G.H.B. (1929) Viscosity variations of oils with temperature,
Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, 36, 618–619.

4. Gunderson, R.C. and Hart, A.W. (1962) Synthetic Lubricants. London, Reinhold Publishing
Corporation.

5. Souillard, G.J., Van Quaethoven, F. and Dyer, R.B. (1971) Polyisobutylene, a new synthetic
material for lubrication. SAE Paper 710730.

6. Rotimi J, Ekperusi OA (2014) Effect of spent lubricating oil on the composition and
abundance of arthropod communities of an urban soil, J Sci Env Manage 18(3):411–416,
Retrieved from www.bioline.org.br/ja

7. Madanhire and C. Mbohwa, (2016) Mitigating Environmental Impact of Petroleum Lubricant.

Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

8. Isel, 5266 Highway Ave Jacksonville, FL 32254, I. S. (1998). A Brief History Of Lubrication.
Retrieved March 1, 2018, from Argonne National Lab. (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States),
C. S. (1998, October 20). Nanofluid Technology: Current Status and Future Research.
Retrieved March 1, 2018, from https://www.osti.gov/biblio/11048

9. Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. (n.d.). About

Lubrication. Retrieved March 2, 2018, from http://english.licp.cas.cn/rs/psk/al/

10. Chowdhury, Z. (2018, January 17). Krytox Lubricants | High Performance Greases & Oils |
PFPE. Retrieved March 05, 2018, from https://www.miller-stephenson.com/krytox/

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11. Semi Synthetic and Fully Synthetic Oil. (n.d.). Retrieved March 05, 2018, from
https://www.halfordsautocentres.com/advice/servicing-advice/semi-synthetic-and-fully-
synthetic-oil

12. What Is Graphite Lubricant? (n.d.). Retrieved March 05, 2018, from
https://itstillruns.com/graphite-lubricant-6385272.html

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QUESTION 3: 50 MARKS
It is predicted that nanotechnology and the use of nano sized objects will improvise many processes and
products. Among new new nanotechnology areas is that of nano scale fluid mechanics or known as
nanofluid. Fluid behavior at the nano scale can be entirely different than that for the usual everyday
flows. Obtain various information of nano fluid mechanics and summarize your findings in a brief report
by following the format given below. The report should contain minimum 1700 words (excluding figure
and table title and content, references)

Section 1: Introduction – what is nano scale fluid mechanics

Section 2: History / the starting point of nano scale fluid mechanics
Section 3: Various types of nano scale fluid mechanics
Section 4: Use/ potential applications of nano scale fluid mechanics
Section 5: Issues and challenges with nano scale fluid mechanics
Section 6: References (website url, date assessed OR name of journal/ book, author)
Minimum 3 references

INTRODUCTION

Nowdays, technology become advances over the years. Even better years to years. We can see
drastic change from 10 years ago with current year, and never stop developing. The most
interesting technology that arise brightly is nanotechnology. Every inventor is race to each other
in advance the nanotechnology. Fluid also take part in nanotechnology. That is why nanofluid
existed. Nanofluid is the latest invention in fluid field. Why must be in nano? Because a small
thing seem to be interesting for the researchers. With the downgrade scale, thankfully we have
small mobile phone compare to older year, the phone seem to be very heavy and big to be a
mobile. Nano things will be handful for future. To understand what is nanofluid, the researches
about fluid and nano terms were held. First, fluid consist of liquid and gas that cannot sustain a
tangential or shearing force when at rest and that undergoes a continuous change in shape when
subjected to such a stress. In simple words, fluid is a substance that can flow easily and also
occupy the shape of container. Fluid can be in static and kinematic. Now, about nano term.
Nano with symbol (n) is a unit prefix that denotes a factor of 10-9. The prefix derives from the
Greek (vavoc) or in Latin (nanus) give the meaning of dwarf. Dwarf is object or something to
seem small or insignificant in comparison. Nano term was officially use as standard prefix in
1960. Combine both words, nanofluid is created. Fluid with nano-sized particles dispersed in a
base fluid is the definition for nanofluid. Nanofluid is created to overcome obviously cost in the
industrial. The smaller the object, the less the cost needed. Nanofluid technology has become the
most exciting technology of the 21 st century.

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HISTORY

Rumors of nanotechnology come back to 1959, when the Nobel prize winner for that year,
Richard Feynman after presented the concept of micromachines. Because of that discovery,
miniaturization become major trend in modern science and technology. Scientist and engineers
generate one of one invention to become the better technology. Before nanotechnology was
introduced, microtechnology has been the smallest part for a few years. And now, in intellectual
area, people become more excited toward smaller technology than micro. So nanotechnology has
been introduced. All of this come from 40 years later after 1959, H. Rohrer, the Nobel prize
winner in 1996 has presented the chances and challenges of the nano-age. Refer to his precious
finding, inventors become more creative in create nanotechnology in many field. The event also
triggered other country in researching nanotechnology. The country that was involved during
that time was United State, China, Europe and Japan. All the research from that country show
promising future for nanotechnology. In 1998, many universities, national laboratories, small
businesses and large multinational companies have been serious in nano thing. They build the
researcher teams that focus on nanotechnology. This were the famous name in nano research in
1998, Roco, Li, Fissan and Schoonman, Hayashi and Oda. Technology in computer/information
also show the similar level of development during that time. Lastly, thanks to Sohn research in
1998, this century manage to down the scale into atomic scale. Lot of gratitude has to been given
Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) as effort of them in increasing the potential commercial
applications of nanofluids in many diverse industries. ANL started a long term research program
to develop advanced energy transmission fluid back in 1985. Toward their effort, ANL has
encomposed a various range, from meters to nanometers. Starting with large scale, the
technology has descend through mini and micro scale and now nano scale. In conclusion, the
introduction and the history are brief information about the main topic that is nanofluid industries.
This work will explain the various types of nano scale fluid mechanics, the use and potential
applications of nano scale fluid mechanics and lastly, issues and challenges with nano scale fluid
mechanics.

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TYPES OF NANOFLUID MECHANICS

There are some of various type of nanofluids that has been investigated. Some of nanoparticle
materials are pure metal, metal oxides, carbides and other variety of carbon material whereas the
base fluids are water, ethylene or tri-ethylene, bio-fluids and more. Study have shown that
addition of small concentrations of nanoparticles can improved the thermo-physical properties of
the fluid. (Wang X. Q., Majmudar A.S., 2007) This shows that these kind of fluids shows other
potential applications.

Carbon is one of the most abundant elements in the Earth. Furthermore, carbon atoms can bond
with themselves in a number of different ways to form variety allotropes of carbon. Each of them
has different material properties. The most typical type are diamond and graphite. Carbon
nanomaterials are ideal for solar absorption applications since there are high in thermal
conductivity thus makes them ideal additives for nanofluids. (Yang Z.P., 2008)

For pure metals, Au and Ag has high thermal conductivity and additions to fluids for heat
transfer applications especially in solar collectors. In a recent study, Au nanoparticles were found
to enhance solar absorption with respect to pure water for small particle concentrations. (Chen
M., 2016) The study shows that using the appropriate fluid for a specific solid phase to gain the
most desirable thermal conductivity enhancement. (Murshed S., 2005)

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APPLICATION OF NANOFLUID

Nanofluids in solar collectors

Nanofluids have been utilized to improve the efficiency of several solar thermal applications.
Theoretical and experimental studies on solar systems proved that the system performance
enhances noticeably by using nanofluids. Several investigations presented the existence of an
optimum concentration for nanoparticles in the base fluid. Adding nanoparticles beyond the
optimum level no longer enhances the efficiency of the solar system. Optimal conditions are a
function of nanoparticles size and concentration, base fluid, surfactant and pH as discussed
throughout this article. Nanofluid utilization in the solar thermal systems is accompanied by
important challenges including high cost of production, instability, agglomeration and erosion.
This review article is an attempt to elucidate the advantages and disadvantages of nanofluids
application in the solar system.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a scientific technique in molecular biology to amplify a
single or a few copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating
thousands to millions of copies of a DNA sequence. PCR is helping in the investigation and
diagnosis of a growing number of diseases. It has also long been a standard method in all
laboratories that carry out research on or with nucleic acids. Even competing techniques such as
DNA chips often require amplification of DNA by means of PCR as an essential preliminary
step. In microbiology and molecular biology, for example, PCR is used in research laboratories
in DNA cloning procedures, Southern blotting, DNA sequencing, recombinant DNA technology,
to name but a few. In clinical microbiology laboratories PCR is invaluable for the diagnosis of
microbial infections and epidemiological studies. PCR is also used in forensics laboratories and
is especially useful because only a tiny amount of original DNA is required.

Nanofluids in Heat Transfer

Nanofluid is a new kind of heat transfer medium, containing nanoparticles (1–100 nm) which are
uniformly and stably distributed in a base fluid. These distributed nanoparticles, generally a
metal or metal oxide greatly enhance the thermal conductivity of the nanofluid, increases
conduction and convection coefficients, allowing for more heat transfer. Nanofluids have been
considered for applications as advanced heat transfer fluids for almost two decades. However,
due to the wide variety and the complexity of the nanofluid systems, no agreement has been
achieved on the magnitude of potential benefits of using nanofluids for heat transfer applications.
Compared to conventional solid–liquid suspensions for heat transfer intensifications, nanofluids
having properly dispersed nanoparticles possess the following advantages such as high specific
surface area and therefore more heat transfer surface between particles and fluids.

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ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

There are several issues and challenges in nanofluid things. Some issues that arise are the
effectiveness to manipulate nanofluid at microscale, the interplays among physics at different
scale and the ways to optimize microscale physics for the optimal megascale properties.

The ability to manipulate at microscale depends on the approach toward nano scale fluid. Thera
are two ways to generates nanoparticle fluid. First, by physical method that simultaneously
makes and disperses the nanoparticles into base fluids. Second, generates nanoparticles and then
disperses them into base fluids. Either the two ways, it still lack of effective means for
synthetizing nano scale fluids with the limitation of avaible nanoparticle powers.

The interplays between physical physics at different scale will affected different needed.
Example, the project was held in megascale but included nanofluid that must be in microscale
machine. So there will be a lot of work to calculate one by one to make sure little error in that
project. An error means a terrible cost.

Lastly, the ways to optimize microscale physics for the optimal megascale properties still need
for researches. Many experiment and calculation needed to give at least to optimize the
properties up to 80%. Mainly, industrial scale will target to achieve 100% optimization of any
project. But, lack with source, maybe we still need many years to achieve that 100%
optimization of microscale in megascale properties. All depends on the hardwork.

There are also challenges faces by nanofluid industry such as lower specific heat, difficulties in
production process and also high cost of nanofluids.

From researches, nanofluid was found to has lower specific heat than base fluid. If the nanofluid
has to act as coolant, they has to obtain higher value of specific heat which enable the coolant to
remove more heat and nanofluid cannot achieve that specification.

Nanofluid is difficult to been produced as they tendency to agglomerate into large particles
which means will limits the benefits of the higher surface area of nanoparticles.

Lastly, every new things will need high cost and nanofluid also one of it. Higher production cost
will be the reason this nanofluid not use in industry. Nanofluids can be produced either by one
step or two steps. However, both method included an advanced and sophisticated equipments. If
we can find the ways to reduce the production cost, maybe nanofluid will become alternative
ways to use in industry application.

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REFERENCES

1. Chen G. (2017, Jun 7). Nanofluid Types, Their Synthesis, Properties and Incorporation in
Direct Solar Thermal Collectors: A Review. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5485778/#B49-nanomaterials-07-00131

2. Wang X.Q., Majumdar A.S. (2007) Heat transfer characteristics of nanofluids: A review. Int.
J. Therm. Sci.; 46:1–19. doi: 10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2006.06.010

3. Yang Z.P., Ci L., Bur J.A., Lin S.Y., Ajayan P.M. (2008) Experimental observation of an
extremely dark material made by a low-density nanotube array. Nano Lett. 2008 Feb;
8(2):446-51.

4. Chen M., He Y., Zhu J., Kim D.R. (2016) Enhancement of photo-thermal conversion using
gold nanofluids with different particle sizes. Energy Convers. Manag.; 112:21–30. doi:
10.1016/j.enconman.2016.01.009

5. Murshed S., Leong K., Yang C. (2015) Enhanced thermal conductivity of TiO2—Water
based nanofluids. Int. J. Therm. Sci.; 44:367–373. doi: 10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2004.12.005.

6. S. M. (n.d.). Using microtechnology to get to nanotechnology. Retrieved September 02, 2004,

from http://www.machinedesign.com/archive/using-microtechnology-get-nanotechnology

7. Ding, Y., Chen, H., Wang, L., Yang, C.Y., He, Y., Yang, W., Lee, W.P., Zhang, L. & Huo, R.
2007. Heat transfer intensification using nanofluids. KONA Powder and Particle Journal 25
(March): 23-38. doi:10.14356/kona.2007006.

8. Palaniraj, A. & Jayaraman, V. 2011. Production, recovery and applications of xanthan gum
by Xanthomonas campestris. Journal of Food Engineering 106(1): 1-12. doi:10.1016/j.
jfoodeng.2011.03.035.

9. Department of mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, POkfulam Road,

Hong Kong, China, L. W., & J. F. (2010, May 22). Nanofluid Research. Retrieved March 1,
2018, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2898525/

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10. Argonne National Lab. (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States), C. S. (1998, October 20).
Nanofluid Technology: Current Status and Future Research. Retrieved March 1, 2018, from
https://www.osti.gov/biblio/11048

11. Sivashanmugam, P. (2012). Application of Nanofluids in Heat Transfer. An Overview of

Heat Transfer Phenomena. doi:10.5772/52496

12. N. B., & M. S. (20 may 2015). Performance evaluation of nanofluids in solar energy: a
review of the recent literature. doi:10.1186/s40486-015-0014-2

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