135

Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry: Economic

Considerations
Anupama R. Prasad, Anupama Kunyankandy, and Abraham Joseph
University of Calicut, Department of Chemistry, Thenhipalam, Kerala 673635, India

5.1 Introduction

Time heals everything apart from corrosion.

Aaron J. Munzer

Colossal corrosion devaluation accompanied by severe financial impact has

been an enduring struggle for crude oil and gas industries. Since these are asset
concerted, companies always look after for different corrosion management
strategies in order to maintain the principle asset and improve its consistency
and effective cost reduction [1]. Drilling rings, offshore podiums, wells, conveyer
pipe lines, natural gas terminals, and refineries make the capital asset expendi-
ture [2]. The metallic infrastructures in at least manufacturing, transportation,
storage, and refinery areas here are exposed to highly corrosive environments.
Engineering in these industries chose iron, carbon steel, and other alloys as
constructive backbones owing to their strength, effective cost, and toughness [3].
Sustainable transportation processes in crude oil and gas pipelines encounters
tedious exertion to withstand in onshore, offshore, and marsh lands. In order
to guarantee easy and continual flow, it is essential to be corrosion conscious as
the pipe lines and constituent fittings undergo material degradation. Potential
cost reduction can be achieved through appropriate application of existing
corrosion subsiding technologies readily accessible through highly experienced
corrosion professionals and harmonizing standards [3]. Moreover, appropriate
corrosion control practices can avoid potential disasters associated with the
leakage or fractures that cause loss of life, undesirable societal impacts, and
serious environmental pollution.
Crude oil in its natural composition comprises sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen
compounds such that internal corrosion in pipe lines will not be a challenging
issue. However, water containing dissolved substances or various scums can be
aggressive for the pipe lines depending on the nature of reactive species present.
Dissolved ions such as chromates and phosphates inhibit corrosion, whereas the
presence of chlorides, sulfides, carbon dioxide, and oxygen with oilfield water
accelerate corrosion events [4, 5]. The drilling gadgets, metallic cases, and pipe

Corrosion Inhibitors in the Oil and Gas Industry, First Edition.

Edited by Viswanathan S. Saji and Saviour A. Umoren.
© 2020 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2020 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.
136 5 Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry: Economic Considerations

lines get corroded by mud and microbes. Water and carbon dioxide generated or
injected for secondary recovery in refining process disintegrate the static metallic
fittings, valves, tanks, separators, and finishing strings. The inorganic acids used
for cleaning purpose and lessen manufacturing defects make immense material
and fiscal loss to the oil and gas companies [6]. In brief some common and spe-
cific environments collectively cause eight major forms of corrosion in oil and gas
fields as follows:
(i) Sweet corrosion (CO2 corrosion)
(ii) Sour corrosion (H2 S corrosion)
(iii) Oxygen corrosion
(iv) Galvanic corrosion
(v) Crevice corrosion
(vi) Erosion corrosion
(vii) Microbiological corrosion
(viii) Stress corrosion cracking
Corrosion globally consumes 3–4% of the gross domestic product (GDP) of
industrialized countries per year. Recent National Association of Corrosion Engi-
neers (NACE) international estimates global corrosion loss in oil and gas indus-
tries exceeding US$60 billion annually. Corrosion engineering in these fields con-
cern intensively on special corrosion management methodologies including pre-
vious data collection, analysis, and implementing sophisticated monitoring and
computing techniques [6, 7]. Moreover, research on the nature and impact of
corrosives at different reaction constraints could develop authentic statistical,
mechanistic, and empirical model tools for monitoring and analyzing corrosion,
selection of inhibitors, and material design [8–13]. The existing knowledge on
economic impacts of corrosion focused on oil and gas industries, the current
statistics, and forthcoming pecuniary aspects of effective corrosion inhibition are
conveyed in this chapter.

5.2 Corrosion: Global Economic Loss

Our global economy is much more fragile than many of us realize.
Robert Kiyosaki

Corrosion loss virtually causes massive economic and ecological impact on entire
global infrastructure facets. Even though significance and total cost of corro-
sion varies with different industries, some common elements can be recognized.
The manufacturing and operation units that consume energy, material, labor, and
techniques experience remarkable corrosion cost. Maintenance, repair, and cap-
ital costs are also attributed to corrosion. Economic impacts on industries root
to the following consequences [14]:
• Replacement of corroded equipment.
• Overdesign to allow for corrosion.
• Preventive maintenance, for example, painting.
 5.2 Corrosion: Global Economic Loss 137

• Shutdown of equipment due to corrosion failure.

• Contamination of a product.
• Loss of efficiency.
• Loss of valuable product.
• Inability to use otherwise desirable materials.
• Damage of equipment adjacent to that in which corrosion failure occurs.
All these lead various countries to study the economic impact of corrosion,
conduct proper measurements, and formulate expertized control policies for the
past decades.

5.2.1 Historical Summary of Corrosion Cost Studies

In 1949, H.H. Uhlig conducted the first systematic study on corrosion cost in
the United States. The Uhlig report estimated the total cost by summing up
owner/operator and private consumer corrosion costs. Corrosion consumed
2.5% of nations GDP. Germany started their studies at the end of 1960s and
the first annual report published in 1969 says that 2.8% of GDP was spent due
to corrosion [15, 16]. The UK committee on corrosion protection chaired by
T.P. Hoar issued their findings in 1970 focusing on the economy of industrial
sectors (building and construction, food, general engineering, government
departments, and agencies, marine, metal refining and semi-fabrication, oil and
gas, chemical, power, transport, and water) that corrosion cost represents 3.5%
of the gross national product (GNP). In 1974 Japan adopted Uhlig approach
and estimated their total corrosion cost equivalent to 2% of GDP [16]. The
study was conducted by the committee on corrosion protection chaired by G.
Okamoto and organized by the Japan Society of Corrosion Engineering and the
Japan Association of Corrosion Control. The Battelle–NBS (National Bureau of
Standards, now National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST combined
with Battelle Columbus Laboratories) report in 1975 revealed the metallic
corrosion cost in the United States was equivalent to 4.5% of GDP. In 1982,
Australia Commonwealth Department of Science and Technology performed a
survey on behalf of the mission of implementing a National Centre for Corrosion
Prevention and estimated annual corrosion cost to be 1% of nations GDP. Kuwait
has to compromise 1% equivalent of their GDP due to corrosion loss in 1992.
A modified version of Battelle–NBS method was used to evaluate corrosion
economy. Figure 5.1 depicts the total cost of corrosion in Gulf Cooperation
Council Countries (GCC) in 2011.
After 25 years, Japan analyzed their corrosion cost by using the Uhlig and Hoar
approaches. The overall cost of corrosion was equivalent to 1.73% of GDP. A sim-
ilar combination of the two methods was used in 1998s FHWA report (Federal
Highway Administration) for the corrosion cost monitoring in five US industrial
sectors: infrastructure, production/manufacturing, utilities, transportation, and
government [18]. The report showed a huge economic loss equivalent to 6% of US
GDP caused by corrosion loss. Total corrosion cost of water and sewage industry
in Australia (2010) was estimated at AU$981.67 million by the Australasian Cor-
rosion Association (ACA) [19]. Later in India (2011–2012), the direct and indirect
138 5 Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry: Economic Considerations

Cost of corrosion in Gulf Cooperation Council Countries

30

25
Total cost of corrosion

20

15

10

0
Kingdom of United Arab State of Qatar State of Kuwait Sultanate of Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia Emirates Oman Bahrain

Figure 5.1 Total cost of corrosion in Gulf Cooperation Council Countries in 2011. Source:
Adapted from Al Hashem 2011 [17].

cost of corrosion was determined to be 2.4% and 3.6% equivalent of national

GDP by using the Battelle–NBS input/output economic model [20]. China has
conducted corrosion cost surveys in 1980, 2002 (Hoar method), and 2014 (Uhlig
method). The latest reports in 2014 estimated that total cost touches 3.4% of GDP
[16].

5.2.2 NACE–IMPACT: Global Corrosion Cost

NACE International established the International Measures and Prevention,
Application and Economics of Corrosion Technologies (IMPACT) in October
2014. The NACE–IMPACT report is known to be the first assessment of global
corrosion cost that intends (i) update of global cost of corrosion, (ii) assess
corrosion management practices across various industries and geographs,
(iii) provide a template for corrosion management in the form of a corrosion
management system (CMS), and (iv) provide financial tools that can be used for
calculating life-cycle costs and return on investment (ROI). The report published
in 2016 estimates the cost at US$2.5 trillion equivalent to 3.4% of global GDP. In
order to make the global assessment, total economy was classified into different
economic regions according to World Bank’s economic status for the countries.
The nine economic regions were the United States, China, European region,
India, Arab world, Russian, Japan, the four Asian tigers + Macau and the rest of
the world. Furthermore, agricultural, service, and industrial economic sectors in
each of these countries were considered. A huge economic impact was logged
for Arab world, sacrificed 5% of GDP for corrosion costs in different economic
sectors. Japan was the least affected economic region with total corrosion cost
equivalent to 1% of GDP. Here the cost associated with individual safety and
environmental consequences were not included even though it is essential in
actual sense for implementing effective corrosion management strategies [15].
 5.2 Corrosion: Global Economic Loss 139

5.2.3 Global Corrosion Management–IMPACT Estimate

NACE–IMPACT study conducted surveys on existing corrosion manage-
ment strategies by region and by sector. A very low percentage of companies
from different global economic regions claimed having proper corrosion
management practices. Figure 5.2 represents this survey report on corrosion
management strategies of organizations from different parts of the world. The
response indicates that there exists a comprehensive strategy in Asia, Australia,
Europe, Middle East, and North American countries but limited to technical
requirements only.
In the IMPACT survey scores by different industrial sectors of the world,
(i) petroleum/oil/gas; (ii) pipeline; (iii) airlines, logistics, transportation; and
(iv) chemical industries secured the highest scores. Petroleum/oil/gas and
pipeline industries in top score stated that the corrosion management strategies
were useful for the better understanding of corrosion cost. These industries
recognized the significance of developing more effective corrosion control
practices and showed a better sense for implementation and upgradation of
CMS [15].
The automotive industry has a successful story of corrosion management.
Since 1975, the manufacture of automotive industries worldwide started a
coordinated and balanced effort on advanced design, materials, and processing
[21]. This movement was created after a long-time continuous improvement in
research and practice of corrosion management strategy in the industry and was
a highest-level decision of the automotive organizations in order to minimize the
corrosion-related financial loss in manufacturing and operating units and ensure
longer life time of vehicles for the benefit of the public. This transformation

Does your organization have a corrosion management strategy?

100
90
80
Percent of respondents

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
No Yes, but to technical Yes, but to bussiness Yes,
requirements only performance only comprehensively
Asia Australia Europe Middle East North America

Figure 5.2 Corrosion management strategy response of organizations from different parts of
the world. Source: Adapted from Koch et al. 2016 [15].
140 5 Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry: Economic Considerations

in corrosion management strategy and application of innovative technologies

could minimize the corrosion cost for preliminary maintenance and capital
depreciation (corrosion of metallic parts has crucial effect in determining the
life of any automobile). Furthermore, corrosion control through advanced coat-
ing technologies, modified paintings, and corrosion-resistant materials could
achieve benefits and good warranty. The studies in 1999 revealed that automotive
industries could secure 52% annual savings (US$9.6 million) in corrosion-related
manufacturing and operational costs of vehicles. Also, corrosion per unit was
reduced by 44% and average age of vehicles increased by 49% [19, 22].
The IMPACT analysis reveals the significance of investment for corrosion man-
agement technology and systems and putting this technology into the context of
an organizational management system for validating the corrosion control prac-
tices. Formulation of proper CMS framework and global propagation was the
essential outcome of IMPACT.

5.3 Depreciation in Oil and Gas Industries

A reliable and competitive oil and gas industry is critical to a healthy

economy.
Shawn Bartholomae
Corrosion failures and associated cost has major considerations in oil and gas
industries since most of the industrial infrastructures are built in metallic or
alloy skeletons [7]. Corrosion consumes billions of dollars annually [23]. The
cost is mainly associated with the periodic cessations accompanied by the
replacement of affected sections. Every metallic parts and equipment from
exploration, drilling, transportation, maintenance, refinery, and storage units in
oil and gas fields are continuously exposed to different aggressive environments
[23]. A recent report articulates that massive bolts used to secure gear deep of
underwater oil wells have corroded and sometimes snapped prompting costly
shutdowns and raising safety concerns about hundreds of wells in the Gulf of
Mexico.
In the previous Section 5.2.3 we have seen that oil and gas industries pay better
attention and practice on some sort of corrosion management systems compared
with other industrial sectors. Even though all assets are vulnerable for corrosion
and requires proper CMSs, most of the companies concentrate on technical units
only. In addition to the tedious efforts for asset management and cost reduction,
the increasing demand of oil and gas all over the world requires development of
new techniques to reach new onshore and offshore reservoirs [24].

5.3.1 Corrosion Attacks

The acid forms of SOx and HCl, dissolved oxygen, H2 S, CO2 , microbes, sand, and
water are the main aggressive agents in oil and gas industries. The nature and
impact of these aggressive agents depends on the concentration and processing
 5.3 Depreciation in Oil and Gas Industries 141

conditions. Herein CO2 and H2 S plays as leading aggressive, promoting the

hydrogen production that causes severe damage to the metallic parts [25, 26].
H2 S act as source of hydrogen at deep wells where the pressure decreases pH and
that lead to the generation of various metal sulfides that can serve as protectors
at lower temperatures, but corrosives at higher temperatures [10]. H2 S corrosion
not only creates complications at high temperature and pressures but also
causes sulfide stress corrosion (SSC) due to the pressure buildup by hydrogen
population [27].
Molecular oxygen is another important corrosive agent in the oil and gas
streams normally introduced at the drilling stages through the oxygen contami-
nated fluids [28]. The drilling process cause damage to well casings, drilling/mud
handling equipment, and pipelines. Water (often present saline water) and
CO2 produced or injected for the secondary recovery operations leads to the
degradation of completion strings. Acid pickling process that usually performed
in the oil and gas industries for minimizing formation defects and removing
scale on the metallic cases of wells can readily cause corrosion [6]. In addition
to these contaminants, naphthenic acid and aromatic carboxylic acids cause
damage in the downstream segments at high temperatures [28].

5.3.2 Failures and Risk Factors

There exists a titanic metal network in oil and gas fields from the point of extrac-
tion of hydrocarbons from underground, removal of non-energy products, and
separation of different hydrocarbons before it reaches the location where it is
used as fuels. Hence corrosion plays the key role in failures in oil and gas indus-
tries. The compromise in structural integrity due to material degradation leads
to plant shutdowns and potential accidents. Figure 5.3 reminds deadly disasters:
the Piper Alpha offshore accident (July 1988) at North Sea and Lagos State of
Nigeria’s oil pipeline explosion (December 2006).

(a) (b)

Figure 5.3 Notorious accidents in oil and gas fields: (a) Piper Alpha offshore accident. S1.10.
Piper Alpha incident u Sjevernom moru na dan 6. srpnja 1988. (b) Lagos Pipeline Explosion of
December 2006. Source: African Shirt (2006), S1. 2. Slika eksplozije cjevovoda u Lagosu,
prosinca 2006, Izvor: African Shirt (2006).
142 5 Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry: Economic Considerations

Model Mitigation Monitoring Maintena Managem

ent
Corrosion failure failure failure failure
nce
failure Accidents

Figure 5.4 Domino theory model for corrosion failures. Source: Adapted from Jake 2008 [29].

Lack of proper corrosion management systems accelerates the risk associated

with the failures, reduces the life time of the company assets, and also leads to:
• Decreased safety and increased environmental exposure.
• Higher chemical treatment, repair, and inspection.
• Increased number and duration of unplanned shutdowns.
Figure 5.4 represents the domino theory model for corrosion failures. The
theory says corrosion can be prevented by developing barriers in each segment.
Since all barriers are connected to each other, the failure of one will collapse the
others harmony [7]. Obviously the first corrosion barrier becomes critical since
its failure induces the domino effect to the entire system and it is essential to
prevent the failure progression toward potential accidents by proper monitoring,
failure assessment, and management of each barriers. As it is impossible to stop
corrosion process, the most economical solution is to control the rate.

5.4 Fiscal Impacts

Money often costs too much.
Ralph Waldo Emerson

Corrosion is worth investigating in oilfield applications, because corrosion

problems represent a large portion of the total costs for oil and gas industries
every year worldwide [29–31]. Corrosion is accelerated or promoted by many
factors. In oil industry multiphase fluids causes flow-induced corrosion at high
flow rates and erosion–corrosion may occur, whereas at low flow rates, pitting
corrosion is common. While the high-velocity flow tends to sweep sediments out
of the pipeline, low velocity allows sediments to settle at the bottom, thereby pro-
moting pitting corrosion [32, 33]. The major parts that are susceptible to internal
corrosion in oil and gas production are downhole tubing, surface pipelines,
pressure vessels, and storage tanks, which may be enhanced by the presence of
H2 S and CO2 in the gas phase. Internal corrosion leads to production reduction
as corrosion by-products accumulate in the pipeline, and it may lead to extensive
hazard to people and damage to assets as well as the environment [34, 35].
 5.4 Fiscal Impacts 143

5.4.1 Corrosion Costs a Lot

The impact of corrosion on the oil industry may be addressed in terms of
its effect on both capital expenditure (CAPEX) and operational expenditure
(OPEX) and also the health, safety, and environment (HSE) [36]. As mentioned
earlier, corrosion costs the oil and gas industry billions of dollars in lost income,
and the treatment costs is not much less. Reduced corrosion rate (mm/yr) can
increase component life to a greater extent, which leads to much more benefits
such as reduced maintenance costs. Currently, many components used for
oil and gas extraction are made from carbon steel-based alloys. These days,
organizations are looking to move away from carbon steel-based alloys to more
corrosion-resistant alloys (CRA) at a much higher cost [37]. The global annual
cost of corrosion in the oil and gas production industry alone is estimated to be
US$1.372 billion annually, made up from US$589 million for surface piping and
facility costs, US$463 million in downhole tubing expenses, and US$320 million
in CAPEXs related to corrosion. In a corrosion management report, the UK’s
Energy Institute ranks corrosion the second most frequent cause in initiating
loss of hydrocarbon containment in offshore platforms and highlights it as a
major threat to asset integrity and plant efficiency. In the UAE alone, the annual
cost of corrosion estimated was US$14.2 billion for the year 2011, and most of
this cost has been spent for the energy industries. The Saudi Aramco Journal
of Technology reports that 36% of maintenance cost in oil/gas refineries are
associated with corrosion treatments [38]. Similarly, United States has spent
US$7 billion for monitoring, replacement, and asset management. Table 5.1
shows the annual cost of corrosion in various sectors of oil and gas industries in
the United States evaluated by Koch et al. [18].
The estimate presents only the cost of production from conventional sources;
the corrosion cost for the production form nonconventional and renewable
energy were not included. Economy consumption is more prevalent in storage
and transmission-pipeline sectors. A comparable corrosion cost has been spent
annually for the fuel distribution. Figure 5.5 depicts the main cause of pipeline

Table 5.1 Annual corrosion cost in major sectors of the US oil

and gas industry.

Annual cost of corrosion in the

Sector United States (million US$)

Production 1372
Transmission-pipeline 6973
Transportation-tracker 2734
Storage 7000
Refining 3692
Distribution 5000

Source: Koch et al. 2002 [18]. Reproduced with permission of US

Department of Commerce.
144 5 Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry: Economic Considerations

Figure 5.5 Alberta, Canada Production Pipeline Failure Data for 1980–2005. Source: Adapted
from Utilities Board (ERCB) 91-G Report [39].

failures in Alberta, Canada between the years of 1980 and 2005 estimated by
Utilities Board in 2007 [39, 40].
Here also corrosion is the key factor in pipeline failures. The oil and gas industry
have the major role in the total energy production and distribution in the world.
In order to maintain the huge amount of invested assets and minimize associated
environmental impacts, corrosion control is strongly demanded. Moreover, it is
a matter of minimizing failures associated potential hazards.

5.5 Inhibition: Monetary Measures

Fiscal policy, monetary policy, they need to work together to try and raise the
level of growth.
Joe Hockey

Since corrosion adversely affect all component sectors of oil and gas industries,
implementation of effective corrosion management strategies can secure the fol-
lowing benefits:
• Reduction of leaks.
• Reduction of unplanned maintenance.
• Reduction in deferment costs.
• Statutory or corporate compliance with safety health and environmental
policies.
• Increased plant availability.
 5.5 Inhibition: Monetary Measures 145

Corrosion prevention is not just done using conventional techniques. It must

be started from the material designing stage. Avoiding the use of corrosion prone
materials is an important strategy. Time to time monitoring is an important part
of corrosion protection. All these strategies can reduce the cost of corrosion
to a greater extent. Developing a sound maintenance strategy ensures higher
levels of machine reliability, availability, and performance within a reasonable
budget. Keeping the expense of maintenance reasonable while gaining its
benefits requires proper planning and procedures as well as embracing emerging
technologies. Regular inspections during maintenance or other schedules enable
the technicians to identify potential and imminent failures, thus giving them an
opportunity to fix them early. New technologies such as unmanned aerial vehicles
or drone inspections are assisting organizations to safely access and inspect
difficult-to-reach areas as well as confined spaces at the fraction of the cost
of a traditional method (http://info.industrialskyworks.com/blog/10-steps-to-
achieve-world-class-manufacturing-maintenance-practices). A good monetary
policy for corrosion inhibition can be developed by real-time monitoring of
corrosion (including the knowledge of corrodent and corrosives) in each sector
and assigning proper protective methods.

5.5.1 Worthy Monitoring

Corrosion engineers make a great effort in estimating the cost of their solu-
tions to corrosion and estimating the useful life of the metal structures. The
monitoring techniques depend upon, the type, use, and the location of the
metal structure. Monitoring corrosion on exposed structures may be carried out
with much ease by visual inspection. Otherwise more stringent tests would be
required.
Each part of a metallic body should be monitored separately using appro-
priate method. Say for instance, to provide measurements of steel wettability,
researchers not only relied on common techniques but also created a “doughnut
cell” device designed specifically. Corrosion rate of carbon steel with different
testing fluids (water with and without an added corrosion inhibitor, or water
with a layer of crude oil and an added corrosion inhibitor) can be monitored
using this cell. Contact angle measurements may also be carried out using a
goniometer to analyze the steel wettability. These techniques prove that besides
lowering the corrosion rate, corrosion inhibitors can increase the oil wettability
of steel. Since water form droplets and become separate phase in oil, there is
little chance for any direct contact of water with the steel surface [41].
Protection of inside of the tanks needs some special materials and techniques.
For the exterior sides, paint and coatings are reliable, basic barrier. Epoxy paint
may do the job in the tank interiors. Fiberglass liners can also be used to protect
the inside of tanks. Preventing corrosion down the well can be more complicated.
It may be done using a setup of ball and seat pump, allowing the gas to escape
into the atmosphere while preventing oxygen from getting downhole and causing
corrosion [42].
146 5 Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry: Economic Considerations

5.5.2 Protection in Proper Way

The use of surface coatings for adequate protection of pipelines has been in use
for ages. Among the various methods to combat corrosion in oil and gas indus-
try, the use of corrosion inhibitors is one of the best and economical methods
[43, 44]. There are many types of corrosion inhibitors, and they are broadly clas-
sified into anodic, cathodic, or mixed type. There are also classifications based
on their chemical nature, i.e. organic or inorganic inhibitors. The general inhi-
bition mechanism is adsorption (physisorption/chemisorption) of the inhibitor
on the surface of the metal and forms a protective thin film that protects the
underlying metal from corrosion. The inhibitor may also increase the potential
of the metal surface such that the metal enters the passivation region where a
natural protective oxide film forms and/or the inhibitor may react with the cor-
rosive component and remove it from the media [45]. Many of the commercial
corrosion inhibitors used in the oil and gas industries are unique mixtures that
may contain surfactants, film enhancers, demulsifiers, or oxygen scavengers, in
addition to the inhibitor moiety. The majority of the corrosion inhibitors used
currently has nitrogen containing molecules. They can be classified into many
groups, such as the amides/imidazolines, salts of nitrogenous molecules with
carboxylic acids, nitrogen quaternaries, polyoxyalkylated amines, amides, imi-
dazolines, and nitrogen heterocyclics. Indeed, there are other non-nitrogenous
inhibitors that contain phosphorous, sulfur, or oxygen atoms, but they are less
frequently used [46].
In order to use corrosion inhibitors effectively in the oil and gas industry,
the inhibitor must be compatible with the expected environment, econom-
ical, and not only provide great protection to the metal but also should not
cause any significant undesirable side effects that might affect the opera-
tion/process/environment. The properties of the “neat” inhibitor formulation,
i.e. as received from the formulators, are important mainly from the standpoint
of handling the material, the reaction of the inhibitor with other chemicals like
demulsifiers, bactericides, scale inhibitors, and dispersants [47]. The thermal
stability of the inhibitor is also a critical property. Further, the effect of mixing
the corrosion inhibitor with the environment, i.e. its solubility, water tolerance,
emulsion/foam formation, and the physical properties like drying, viscosity,
pour point, and density should be taken into consideration. For example, low
viscosity of the inhibitor is essential to provide adequate pumping rates or flow
rates. Often, the inhibitor is diluted prior to injection to improve its mobility,
mainly during cold weather.
In the oil and gas industry, it is critical to extend the life of equipment, pre-
vent accidents and shutdown resulting from catastrophic mechanical failures,
avoid product contamination, and prevent loss of heat transfer. Potential savings
for each of these goals must be evaluated to determine the economic feasibil-
ity of a corrosion inhibition program. There are several costs associated with the
use of inhibitors. In fact, in addition to the inhibitor cost, the cost of installa-
tion of injection equipment, maintenance of injection equipment, purchase of
inhibitor chemical(s), monitoring inhibitor concentration(s), system changes to
accommodate the inhibitor, system cleaning, waste disposal, and personnel safety
 5.6 Conclusions and Outlook 147

equipment must be factored into any economic evaluation of the use of corrosion
inhibitors. Some costs are often difficult to estimate in the oil and gas industry;
however, the best way is to obtain data on maintenance, replacements, etc. from
the past and make judicious selections [33].

5.6 Conclusions and Outlook

We learned that economic growth and environmental protection can and

should go hand in hand.
Christopher Dodd

It seems almost impossible to prevent corrosion fully and forever. Instead the cor-
rosion rate may be reduced to a great extent using proper methods. Preventing
corrosion damage can extend the life of equipment and increase the efficiency of
operations. Learning the causes of corrosion and properly specifying the correct
product to prevent corrosion from occurring makes it easier to deal with corro-
sion. While doing this, the primary concern should be the safety of using different
kinds of chemical treatments. Using different kinds of chemicals as anticorro-
sion agents can affect the environment adversely. Long-term use can become a
threat to all kind of living beings. This demands the use of green inhibitors. Recent
studies have revealed the possible applicability of plant extracts as anticorrosion
agents [48, 49]. Many of such inhibitors have shown to be good in oilfields too
[33, 50]. Use of green inhibitors should not be limited to acid wells, but it should
also be promoted in oil/gas industries. This makes it easy for the workers to carry
out the cleaning and anticorrosion treatments and offers a better care for the
nature.
Every year oil and gas industries losses billions of dollars on corrosion and
have to meet the expense for the maintenance management. In fact, the annual
corrosion cost of oil and gas industries are estimated to be US$1.372 billion.
The industries recognize corrosion as the crucial menace to the integrity of
assets of all component sectors. Apart from the direct losses, corrosion causes
severe damages to resources. Treatment of corroded infrastructure leads to
huge expenditures that can be reduced to some extent by using proper corrosion
prevention methods. At the same time great care should be taken to avoid the
use of toxic chemicals. Protection of one should not be done at the cost of
the other. Extended component life is needed to maintain the wide metallic
infrastructure especially in remote and challenging aggressive environments
such that they increase the total service life and reduce the need of costly
maintenance. Corrosion management does not necessarily require to establish
a “zero corrosion rate” system, rather there must be proper monitoring and
inspection plans to assure acceptable corrosion rates allowing the system to
function reliably and safely [51]. The oil and gas industries have material and
personnel investments for corrosion control practices. However, a substantial
gain in corrosion economy will require a synergistic insight from corrosion
monitoring, modeling, and technological communities.
148 5 Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry: Economic Considerations

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