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A variety of polymers have emerged that exhibit substantial power densities but strain is small (0.1%), making massive mechanical
deformations in response to an applied voltage. These materials amplification necessary if significant displacements are needed. There
reversibly contract and expand in length and volume, which is the is currently no widely used technology to replace or simulate muscle,
primary similarity with muscle. which is a strong motivation for research and development.
Is there a need for new motors1,2? Our most common actuators are The performance of the emerging polymer actuators exceeds that
combustion engines, electric motors, and piezoelectrics. Combustion of natural muscle in many respects, making them particularly attractive
engines are generally most efficient when operated continuously and for use anywhere where a muscle-like response is desirable, including
are therefore not ideal for applications in which motion is frequently in medical devices, prostheses, robotics, toys, biomimetic devices, and
interrupted, such as in valves or walking robots. Electric motors are low micro/nanoelectromechanical systems1,2. Commercial application of
in torque to mass compared with muscle, making them bulky for these materials is at an early stage3. Challenges remain with many of
medical, robotic, and fluidic applications. Piezoceramics achieve high the technologies, most of which can be overcome via improvements
in material properties. Here we seek to relate material properties to full range of compliances has been explored, from dielectric elastomers
performance in the hopes of galvanizing the materials community into (E < 1 MPa) to CNTs (Etube ~ 640 GPa).
improving existing materials and inventing new ones. Table 1 lists properties of mammalian skeletal muscle for
In this review, polymer artificial muscles have been divided into two comparison. Most technologies described have higher work densities
major groups4. In the first group, dimensional change (actuation) is in and similar power densities. High work and power densities are
response to an electric field. These are commonly known as electronic particularly beneficial where space (or mass) limitations exist, as in
or electric electroactive polymers (EAPs). Some of the technologies robots, implantable devices, and microelectromechanical systems.
that fall under this category are dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs),
relaxor ferroelectric polymers, and liquid crystal elastomers. The second Electronic artificial muscles
group of polymer artificial muscles is a class of materials in which The simplest field-driven actuation mechanism is the result of
the presence and movement of ions is necessary to make actuation electrostatic interactions between electrodes. This mechanism
possible. This group is referred to as ionic EAPs. For the ions to be dominates in low modulus materials such as dielectric elastomers
able to move, an electrolyte phase is necessary, which is often liquid; (see below) in which extremely large strains (>40%) can be obtained.
so these actuators are also known as wet EAPs. Actuators described A second mechanism is observed in electrostrictive polymers, where
in this review employ conducting polymers, ionic polymer metal electric dipoles within the polymer are pushed or pulled by the applied
composites (IPMC), and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) as active materials. field, resulting in displacement. The highest strains are achieved in
Gel actuators4 also fit into this category but are not covered here. A ferroelectric polymers in which imperfections are introduced to disrupt
number of other artificial muscle technologies exist that respond to long range order, such that a field applied to a paraelectric phase leads
heat, which have also been omitted. We also give a brief description of to conformational changes in the backbone, induced polarization, and
some exciting directions in actuation in which molecular design is used large strains (up to 7%). Graft copolymers in which polar side chains
to create actuation that is either voltage or light driven. form crystalline domains also produce substantial strains, as do liquid
The composition, mechanisms, properties, and materials challenges crystal elastomers in which polar groups are oriented by the applied
are described for each technology. The key properties of interest field. A perceived drawback with this class of actuators is their use of
are elastic modulus, strain, stress, work density, power density, and high voltages (>1 kV typical) because of the very high fields that are
electromechanical coupling. Work density is the amount of mechanical needed (~100 MV/m). This challenge is being addressed by reducing
work per unit volume in one actuator stroke. The convention in work film dimensions and increasing the dielectric constant. These materials
density used in the piezoelectric and dielectric elastomer literature is feature good electromagnetic coupling coefficients and high work
to report the work done in elastically deforming the actuator material densities (a hundred times that of muscle).
itself in one dimension, u = ½Eε2, where E is the elastic modulus and
ε is the strain. In acting on a matched elastic load, only half of this Dielectric elastomer actuators
work can be extracted, so in fact the work out is ½u to provide an Dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) are capable of generating large
upper bound on the external work done under such loading conditions. strains and strain rates. They are one of the most studied polymer
Similarly, the electromechanical coupling values include mechanical actuators and numerous applications are being developed, including
work done on the actuator materials themselves. In achieving high electroactive fluid pumps, conformal skins for Braille screens, insect-like
work densities in compliant materials, large strains are needed, robots, and Artificial Muscles’ autofocus lens positioner (Fig. 1), which
whereas in materials with small strains the stiffness must be high. The can focus a camera by moving the lens by as much as 350 µm5,6.
The actuators are capacitors with very compliant dielectrics and
Table 1 Properties of mammalian skeletal muscle2.
electrodes. When a voltage is applied across these materials, the
Property Typical value Maximum value attraction between opposite charges and the repulsion of like charges
Strain (%) 20 >40 generates stress in the dielectric, known as Maxwell stress, which
Stress (MPa) 0.1 (sustainable) 0.35 compresses and elongates the dielectric as shown in Fig. 2. This stress
Work density (kJ/m3) 8 is proportional to the square of the applied field and to the dielectric
Density (kg/m3) 1037 constant7,8. Low modulus (~1 MPa) and high dielectric strength
(>100 MV/m) can lead to strains of up to 380% at high applied fields5.
Strain rate (%/s) 500
More typically, strains are 10-100%, which compares favorably with
Power to mass (W/kg) 50 200
the 20% observed in our skeletal muscle.
Efficiency (%) 40
The elastomer employed is often a silicone or acrylic elastomer,
Cycle life 109
sometimes loaded with heavy particles such as TiO2 to increase
Modulus (MPa) 10-60 the dielectric constant9. The compliant electrodes can be made of
(a) (a)
(b)
(b)
Fig. 1 (a) Artificial Muscles’ DLP-95 autofocus lens positioner6 and (b) Fig. 3 (a) A spring roll DEA made by rolling a planar DEA around a compliant
cutaway drawing of the diaphragm mechanism in which bottom and top ring compression spring15 and (b) SRI’s FLEX 2 six-legged robot operating with
actuators alternately push or pull. (Reproduced with permission from Artifical spring roll actuators such as those in (a)7. (Reprinted with permission from7,15.
Muscles, Inc.) © 2002, 2003 SPIE, respectively.)
safety issues may arise in large devices where both high voltages and
currents are present. Since it is the field in the dielectric and not the
voltage that drives the actuation, it is possible to maintain the same
field while reducing the required voltage by using thinner sheets of
elastomer14 or by increasing dielectric constant9.
Stacking in layers14 or rolling into tubes produces larger forces by
making multiple thin layers of DEAs apply their actuation forces in
parallel. These actuators can be used in devices, including the robotic
insect shown in Fig. 3. The advantage of high-voltage operation is that
Fig. 2 The mechanism of actuation in DEAs. The application of the voltage V
between the two electrodes results in the generation of a Maxwell stress of σ, currents are very low, an advantage that is lost as multiple thin layers
compressing the dielectric and resulting in its lateral expansion. are used. As currents increase, it becomes increasingly important to
have a high conductivity in the compliant electrode layer – which is a
conductive C or Ag pastes, spin-coated conductive rubbers, sprayed materials challenge in itself.
graphite particles, or superelastic CNT sheets8-10. The key to large
strain is to make both the electrodes and the elastomer highly Electrostrictive relaxor ferroelectric polymers
compliant without sacrificing dielectric strength and conductivity. Ferroelectric materials, like ferromagnets, have dipoles that can be
Electromechanical coupling is typically 60-80% for acrylic and aligned and a Curie point above which they lose their permanent
up to 90% for silicone elastomers7,11. The large strains resulting polarization. Inorganic ferroelectrics, such as barium titanate, undergo
from the actuation lead to high work per unit volume per stroke in dimensional changes in response to a field, but only on the order of
these actuators (the 3.4 MJ/m3 maximum is 400 times that of our 0.1%, much less than ferroelectric polymers, which can strain by an
muscle)2. The electrostatic energy stored within a dielectric elastomer incredible 10%16. Like inorganic piezo- and ferroelectrics, ferroelectric
increases in proportion to the field squared, while the mechanical polymer actuators are fast and have a high work density (1 MJ/m3)17.
energy density is roughly proportional to the fourth power of field. As The best actuator performance to date has been obtained from
a result, mechanical energy density and electromechanical coupling are poly(vinylidene fluoride)-based (PVDF) polymers copolymerized with
maximized by operating close to breakdown and using materials with trifluoroethylene, forming P(VDF-TrFE). The electronegativity of the
the maximum dielectric strength. Dielectric strength can be increased fluorine makes these polymer backbones highly polar. Field-driven
by prestraining the elastomers, which also serves to amplify strain12. alignment of polar groups produces reversible conformational changes
The high voltage used to drive DEAs (>1 kV) could be provided that are used for actuation, as depicted in Fig. 417. The application of
using relatively compact ferroelectric dc-to-dc converters13. Some a field perpendicular to the chains leads to a transition between the
Fig. 5 Depiction of a graft elastomer with no field applied. Colored lines enable
different flexible polymer backbones to be distinguished.
by using a stiffer polymer (2% strains at 25 MV/m with a work density about ten times higher than any other type of continuous fiber23.
of 0.02 MJ/m3)20. This performance still does not match that of high- While mechanical properties in this range are observed for individual
performance relaxor ferroelectrics, but investigations are still at an SWNTs, those observed for assemblies of these nanotubes in nanotube
early stage. Minimizing dielectric loss is important for high-frequency yarns and sheets are much lower, which restricts the performance of
operation in liquid crystal elastomers, as in other field driven actuators, actuators based on nanotube yarns or sheets.
since high loss reduces efficiency and leads to heating and failure. At high levels of charge injection into CNTs, the predominant cause
of actuation is electrostatic, as with DEAs. However, the electrostatic
Ionic artificial muscles forces are repulsive interactions between like charges injected into the
An alternative means of producing actuation in a polymer is to employ nanotubes, rather than between two electrodes. A voltage is applied
ions that are mobile within the polymer phase. An applied field drives between an actuating nanotube electrode and a counter electrode,
the motion of these ions and entrained solvent, leading to swelling through an ion containing solution, as depicted in Fig. 8a (where the
or contraction when these ions enter or leave regions of the polymer. counter electrode is another CNT), leading to charging (Figs. 8a, b).
If the polymer phase is electronically conducting (as in conducting Electrostatic repulsive forces between like charges on the CNTs work
polymers and CNTs), then the ions serve to balance charge generated against the stiff carbon-carbon bonds in the nanotubes to elongate
on these conductors as the potential is changed, creating very strong and expand the nanotubes, though quantum mechanical effects
local fields (but overall low voltage). The voltages employed in these can predominate over electrostatic forces at low levels of charge
materials are low (1-7 V), but the energies are nonetheless high
because of the close spacing between ions and electronic charges and
(a)
the large amount of charge that can be transferred.
CNT actuators
Single-walled CNTs (SWNTs) can be thought of as a single layer of
graphite (graphene) rolled into a cylinder of nanometer diameter
(Fig. 7a). Multiwalled CNTs (MWNTs) are nested SWNTs (Fig. 7b).
Individual SWNTs or very long MWNTs have exceptional mechanical
properties. The tensile modulus of SWNTs (640 GPa) approaches that
of diamond, while their tensile strength is thought to be 20-40 GPa,
(b)
(a)
(b) (c)
injection25. Unlike dielectric elastomers, strains are low (<2%)21 since (a)
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 10 (a) Proposed structure of polypyrrole and (b) possible mechanism of Fig. 11 Actuation model for IPMCs (adapted from59): (a) before the voltage is
actuation via ion (yellow/purple and A-) and solvent (red/blue/gray) insertion applied and (b) after the application of voltage.
between chains34,36,37.
than CNTs. Like CNTs, the electromechanical coupling is low (<1%). The ionic groups on the polymer backbone form hydrophilic clusters
Much of the input electrical energy can be recovered, but the need to where the polar solvent and the mobile ions accumulate. These clusters
shunt relatively large amounts of electrical energy can slow actuation are surrounded by hydrophobic regions composed of the nonpolar parts
and push the limits of power supplies, making large-scale applications of the polymer. Channels through these hydrophobic regions enable ion
(e.g. robotic arms) challenging1,42. One promising means of improving and solvent transport necessary for actuation60.
coupling is to design conjugated molecules that fold and expand in When a step voltage input is applied to Nafion-based IPMCs, an
response to changes in oxidation state, bringing artificial muscle a little initial fast actuation is followed by a slow relaxation in the direction
closer to the elegance of real muscle50,51. opposite to the initial actuation. However, in Flemion-based IPMCs
Applications being considered include blood vessel reconnection, under the same conditions, the initial fast actuation is followed by a
dynamic Braille displays, valves, and actuated catheters52-55. slow actuation in the same direction as the initial actuation. This is
believed to be because of the interaction between the cations and the
Ionic polymer-metal composites (IPMCs) strongly-polar sulfonate groups in Nafion; the cations initially repel the
This type of electrochemical artificial muscle employs a polyelectrolyte electric dipoles associated with these sulfonate groups, resulting in a
as an ion-conducting layer, in which polymer chains provide one ion fast and large actuation. Over time, the cations are redistributed, the
type and mobile solvated ions the opposite type. The polyelectrolyte is dipoles reorient themselves and the IPMC relaxes. The weakly-polar
sandwiched between two high-surface-area flexible metallic electrodes, carboxylate groups in Flemion do not strongly interact with the cations
which interpenetrate the polyelectrolyte. The metal electrodes are so it does not show the relaxation in the opposite direction60.
typically composed of percolated Pt nanoparticles or Au56-58. When Actuation strains of >3% have been reported for IPMCs under
a voltage is applied between two electrodes, as shown in Fig. 11a, applied voltages of <7 V57,61. Substantial bending in these cantilever-
solvated mobile cations move toward the oppositely charged electrode, type actuators is caused when one side of the material contracts and
resulting in swelling near this negative electrode, shrinkage near the the other expands (Fig. 12). Reported stresses of actuation are as high
positive electrode, and bending of the actuator trilayer (Fig. 11b)59. as 30 MPa56,60.
The polyelectrolytes used are commonly either perfluorinated It is not uncommon for IPMCs to drift in position after initial
alkenes with short side-chains terminated with ionic groups, such as displacement and require some steady current to maintain a fixed
SO3- (e.g. Nafion) or COO- (e.g. Flemion), and styrene/divinylbenzene- position. This, along with the gradual leakage of water (the solvating
based polymers in which the ionic groups are substituted on the phenyl species) from the surface of the device reduces efficiency, as well
rings2,56. These materials are also used as separators in fuel cells. as degrading performance2,63. One method of greatly reducing
Discussion
A variety of electronic, ionic, and photoactivated artificial muscle
technologies are emerging. Ultimately, these may replace traditional
actuator technologies such as electric motors and piezoelectrics in
many applications, and make new applications possible that have been
beyond the abilities of current actuators. Some of these novel artificial
Fig. 12 Actuation of a Flemion-based IPMC strip as a function of time62.
muscles feature a combination of high work density, large actuator
(Reprinted with permission from62. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.)
stroke, and high stress generation, with which only shape memory
leakage and relaxation is to use highly inert, nonvolatile ionic liquid alloy actuators can compete. Some of the described electric-field-
electrolytes64. IPMCs have been actuated at up to 100 Hz62, with fast driven EAP technologies demonstrate particularly high work densities,
transport being achieved because of the ease of transport though the very good electromechanical coupling, and high bandwidth. High
highly porous polyelectrolyte. voltages may prove to be an obstacle to application of electronic-
Applications for IPMC actuators include mechanical grippers, field-driven EAPs. A number of electrochemical EAPs can achieve
metering valves, diaphragm pumps, sensors, fins for robotic fish, and an high work density, high actuator stroke, large stress generation,
IPMC-operated artificial eye developed by Eamex4,57,65,66. and can universally provide the additional benefit of operating at
low voltages. Ionic EAPs often suffer from slow actuation rates and
Molecular mechanisms
Muscles are elegant machines in which protein filaments interact (a)
repeatedly in order to slide past each other67. It is exciting to
contemplate designing similar mechanisms using organic chemistry,
perhaps guided by engineering considerations. Such molecular
actuators are beginning to be designed and investigated, and include
mechanisms that employ both voltage- and light-driven conformational
changes. Materials that have been investigated include shape-changing
conducting polymers (mentioned above)2,68 and those using light-
driven shape changes. An interesting feature of the light-activated
artificial muscles (such as azobenzenes) is that there is no need to
contact the actuator in order to deliver energy. This could be useful,
for example, for enabling drug delivery using infrared radiation at
wavelengths that are transparent for the body.
Optically excited cis-to-trans isomerization in azobenzene (b)
low electromechanical coupling. No artificial muscle technology employing high-energy-density fuels have been reported27,28. New
has yet demonstrated exceptional cycle life, and a degree of materials are being generated using molecular design concepts, with
irreversible deformation during high load actuation is a problem for the goal of optimizing all aspects of actuator performance – although
electrochemical types of artificial muscles in particular. incorporating self repair is still a distant dream. The exciting challenge
Some advantages of natural muscle that are rarely even partially in developing materials for actuation is that careful consideration needs
exploited in artificial muscles are use of high-energy-density fuel to be given to the balance between electrical, mechanical, and chemical
(carbohydrates + oxygen: an important advantage for autonomous properties. Input from the materials community will help overcome
devices), the ability to modulate stiffness over a wide range, and the problems with many of the technologies and enable commercial
ability to regenerate, enabling high cycle life. Recently, artificial muscles applications to be exploited, much as has been done for piezoelectrics.
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