DATA SOURCE

DATA SOURCE

EXISTING ORIGINAL
DATA DATA
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RECORDS
AND SECONDARY DATA

 SECONDARY DATA – ready to analyze data

set

 RECORDS – Assemble the data set, code

and manipulate data is
necessary
MAJOR TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION
SELF-REPORT

OBSERVATION

BIOPHYSIOLOGIC MEASURES
 SELF-REPORT
 information gathered by questioning people

 Direct and versatile

 Capture psychological characteristics

through direct communication with
participants
OBSERVATION
 Done directly with human senses or with
the aid of technical apparatus

 Direct observation of a phenomena

 subject to observer biases and distorted

behavior of the participants
BIOPHYSIOLOGIC MEASURES
 geared toward clinical investigations

 use of physical and physiologic variables

that requires specialized technical
instruments and equipment for the
measurement.

e.g. Nurse A and B, reading from the same

spirometer output, likely to record the same tidal
volume measurement
BIOPHYSIOLOGIC MEASURES
2 CLASSIFICATIONS :
1. In Vivo Measurement –
- performed within or on living organisms
e.g. blood pressure

2. In Vitro Measurements –
- performed outside the organisms body
e.g. blood tests
DIMENSIONS OF DATA COLLECTION

 STRUCTURE

 QUANTIFIABILITY

 RESEARCHER OBTRUSIVENESS

 OBJECTIVITY
 STRUCTURE
 include fixed set of questions in a specified
sequence and predesignated response options
 develop data collection instrument (questionnaire)

EXAMPLE:
During the past week, would you say you felt
stressed?
1. Rarely or none of the time
2. Some or a little of the time
3. Most or all of the time
 UNSTRUCTURED:
 How stressed or anxious have you been
this past week? Tell me about the kinds of
tensions and stresses you have been
experiencing.

- Typically no formal instrument

QUANTIFIABILITY
 Variables must be quantitatively measured

 Data collected are analyzed qualitatively

RESEARCHER OBTRUSIVENESS
 Degree which people are aware of their
status as participants

OBJECTIVITY
- degree to which two independent
researchers arrive at similar scores or
observations regarding the concept of
interest
 SELECTING AND DEVELOPING
INSTRUMENTS
 Determine whether there are instruments available
for measuring study constructs.

 Consider the CRITERIA

 Resources
 Availability and familiarity
 Norms and comparability
 Population appropriateness
 Administration issues
 Reputation
 PRETESTING THE DATA
 determine how much time it takes to
administer the entire instrument package

 Identify parts of the instrument that are

difficult for subjects to read or understand

 Identify instruments or questions that

participants find objectionable or offensive.
 PRETESTING THE DATA
 Determine whether the sequencing of
instrument is sensible

 Determine needs for training data collection

 Determine whether the measures yield data

with sufficient variability.
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE SELF-REPORTS
 Unstructured interview
 Semi-structured interview
 Focus group interview
 Joint interview
 Life histories
 Oral histories
 Critical incidents technique
 Diary and journals
 Think – aloud method
 Photo elicitation interview
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE SELF-REPORTS

SEMISTRUCTURED
UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW

• Conversational • Guided by topic

discussion on guide of
the topic of questions to be
asked
interest
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE SELF-REPORTS
FOCUS GROUP
JOINT INTERVIEW
INTERVIEW

• Discussion • Simultaneously
with small, talking with
homogeneous members of a
dyad
groups about
topics covered
in a topic guide
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE SELF-REPORTS

ORAL
LIFE HISTORIES
HISTORIES

• Respondents • Gather personal

narrate their recollection of
life events in events and their
perceived causes
chronological and
order consequences
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE SELF-REPORTS

CRITICAL DIARY AND

INCIDENTS JOURNAL

• Probes about the • Maintain daily

circumstances records about
of a behavior or some aspects of
their lives
incident
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE SELF-REPORTS
THINK –ALOUD PHOTO
METHOD ELICITATION
• Use audio- • Stimulated and
recording guided by
devices to talk photographic
images
about decisions
as they are
making them
 TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE
SELF- REPORTS INSTRUMENTS

 QUESTIONNAIRE

 OPEN AND CLOSED QUESTIONS

 COMPOSITE SCALES
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE SELF- REPORTS
INSTRUMENTS

 QUESTIONNAIRE

 uses paper and pencil format

 Sets of questions of which response

alternative is predetermined
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE SELF- REPORTS
INSTRUMENTS
OPEN ENDED CLOSED ENDED
QUESTIONS QUESTIONS

 Offer response
- Reply in narrative options from which
fashion respondents must
choose
 TYPES OF
CLOSED –ENDED QUESTIONS

1. DICHOTOMOUS QUESTIONS
- require a choice between two
options (yes or no)

2. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

- offer a range of alternatives
 TYPES OF
CLOSED –ENDED QUESTIONS
3. CAFETERIA QUESTIONS
- respondents are asked to select a
statement best representing their
view

4. RANK – ORDER QUESTIONS

- respondents are asked to rank a list
of alternatives along a continuum
 TYPES OF
CLOSED –ENDED QUESTIONS
5. FORCED –CHOICE QUESTIONS
-choose between two competing
positions

6. RATING QUESTIONS
- ask respondents to make judgments
along an ordered bipolar
dimension
 TYPES OF
CLOSED –ENDED QUESTIONS
7. Checklist or matrix questions
- several questions require the same
response format as listed

8. Calendar questions
- ask the start and stop of dates of
various events and recorded on a
calendar grid
 TYPES OF
CLOSED –ENDED QUESTIONS
9. Visual Analogue Scale
- continua used to measure
subjective experience such as pain
 SCALE
 provides numeric score to place respondents on a
continuum with respect to an attribute being
measured .

 COMMONLY USED SCALES AND

MEASUREMENT
 LIKERT SCALE
 SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE
 LIKERT SCALES
 Comprise a series of statements worded
favorably or unfavorably toward a
phenomenon.

 Respondents indicate a degree of agreement

and disagreement with each statement

 Total score is computed by the summing item

scores, each of which is scored for the intensity
and direction of favorability expressed.
 SCALE
 Strongly disagree
 Disagree
 Neither agree nor disagree
 Agree
 Strongly agree
SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE
 Respondents place a check at the appropriate
point on seven-point rating scales extending
from one extreme of the dimension to the
other.
ADVANTAGES: USE OF QUESTIONNAIRES

 Facilitates data gathering

 Easy to test data for reliability & validity.

 Less time consuming.

 Preserves the anonymity and confidentiality

of the respondent's reactions and answers.
DISADVANTAGES:
USE OF QUESTIONNAIRES
 Printing and mailing is costly.
 Response rate may be slow.
 Respondents may provide only socially
acceptable answers.
 Less chance to clarify ambiguous answers
 Respondents must be literate and w/ no
physical handicaps.
 Rate of retrieval can be low.
ADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEW
 Responses are broad and varied.

 give complete answers if questions are well

structured.

 Verbal and non verbal behavior can be

observed.

 Flexibility in questions asked and respondents

reactions
DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEW
 Time consuming and expensive.

 Schedule for interview may be difficult to

make.

 Respondent’s answers may be influenced by

the interviewer’s behavior.

 Interviewers need training.

 COVER LETTER
 Should go w/ the questionnaire
- state the purpose and benefits
- explain the need for the respondents
to answer all questions
- retrieval date
- guarantee of confidentiality & anonymity
- respondent’s support & cooperation must
be acknowledged
 CRITERIA FOR
EVALUATING THE INSTRUMENT
 Reliability  Speed
 Validity  Reactivity
 Efficiency  Simplicity
 Sensitivity  Meaningfulness
 Objectivity
 DATA
 Collected

 Collated

 Subjected to appropriate testing tools

 Analyzed

 interpreted
 STEPS
 Explain what tests/measures to be used

 Clarify how tasks be performed

 Explain how instruments be administered

 Describe how the methods of data collection

such as observation and interview be carried
out.
 ELEMENTS
 Nature of research problem
 Design of the study
 Variables
 Sampling units - type, number,
location
 Amount of time available
 Adequacy of resources