My Forest

Quarterly Journal / June 2012

MyForest
Karnataka Forest Department

IRRIGATED TEAK NON IRRIGATED TEAK

Vol. 47
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under the Registrar of News papers for India No. R. N. 13275 Vol. 48 No.2
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 My Forest
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Front Cover : Irrigated & Non-Irrigated Teak Plantation Photo by :

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Back Cover : Clonal Orchard of Teak Plantation
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Vol. 49 June - 2012 No. 02

CONTENTS

SI. No. Particulars Authors Page No.

01 Investigation on Establishing Cause(s) for tree

Dr. V. Suryanarayana 80-103
mortalityof Terminalia alata - A serious problem
in Yellapur Division of Canara Circle

02 Observations made at River Tern Islets D.S. Goankar

- Bhadra Tiger Reserve Santosh R Sutar 104-107
Neha Pai

03 Socio-Economic and Envorinmental Richa Kakker

Perspective of Agroforestry in India Rajat S. Pal 110-122
H.N. Hymavathi

04 Productivity & Economics of Eucalyptus pellilta Pradeep Pawar

in different rainfall situations of Hilly zone K.S. Channabasappa 124-130

05 Impact of Ecotourism Sustainability in

Vinayaka Naik
Achieving Sustainable Community 132-138
Dr. B.C. Sanjeeviah
Development in Karnataka
06 Essential Features of Tectona grandis Linn.f.
and the four experiments conducted on this Ritu Kakkar, IFS 140-152
species in Bangalore Research Wing

07 Linkage Village Forest Committee with Jagmohan Sharma, IFS 154-160

RRIS in Karnataka.
 Published by : THE KARNATAKA FOREST DEPARTMENT
Printed at : SHAKTHI PRINTECH - No. 552/1, 7th Cross, 3rd Main, Ayyappa Temple Road,
Prakashnagar, Bangalore - 560 021. INDIA.
 My Forest, June, 2012
Vol.48(2) Page No. 80-103
INVESTIGATION ON ESTABLISHING CAUSE(S) FOR TREE MORTALITY
OF TERMINALIA ALATA - A SERIOUS PROBLEM IN
YELLAPUR DIVISION OF CANARA CIRCLE
Dr. V. SURYANARAYANA

ABSTRACT

A study was conducted for establishing causes for tree mortality of Terminalia alata. The
Study was carried out in Yellapur Division of Canara Circle, Karnataka. The Study
documents the tree mortality and disease symptoms in Terminatia alata and establishes
causes for mortality also.

INTRODUCTION state is unique in possessing diverse

In India total industrial round wood
consumption has been estimated to
exceed 70 million m3 per year by the end of
the decade, while domestic supply would
fall short with a supply gap of 14 million m3.
The annual industrial round wood imports,
mostly of tropical hardwoods, have tripled
in the last five years and are estimated to
be around two million m3 per year.
Demand for imported tropical timber is
expected to continue to grow and would
approach 10 million m3 by the end of the
decade. Increasing demand for timber is
due to rebirth of the domestic economy,
rapid expansion of middle and upper
income groups and rapid urbanization
with spurring intensive construction
activity supported by lucrative housing
schemes. Chiefly, timber supply is mainly
constrained by the massive consumption
of wood for domestic needs of rural and
urban population, agriculture and
industrial sector (Muthoo, 2003).
The Central Western Ghat region
comprising Kanara Circle of Karnataka
Associate Professor & Head of Plant health clinic, Department of Forest, Biology and
Tree Improvement, College of Forestry, Banavasi Road, Sirsi - 581 401.
landscapes, evergreen, semi evergreen,
deciduous, Myristica swamps, planta-
tions, Kans, and betta land. In-turn, Uttara
Kannada district representing Kanara
Circle is the northern most coastal district
of Karnataka, situated between the 10055'
and 150 32' North latitude and 740 09' and
750 32' East longitude (Anon, 2001). It
comprises five forest divisions with 34
ranges covering a forest area of 7398.856
km2 (72 per cent of geographical area). It is
known for rich floristic wealth of 1750
species of higher plants belonging to 135
families (Pascal, 1988.).
Yellapur divisions of Kanara circle,
the study area comprise 6 ranges,
Ye l l a p u r, K i r a w a t t i , M a n c h i k e r e ,
Mundgod, Idugundi and Kathur. The main
timber species found in this region are
Tectona grandis, Dalbergia latifolia,
Terminalia SPP, Pterocarpus marsupium,
Annogessius latifolia, Lagerstroemia
lanceolata.The division has both dry
deciduous and moist deciduous patches
of forest. Presently, as the populations of

80
 My Forest, June - 2012
teak and rose wood have been reduced,
its supply to meet the demands also
dropped. In context of this the demand for
Terminalia is gaining.
Terminalia spp. belongs to Family:
Combretaceae, comprise 510 species
occur predominantly in places receiving
annual rainfall of 750-5000 mm (Troup,
1986). Out of them, T. alata, T. bellerica, T.
paniculata and T. chebula are the major
large deciduous timber yielding tree
species. Every species has economic
value, like T bellerica and T.chebula are
known for high medicinal value of their
fruits. T. paniculata and T. alata have high
timber value, which stand next to teak and
rose wood. Among them, T. alata locally
called as Kari Mathi, mostly a dry
deciduous species has a high commercial
value. Its timber is used mainly for building
construction, house hold furniture and as
beams, joists, rafters and planking. In
addition, it is also commonly used for
carts, agricultural implements, posts, pit-
proofs, piles, and wagon floorboards in
railway carriage, tool handles, electric
casing, railway sleepers and numerous
other purposes.
T. alata is a light demanding
drought prone and vigorously coppicing
species. It grows vigorously in well
drained deep alluvial soil and gregariously
in sticky clayey soil. The timber has white
wood surrounding dark heart wood. The
heart wood is exceedingly heavy, and is
25 to 30 per cent heavier than teak. In
hardness and shock resistance, it stands
50 to 60 per cent higher than teak. Unlike
teak or rose wood, its timber production is
81
primarily hampered by biotic pressure and
in specific diseases.
It is a sturdy crop which comes up
well in Yellapur division. In the recent past
increased tree mortality of Terminalia
alata in Kanara Circle is in hot news in
various forums and media. In the
communications with forest department
officials the seriousness with high tree
mortality in Balki area nearer to Anlesara
of Manchikere range of Yellapur division
was learnt. In this context, upon
discussion with Deputy Conservator of
Forests, Yellapur division a field visit was
done. The problem was in higher
momentum in old aged trees. Similar
problem was distinct in the companion
species also. The literature indicated a
citation of dying status of T.alata in
Yellapur division with a stress on need for
identifying the cause(s) (Rajiv Ranjan,
2006). But otherwise, there are no reports
or claims of unnatural death of Terminalias
from India. Preliminary survey in Bilki
region not only indicated the death of
young trees, but also old trees showing a
complexity in problem. In addition
mortality in associated species was also
evident. That to the mortality restrictions in
specified patches was not conspicuous.
Instead, randomized outlook was
observed. This made to arrive at
complexity in the problem to be worked
out to arrive with an effective management
planning. It was fortunate to have
discussions with Dr. Jamaluddin a Forest
pathologist and Ex-Director of Tropical
Forest research Institute, ICFRE,
Jabalpur (MP) regarding this. During
discussions, he also endorsed my view
 My Forest, June - 2012
and opined that there is a
complexity in causation and it can be
sorted out if detailed investigations are
taken up. Then the discussions were held
with Conservator of forests of Canara
circle and Deputy Conservator of Forests
of Yellapur division. Accordingly, the
investigations were carried out by
restricting to status and to find out the
cause(s) for tree mortality in Terminalia
rich forest patches of Yellapur division that
with the following objectives.
1. To document tree mortality and
ymptoms in Terminalia allata and
associated species
2. To establish the cause(s) for tree
mortality.
II. Material and Methods:
The present study on “Investiga-
tion on establishing cause(s) for tree
mortality of Terminalia alata- A serious
problem in Yellapur Division of Canara
Circle” was carried out during 2009-2011
at College of Forestry, Sirsi. The details
are as follows..
3.1 Basic information collection and
format preparation
Discussions with the Conservator of
forests, canara circle and DCF of Yellapur
division were conducted to get base line
information on the issue. Copies of
requisite maps like Yellapur forest division
map depicting range wise details of
82
blocks, beats and compartments (Fig.1),
topo map and map area wise map of Belki
forest area of Manchikeri range were
collected. Then required field working
formats was prepared.
3.2 Data collection format formulation
and preparation
Based on the reconnaissance
data and base line information collected, a
format with details on range, location,
forest type, soil type, site status like plain
or moderately slopy or low lying, name of
species associated with Termilia alata.
another format on progressiveness in
mortality was prepared.
3.3. Study area
Yellapur division of Canara circle
was selected based on the unexpected
and uncertain mortality of trees as
expressed by the forest officials (Fig.1).
Accordingly, preliminary surveys in co-
ordination with forest officials of Yellapur
division indicated high mortality rate. By
referring to “Forest Map of South India”
plotted by J.P.Pascal from French
Institute, Pondicherry (Pascal, 1982)
ranges were selected based on the
distribution of Terminalia species in
natural forests.The ranges, Manchikere,
Yellapur, Kirawatti, Mundgod and Katur
were selected as depicted in the
Table1.
 My Forest, June - 2012
Table1. Study sites in different ranges of Yellapur division for
Terminalia mortality studies
Study site. Range
1. Manchikere
2. Kathur
3. Yellapur
4. Mundgod
3.4 Survey methodology
By taking the help of forest staff
visits were made to respective study sites
of each of the ranges in Yellapur division.
As most of the spots were mixed
vegetation strands with high population of
Te r m i n a l i a a l a t a t h e f o o l o w i n g
methodology was followed
3.4.1 Layout
Survey was conducted with a
sampling intensity of 0.1% in fixed plot
mode. The fixed plots of 8 numbers in
each of the study site of 20 x 20 mt
2
dimension each were laid out. It was
followed by recording GPS
(Georeferensing data) on latitude and
longitude were recorded (Fig. 6).
Demarcation of borders was made by
marking identified points with paint.
Among the working staff, few stood at
borders stood at the borders, few have
started putting the thread to make
quadrates, some to record GPS details,
and some to observe the populations of
Terminalia and associated species. Two
staff recorded site characters and made
observations on inoculum sources.
Localities Figure
Bilki Fig. 2
Kurli, Basavanakoppa Fig. 3
Halaskanda, Jaddigadde, Kurigatta Fig. 4
Gunjavati, Kyatanalli, Byanalli Fig. 5
3.5. Documentation of mortality and
symptoms
The observation on GBH/DBH
was recorded for trees showing mortality
in each of the spots and approximate its
age with a comparative readings of
healthy. Different studies were conducted
to find out the actual cause and to rule out
all other suspected possibilities. In
addition, periodical progression in
symptoms finally leading to death was
assessed in Bilki area supposed to be a
high problematic area.
3.6 Identification of cause
In the preliminary studies, the one
of the possibilities of either insect pest or
soil related physiological stress or plant
pathogens (soil borne and air borne) or in
combinations were suspected as the
cause. To get clarity both field as well as
laboratory related observations were
carried out. The details of work carried out
in ascertaining prime cause is explained
under the following headings.
3.6.1. Association of insect pest
Soil around basal trunk of the tree suspect
to die was dug. Rhizosphere zone was
83
 My Forest, June - 2012
All along the trunk, branching sites and
crowns in affected tree and longitudinally
split cut tree were subjected for injury
observations both in young and aged
trees.
3.6.2. Association of physiological
stress
For suspecting the cause of
physiological stress induced mortality, the
observations on low lying, plains and
elevated areas in moist deciduous as well
as dry deciduous forests in Yellapur and
neighboring Haliyal division were done.
The possibility of drawing the association
of moisture stress or excess moisture
regime or soil layer cracking and
temperature profiles was tried.
3.6.3. Association of plant pathogens
3.6.3.1. Collection and observations of
damaged plant and soil samples
Samples of out growths of fruiting
bodies on butt, trunk and branches,
decayed heartwood and sap wood,
rhizosphere soil of infected tree zone
(500g) and roots of infected trees were
collected from all the study areas of Bilki,
Chipgeri, Kurli, Basavanakoppa,
Halaskanda, Jaddigadde, Kurigatta,
Gunjavati, Kyatanalli and Byanalli in
separate polythene covers and were
neatly labeled. The collected samples
were analyzed by standard visual and
microscopic methods. The infected heart
wood samples were also collected from
the field as well as from the lots stacked in
the timber depots of Kirvathi (Kirvathi
range) and Mundgod (Mundgod range).
3.6.3.2. Tissue isolation
Small bits of infected tissues of
84
roots and heart wood samples collected
from as well as timber depot. was hand cut
using razor blade followed by their surface
sterilization in 0.1 per cent mercuric
chloride (HgCl2) solution for 1 min. It was
followed by four serial washes in separate
fresh sterile distilled water taken in
separate sets of petriplates. Finally such
bits were transferred onto and Malt
Extract Agar (MEA) , a non synthetic
culture medium under laminar flow. The
inoculated plates were incubated at room
temperature and were observed
periodically for fungal growth.
3.6.3.3. Baiting technique
The isolation was made by
following baiting technique & the
methodology followed by Prasad, 2000 in
the studies on heart rot of Acacia
mangium was employed to assess the
possibility of soil borne pathogenic
association.
For this, Rhizosphere soil
samples (200 g) from infected trees were
collected. 100 g soil was spread in the wax
coated cardboard box (15cm x 15cmx
2.5cm size). Surface sterilized healthy
heartwood discs of Terminalia (3cm dia.)
were placed at a uniform distance on the
spread soil layer. Remaining 100g of soil
was placed on the discs. Water was
sprinkled on the soil to obtain 20 per cent
level (w/v). Moisture level was maintained
up to four weeks. After four weeks of
incubation, the discs were removed and
surface sterilized with 0.1 per cent HgCl2
and was subjected to serial washes with
sterile distilled water. Then the discs were
transferred aseptically onto Petri dishes
containing two per cent malt extract
 My Forest, June - 2012
agar and were incubated at room
temperature for 72 hr. There after the
discs were observed visually for the fungal
colonization. Mycelium of the colonized
fungus was characterized by the presence
of septate and branching condition. Based
on colonization, number of discs showing
positive for fungus was expressed as per
cent colonization.
3.6.3.4. Characterization
Morphological characters of
fruiting bodies were studied for identifying
the associated heart rot fungi in infected
trees. For cultural characterization, a
microscopic observation of isolated
fungus culture from decayed wood was
done. The documented morphological
characters were compared with a
taxonomic literature furnished in Indian
Polyporaceae (Bakshi, 1976). Further it
was confirmed with the help of
taxonomical services of Agarkar institute,
Pune and National Center for Fungal
Taxonomy, New Delhi.
3.7 Confirmation of problem and cause
Based on field observations,
symptoms progression, fungal fruiting
body and spore observations,
confirmatory reports from taxonomical
institutes the problem of root rot disease
induced mortality in young trees
and heart rot disease induced mortality in
aged trees with basidiomycetous fungal
pathogenic association was arrived.
3.8. Disease estimate in Terminalia
alata and associated species
3.8.1. Incidence in Terminalia alata
Root rot was assessed based on
mortality in young strands where in heart
wood was in initial formation and root
85
decay with sap wood degradation was in
common. Heart rot was assessed based
on mortality in well heart wood formed
trees where in heart wood decay is distinct
both in underground and above ground
parts with sap wood remaining intact.
However, looking to high heart rot induced
mortality, it was estimated based on the
symptoms like appearance of punk knots,
appearance of dead branches with fruiting
body, appearance of bark splitting and
death of trees. Disease incidence
estimate in the sampled areas was done
by counting the total number of standing
trees and number of heart rot affected. Per
cent disease incidence was calculated by
fitting the above information under the
following formula.
Disease incidence (%) = (nd X 100)
-----------------
N
Where 'nd' - total number of trees
affected, 'N' -Number of trees observed
in each plot.
3.8.2 Heart rot severity in Terminalia
alata
It was assessed in each of the sampled
plot by modified scale described by
Mahmadsudin et al.(1993) in heart rot
severity estimate in Acacia mangium as
given below.
0 – Healthy
1 – Appearance of punk knots (1- 25 % infection)
2 – Initiation of drying of branches (25 -50 %
infection)
3 – Bark splitting and death of 25 – 50 % branches
(50 – 75 % of infection)
4 – Appearance of Many fruiting bodies, debarked
stems (75 – 90 % of infection)
5 – Complete tree mortality (> 90 % of infection)
 My Forest, June - 2012

3.8.3. Incidence and severity estimates “Investigation on establishing cause(s) for

in associated tree species tree mortality of Terminalia alata- A
Incidence, severity and mortality serious problem in Yellapur Division of
in associated species like Dillenia Canara Circle” was carried out during
pentagyna, Terminalia paniculata, Xylia 2009–2011 are presented under the
xylocarpa, Delinia pentagyna, Emblica following headings.
officinalis,Careya arborea, Randia
4.1 Survey
dumentorum, Syzizium cumini, Adina
The data of survey conducted for
cardifolia, Lagerstomia lanceolata, Vitex
assessing the incidence and severity of
artissima, Grewia tilifolia, Tetramerous
heart rot disease in Terminalia alata and
nudiflora, Melia dubea, Bombax ceiba,
other associated tree species as is
Zyziphus mauritiana, Anogeisus latifolia,
furnished under the following sub
Schleichera oleosa was also made. The
headings.
details of it are presented in a tabular
format. The observations for symptoms 4.1.1.1 Range wise mortality and
like appearance of fruiting bodies, bark severity assessment in Terminalia
splitting, dead side branches, other alata
associated symptoms and tree death Maximum mortality rate was found in case
were done in same manner as done for of Manchikeri range with 71 per cent
Terminalia alata. The symptoms will be fallowed by mundagod range (41.66%)
photo documented. and the least mortality rate was found in
Katur range with 19 per cent (Table 2).
IV. Results and Discussion
The density of Terminalia alata was
Terminalias are one of the major
maximum (225 trees/ha) in Mundagod
components in the deciduous forest
range fallowed by Manchikeri range (146
ecosystem of Western Ghats. Six species
trees/ha) and least density (101 trees/ha)
of Terminalia viz., Terminalia alata, T.
was found in Katur range. Over all lowest
paniculata, T. bellerica, T. chebula T.
girth class in affected trees varied from 50-
catapa and T. arjuna are distributed
90cm and higher girth class of 107 to 270
mostly in dry and moist deciduous forests
cm indicating the prevalence of both root
of Kanara circle. T. paniculata and T. alata
rot which commonly affect sap wood
have high timber value which stand next to
(Young poles) and heart rot affect heart
Tectona grandis and Dalbergia
wood (grown up trees) in all ranges.
latifolia. In Kanara circle of Central
Mundgod showed maximum mortality
Western Ghats, Yellapur division ranks
attributed by both root rot as well as heart
first to possess large populations of T.
rot followed by Yellapur, Kathur and
alata which is amounting to 20 per cent of
Manchikere. Comparatively in
the total tree population in mixed
Manchikere range heart rot found
deciduous and moist deciduous forests of
attributing to maximum mortality as death
Mundgod, Manchikere and Kathur
of aged trees with high girth class was
(Ranjan, 2006).
maximum.
The results of the study,
86
 My Forest, June - 2012

Trees with maximum girth class(100-250
cm) found affected in Manchikere range
and moderate girth classes (85-90cm) in
Yellapur and Kathur range. Least girth
class (50cm) was in Mundgod range as
depicted in Table 2. The data gives an
indication that all ranges are problematic
heart rot as well as root rot terminalia
patches except Manchikere which show
heart rot to very higher hand. Disease
severity index (DSI) scale was maximum
in Manchikeri and Katur (3-4) fallowed by
Mundgod ranges (2-4), and Yellapur
range (1-4). Maximum PDI was found in
Katur range (51.88) fallowed by
Manchekeri range(51.12%) and least was
in Yellapur range (33.81). Higher PDI
values in both Manchikere and Kathur and
nearness to each other warrants to take
up immediate measures to check future
spread and losses expected.

Table. 2 - Density, girth class and mortality of Terminalia alata in

different ranges of Yellapur division

Location Density Normal Affected Avg. Incidenc Severity PDI

/ha. girth class girth class mortality e (%) grade (%)
(cm) (cm) rate /ha

Manchikere range 146 100-250 107 - 245 71 90 3-4 51.12

Katur range 100 60-270 95-270 19 100 3-4 51.88

Mundagod Range 225 45-185 50-180 41.66 42 2-4 35.39

Yellapur range 117 25-260 85-260 25 54 1-4 33.81

Kirawatti 125 55-260 115-240 22 40 2-3 31.28

* (0-Healthy,1- Punk knot, 2-Drying of branches, 3-Bark split and fruiting bodies, 4-Tree death)

4.1.1.2 Location wise mortality and
severity assessment in T. alata
4.1.1.2.1 Assessment of Manchikeri
Range
The results are presented in Table 3. In
case of Bilki location the density of
alata was 146 trees/ha and girth class
affected was in between 107-250 cm with
average mortality rate of 71 per cent. Bilki
location recorded PDI of 51.2%. Though
mortality rate followed Kyatanalli, Severity
grade recorded 3-4 with 90% incidence
indicating high probability of loosing much
population in coming few years. Maximum
mortality was in higher girth classes
T.
indicating as the hot spot of heart rot
disease affecting heart wood. In lower
girth classes the mortality was observed to
be due to root rot with distinct decay of sap
wood and heart wood being untouched.

87
 My Forest, June - 2012

Peculiarity such situation was high in low
slopes that too in areas nearness to water
drainage system. There was a clear
depiction of domination of Xylia xylocarpa
with a gradual decrease in Terminalia
populations with negligible amount of
regeneration. However, the situation
could not spell as a sort of succession.
Sampling was done in the compartments
viz., 7, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17 on the basis of
reconnaissance survey and terminalia
population. The mortality was high (85-
94%) in the compartment 15 followed by
16, 17 and 12. Moderate trend with high
severity value was evident in
compartment 7 followed by 12. In the other
compartments Terminalia population was
comparatively less (Table 4, Fig. 1). The
data reveals the Bilki as the most
problematic area which appear to lose
entire Terminalia population and also
other associated species in the near future
if no efforts are initiated in management.

Table. 3 - Location wise and girth class wise tree mortality of

Terminalia alata in different ranges of Yellapur division

Location Normal Girth Affected Avg.

class girth class mortality
(cm) (cm) rate /ha

Manchikere range

Bilki (N 14°53.483' E 74°52.364') 100-250 107-245 71

Katur range

Atabail (N 14°47.396' E 74°56.674' ) 100-250 120 - 203 25

Basavana koppa (N 14°53.291' E 74°56.646') 60-270 95-270 13

Mundagod Range

Gunjavati (N 14°59.338' E 74°58.024') 45 - 140 50 – 135 25

Kyatanalli (N 14°54.461' E 74°57.392') 50 - 185 50 - 180 75

Byanalli (N 14°54.495' E 74°58.428') 65 - 155 90 - 155 25

Yellapur range

Halasakanda ( N 14°57.169 E 74°43.064') 85-190 85-190 25

Jaddegadde (N 14°57.972' E 74°46.994') 140-260 140-260 25

Kurigatta (N 14°59.134' E 74°47.216') 25-150 90 - 120 25

88
 My Forest, June - 2012

Table. 4 - Severity and per cent disease index estimates of root rot and
heart rot complex in different ranges of Yellapur division

Location No. of Density Incide Sev. PDI

Quadrates /ha nce Grade* (%)
(%)

Manchikere range

Bilki (N 14°53.483' E 74°52.364') 6 146 90 3-4 51.12

Katur range

Atabail (N 14°47.396' E 74°56.674' ) 6 88 100 3-4 68.75

Basavana koppa (N 14°53.291' E 74°56.646') 6 113 100 3-4 35.00

Mundagod Range

Gunjavati (N 14°59.338' E 74°58.024') 6 200 25 2-3 25.00

Kyatanalli (N 14°54.461' E 74°57.392') 6 325 51 3-4 52.00

Byanalli (N 14°54.495' E 74°58.428') 6 150 50 2-4 29.16

Yellapur range

Halasakanda ( N 14°57.169 E 74°43.064') 6 175 71 1-4 21.42

Jaddegadde (N 14°57.972' E 74°46.994') 6 125 40 1-4 30.00

Kurigatta (N 14°59.134' E 74°47.216') 6 50 50 2-4 50.00

* (0-Healthy, 1- Punk knot, 2-Drying of branches, 3-Bark split and fruiting bodies, 4-Tree death)

The data presented in the Table 4
supports the claims written above. In the
study, 6 quadrate (20X20m each) data
revealed a density of 146trees/ha with
heart rot and root rot incidence of cent per
cent with highest severity scale of 4
though the range is 3-4. As the PDI is also
89
high (51.12%) there is a clear indication
that the entire Terminalia is in the verge of
death in the coming years. As per the
detailed observations, ill drained clayey
soil with high moisture in the low lying
areas might be promoting root rot.
 My Forest, June - 2012
Where as in the elevated plain areas low
moisture regimes, more number of trees in
higher girth class, disease prevalence in
the associated species, stock of dead
branches and dead wood carrying fruiting
bodies of basidiomycetous wood decay
fungal pathogens, fruiting bodies on trunk
as well as branches of live trees, and fire
scars can be claimed as some of the prime
attributes for the high status heart rot. The
above claims for increased heart rot
intensities have been supported by the
observations of many workers of earlier
days. In the studies made by Morawski et
al., (1958) on heart rot of conifers, claimed
that available soil moisture has a potential
role in decay of conifers than in hard
woods. The observations are in line with
the reports of earlier workers who
described that, heart rot progression of
Douglas fir, aspen and spruce were much
higher in dry site conditions than in wet
sites (Boyce and Wagg, 1951; Basham,
1958; Etheridge, 1958). Similar claim of
clayey soils favoring high intensity in butt
rot of coniferous over sandy soils in Great
Britain (Peace, 1938). Correlation of
increased heart rot in Pinus elliattii with
increasing pH has been established by
Frolich et al. (1965). However, no works of
recent past were available in the literature
to quote. So the generated data forms a
new of its kind in South and Central India.
4.1.1.2.2 Assessment of Kathur range
In Kathur range, the investigations
were done in two sites based on the
reconnaissance survey and information
gathered from forest department.
Compartments viz., 26th and 30th of Atabail
and 13th of Basanakoppa beats of 22nd
90
block of Katur and 28th block of Kurli
sections respectively. Two compartments
viz., 26 and 30 were selected based on
reconnaissance survey for the
investigations in basavanakoppa beat.
The results presented in Table 3 revealed
that the density of Terminalia was found
m a x i m u m ( 11 3 t r e e s / h a ) i n
Basavanakoppa fallowed by Atabail with
88 trees/ha. Results presented in Table 2
show that maximum girth class range (95-
270 cm) was affected in Basavanakoppa
fallowed by Atabail (120-203 cm).
Whereas, the average mortality rate was
maximum (25/ha) in Atabail and least in
Basavanakoppa (13/ha.). Maximum per
cent disease index (PDI) was found in
Atabail (68.75%) fallowed by
Basavanakoppa (35%). Atabail showed
highest severity scale of 3-4 and
maximum affected trees were in 4 scale
indication high death rates in future
coming years than the other site. PDI
value of Atabail found as the highest in the
entire investigation representing high
probability of showing mortalities in short
period stretched proceeding years. In the
investigation at Basavanakoppa beat, the
compartment 26 recorded highest
mortality followed by moderate levels in
compartment 30. Death of young trees
was prevalent due to root rot that too was
high in illdrained low lying patches in the
laid quadrates. Equally heart rot also
showed maximum mortality in upland.
Whereas in Atabail density of grown up
trees with high girth class was high and
heart rot induced mortality was prominent.
The site topography, animal damage,
slopy terrain, moderate drain ability, high
 My Forest, June - 2012
density, un-cleared dead trees
might have influenced high heart rot.
However both regions need a special care
of protection in checking possible losses.
Compartment 13 of Atabail beat may have
a strong set back in near future if required
epidemiological and management is
taken with immediate effect. However
there was no sign of other species taking
upper hand. A similar claim was put forth
for higher heart rot intensity in Sal by
proving the tree wounds formed by
browsing, felling and logging operations
(Bakshi et. al., 1963).
4.1.1.2.3 Assessment of Mundgod
range
The investigation was done 3 sites of XXIII
block of Gunjavathi section viz.,
Gunjavathi beat, Kyatanalli beat and
Byanalli beat (compartments 1, 4 and 39
respectively) based reconnaissance
survey. . The results presented in Table 3
revealed that the density of Terminalia
was found maximum (325 trees/ha) in
Kyatanalli fallowed by Gunjavathi (200
trees/ha) and Byanalli (150 trees/ha.).
Maximum girth class range (90-150 cm)
affected mostly with heart rot was
observed in Byanalli followed by
Kyatanalli (50-180cm) and Gunjavathi
(50-135cm) as presented in Table 3.
Kyatanalli showed maximum average
mortality (75%) followed by equally
proportional mortality in Gunjavathi and
byanalli (25%). Maximum per cent
disease index (PDI) was in Kyatanalli
(52%) and the least was in Gunjavathi
(25%). All the investigated compartments
showed high magnitude of problem.
Kyatanalli showed highest severity scale
91
of 3-4 and maximum affected trees were in
4 scale indication high death rates in
future coming years. In the other sites
trees with severity scale of 2 and 3 were
high and few were in scale 4. All the sites
had black clayee soils with high water
holding capacity and more or less plain
topography. From the result there is a
clear cut generated prediction that
Kyatanalli is the most critical area opting
immediate care by showing high severity,
mortality and PDI. High density, ill
drainabilty, fire damage, high inoculum
source might be attributed to equal
potentials of both root rot and heart rot
induced mortality. Off course the
phenomenon of maximum loss of trees
along low lying soil moisture rich and
nearness to flowing streams was distinct
in the laid out quadrates. However there
was no sign of other species taking upper
hand. . The observations can be related to
the studies done by Morawski et al. (1958)
on heart rot of conifers, claiming that
available soil moisture has a potential role
in decay of conifers than in hard woods.
Similar observations of heart rot
progression in Douglas fir, aspen, spruce,
at dry site than wet site conditions were
made (Boyce and Wagg, 1951; Basham,
1958; Etheridge, 1958). In addition,
Frolich et al. (1965) could record the
increased heart rot of Pinus elliattii in
alkaline soils.
4.1.1.2.3 Assessment of Yellapur range
The investigation was done 3 sites, one
(Halasakanda beat, compartment-33) in
XXXI block and 2 [Kurigatta
(compartment-29) and Jaddegadde
(compartment-25)] in XXXII block.
 My Forest, June - 2012
The results of Table 3 show a maximum
density of Terminalia (175 trees/ha) in
Halasakanda fallowed by Jaddegadde
(125 trees/ha.) and Kurigatta (50
trees/ha). Maximum girth class range
(140-260 cm) affected with heart rot was
recorded in Jaddegadde followed by
Halasakanda (85-190cm) and Kurigatta
(25-150cm) as presented in Table 3. All
the study sites showed equal magnitude
of mortality (25%). Though incidence was
highest in Halasakanda (71%) followed by
others in equal proportions, severity scale
was 1-4 and that too maximum number of
trees were with 2 (Table 4). Maximum per
cent disease index (PDI) was in Kurigatta
(50%) followed by Jaddegadde (30%)
and Halasakanda (21.4%). From the data
it can be inferred that, Kurigatta stands
first with respect to damage level and loss.
Human and animal interference, fire scars
were found to have a major role in
inception and spread of problem in this
region. The observations can be related to
the studies done by Morawski et al. (1958)
on heart rot of conifers, claiming that
available soil moisture has a potential role
in decay of conifers than in hard woods.
Similar observations of heart rot
progression in Douglas fir, aspen, spruce,
at dry site than wet site conditions were
made (Boyce and Wagg, 1951; Basham,
1958; Etheridge, 1958). In addition,
Frolich et al. (1965) could record the
increased heart rot of Pinus elliattii in
alkaline soils.
4.1 1.3 Overall mortality and severity
assessment :
Among the quadrates laid in
different sites, maximum density of T.
92
alata was found in Kyatnalli of Mundagod
range (325 trees/ha) and the least was in
Kurigatta of Yellapur range (50 trees/ha.).
Wit respect to girth class of affected trees
it was maximum (270cm) in
Basavanakoppa of Katur range. The
average mortality rate was highest in
Kyatnalli of Mundagod range (75%)
followed by Bilki location of Manchikeri
range (71%) and least was in
Basavanakoppa of Katur range (13%).
With respect to PDI Atabail of Katur range
stood first (68%) followed by Bilki as well
as of Manchekeri range and Kyatnalli of
Mundagod range (51-52%). So, based on
above data and form all angles Bilki beat
of Manchikere, Atabail beat of Katur range
and Kyatanallli of Mundagod are
considered as root rot and heart rot prone
regions and disappearance of Terminalia
from these areas is certain if needful
action is not taken up on priority.
4.1.2 Mortality and severity
assessment in associated species
4.1.2.1. Documentation of root rot and
heart rot in associated species
In Terminalia investigated areas of
Yellapur division of Canara circle, over all
eleven major species were found viz.,
Dillenia pentagyna, Terminalia paniculata,
Xylia xylocarpa, Delinia pentagyna,
Careya arborea, Lagerstomia lanceolata,
Grewia tilifolia, Tetramerous nudiflora,
Anogeisus latifolia, Pterocarpus
marsupium, Dalbergia latifolia. The
results of location wise species
documented root rot and heart rot affected
species are expressed in Table 5. The
results revealed that maximum number of
species (17) recorded with complexity
 My Forest, June - 2012
was in Belki region of Manchikere range
followed by Gunjavathi of Mundgod
range(13 species), Atabail of Kathur range
(11 species) and least number of affected
species were in Yellapur range (4
species). Irrespective of area investigated
5 species viz., Dillenia pentagyna,
Terminalia paniculata, Xylia xylocarpa,
Lagerstomia lanceolata and Anogeisus
latifolia were found affected in common
and that too with mortality and high
severity value. These species might be
serving as potential sources of inoculum in
addition to self source for T. alata. The
observations clearly indicate that the
problem of root rot and heart rot induced
mortality and timber loss is not only
restricted to Terminalia but also to other
important timber yielding species. As this
study is first of its kind no literature is
available in this regard.
In India, Sal (Shorea robusta) is
the most severely infected among many
timber species. The other species
included were Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia
spp., Tectona grandis, Casuarina
equisitifolia, Albizia spp., Artocarpus
integrifolia, Annogelssious latifolia,
Eucalyptus sp., Terminalia sp., and Hevea
brasiliensis (Anonymous, 1961). The
infection on T. chebula associated with
sal, Madhuca longifolia (Mahua) in dry
deciduous forests and Cordia dichoma in
scrub forests has been observed by
93
Bakshi (1976) in Peninsular India. The
other speces recorded heart rot were,
Deodar (Agarwal, 1936), Acacia catechu
(Bakshi,1957), Acacia mangium (Prasad,
2000), Shorea robusta (Bakhshi, 1963).
Where as in the world level some to quote
are heart rot in Cordia alliodora, Acacia
auriculiformis, Eucalyptus deglupa,
Araucaria cunninghamii (Arentz and
Simpson, 1988).
4.1.2.2 Location wise/transect wise
mortality and severity assessment
Among different ranges, the maximum
density of associated species was found
Yellapur range (340 trees/ha) fallowed by
Manchekeri range (312 trees/ha.) and the
least was in Katur range (188 trees/ha.) as
per the results of Table 6. Bilki of
Manchikere range not only showed
highest number of trees of associated
species, but also recorded severity scale
of 3. As per Table 6, the severity case was
same in Atabail though number of trees/6
quadrats was less. In case of Mundgod
and Yellapur ranges though high density
of associated species was observed, the
severity scale was just 0-2 except to
kurigatta (1-3). From the data it can be
arrived that Bilki and Atabail contribution
of associated species for serving as
inoculum source for spread to Terminalia
and other species has a strong base. So,
by considering this there is a need to go for
integrated approach in protecting them.
 My Forest, June - 2012

Table . 5. Documentation of heart rot in associated species of

Terminalia alata in Yellapur division

Sl Range Location Quadrats Heart rot affected Species

laid*

1. Manchikere Bilki beat 6 Dillenia pentagyna, T.paniculata, Xylia

range xylocarpa, Careya arborea, Randia
dumentorum, Syzigium cumini, Adina
cardifolia, Lagerstomia lanceolata, Grewia
tilifolia, Tetramerous nudiflora, Melia dubia,
Anogeissus latifolia, Adena cardifolia, T.
bellarica, Ougenia dalbergioides, Myitragyna
perviflora Lagerstoemia flos.reginae (17sp.)

2. Katur range Atabail 6 Dillenia pentagyna, Xylia xylocarpa, T.

paniculata, Emblica officinalis, Randia
dumentorum, Syzizium cumini, Lagerstomia
lanceolata, Vitex artissima, Tetramerous
nudiflora, Grewia tilifolia,Melia dubia, (11 sp)

Basavanakoppa 6 Xylia xylocarpa, Anogeisus latifolia,

Lagerstoemia lanceolata, (3sp.)

3. Mundagod Gunjavati, 6 Dillenia pentagyna, T. paniculata, Xylia

range xylocarpa, Dillenia pentagyna, Emblica
officinalis, Careya arborea, Melia dubia,
Ziziphus mauritiana, Anogeissus latifolia,
Schleichera oleosa, B.bamboo,
Lagerstoemia lanceolata(11 sp.).

Kyatanalli, 6 Dillenia pentagyna, T. paniculata, Xylia

xylocarpa, Coareya arborea, Adina
cordifolia, Zyziphus mauritiana, Anogeissus
latifolia, (8sp)

Byanalli 6 T.paniculata, T. bellerica, Xylia xylocarpa,

Dillenia pentagyna, Careya arborea,
Anogeissus latifolia (6sp.)

4. Yellapur Halasakanda 6 Anogeissus latifolia (1 sp.)

range

Jaddegadde 6 Xylia xylocarpa, Careya arborea,

Anogeissus latifolia (3sp.)

Kurigatta 6 T. paniculata, Anogeissus latifolia Xylia,

xylocyrpa, Careya arborea,(4 sp.)

94
 My Forest, June - 2012

Table. 6 Severity assessments in associate species of T.alata in Yellapur division

Location No. of Density of Severi

quadrats associate ty
d spp. grade

Manchikere range

Bilki (N 14°53'483" E 74°52'364") 6 80 1-3

Katur range

Atabail (N 14°47'396" E 74°56'674" ) 6 22 1-3

Basavana koppa (N 14°53'291" E 74°56'646") 6 8 1&2

Mundagod Range

Gunjavati (N 14°59.338' E 74°58.024') 6 40 0-2

Kyatanalli (N 14°54.461' E 74°57.392') 6 63 0-2

Byanalli (N 14°54.495' E 74°58.428') 6 48 0-2

Yellapur Range

Halasakanda ( N 14°57.169 E 74°43.064') 6 22 0-2

Jaddegadde (N 14°57.972' E 74°46.994') 6 18 0

Kurigatta (N 14°59.134' E 74°47.216') 6 96 1-3

4.2 Symptomotology of root rot and
heart rot.
4.2.1. Symptoms of root rot
Root rot basically affect mostly
the young trees affecting sap wood and
heart wood remain untouched. It was
characterized by the presence of bracket
type fruiting body on the trunk just at 3-4'
above the ground, death of young trees
without showing any shot holes on trunk,
naked dried branches with yellowing and
drooped leaves in the initial infections
followed by premature leaf drop and tip
down words. Below ground, dissolution of
roots, root decay, leathery smell, sap
wood decay in the main root (Fig. 7).

95
 My Forest, June - 2012

4.2.2. Symptoms of heart rot – 90 % of infection), 5 – Complete tree

mortality (> 90 % of infection)
The characteristic symptoms of
heart rot of Terminalia were, swollen bole 4.3 Identification of cause
followed by punk knots, bark splitting,
As per the filed study and
branch drying, partial to complete
laboratory study in co-ordination with a
debarked branches, appearance of
plant physiologist, soil scientist and
fruiting bodies and tree mortality. In the
entomologist the work done on
logged wood a distinct symptom of decay
observation of trunk, branches, apical
of heart wood and deep cited cavities were
part, roots and longitudinal splits of trunk
observed. Still, in specific, punk knots and
and roots. The possibility of association of
bark splitting were more distinct and
insect pests causing mortality was ruled
prominent (Fig. 8). The descriptions were
out based on field as well as lab assay. It
in agreement with the report of heart rot
quiet normal to see shot holes in the dead
disease characterization in sal by Bakshi
trees but not in live ones as the habitat of
et al. (1963). Appearance of sporophores,
insect is restricted weak dead trees and
punk knots, swollen bole, branch stubs,
this cannot be considered as cause as
dead branches and forks, external
they colonize after the tree death. Like
injuries, top dying and dying of branches
wise, the possibility of soil moisture
were considered by them as the external
excess or stress was also ruled out as the
indicators of heart rot detection in sal.
mortality was not just restricted to low lying
While in the studies on heart rot of Acacia
water logged conditions but also to
mangium in Acacia plantations, Prasad
uplands. So, high soil moisture was
(2000) indicated the symptoms of soft and
observed to one of the factors for
brittle heart wood around pith, yellowing of
encouraging root rot. But finally the
foliage, premature defoliation, epicormic
association of plant pathogens that too
branches, distinct bark splitting,
belonging to basidiomycetes group fungi
appearance of fruiting bodies on the stem
was considered as the prime cause. It was
and unhealed pruning wounds. So heart
confirmed based detailed field
rot affected different tree species found to
observations like root dissolution, profuse
exhibit distinct symptoms with species
mycelial growth inside the main root, sap
specific slightly varied associated
wood decay, fungal fruiting bodies on the
symptoms also. Based on the symptoms
basal and above portions of trunk, bark
the disease severity were made like
splitting with swollen knots filled with
0 – Healthy, 1 – Appearance of punk knots
fungal mycelium and fruiting bodies. This
(1- 25 % infection), 2 – Initiation of drying
was further supported by the laboratory
of branches (25 -50 % infection), 3 – Bark
assay, microscopic observations and
splitting and death of 25 – 50 % branches
taxanomical studies done coordination
(50 – 75 % of infection), 4 – Appearance of
with well renowned taxonomic centres of
Many fruiting bodies, debarked stems (75
india as furnished below.
96
 My Forest, June - 2012
4.3.1 Characterization based on
cultural characters, fruiting bodies and
microstructures
The cultural characters of first
group of causal organism on MEA showed
radial growth. The mycelium looked
grayish white at initial stage, which turned
to full brown later. Under 10X, hyphae
looked thin walled, branched with
characteristic clamp connections. Basidia
and basidiospores were thin walled. The
cultural characters of first group of casual
organisms on MEA showed radially
spreading. The mycelium looked grayish
white at initial stage but turned entirely
brown as the cultures grew, when
observed under microscope with 10x
magnification the hyphae looked thin
walled, wide angled branching with clamp
connections. Basidospores were thin
walled.
Morphological characters of
fruiting bodies were studied for identifying
the associated heart rot fungi in infected
trees. During survey fruiting bodies were
collected from infected trees and
identification of the organisms was
confirmed based on fruiting body
characters. Further it was confirmed with
the assistance of Agarkar Research
Institute and National center for fungal
taxonomy. Based on fruiting body
characters and taxonomical work diversity
fungal pathogens found to be associated
in causing root rot and heart rot disease
induced mortality. The major ones are
enlisted in the (Table 7).
For cultural characterization, a
microscopic observation of isolated
fungus culture from decayed wood was
97
done (Fig. 10). The documented
morphological characters were compared
with a taxonomic literature furnished in
Indian Polyporaceae (Bakshi, 1976).
Further it was confirmed with the help of
taxonomical services of Agarkar institute,
Pune and National Center for Fungal
Taxonomy, New Delhi.
4.4 Confirmation of problem and cause
Based on field observations,
symptoms progression, fungal fruiting
body and spore observations,
confirmatory reports from taxonomical
institutes the problem of root rot disease
induced mortality in young trees and heart
rot disease induced mortality in aged trees
with basidiomycetous fungal pathogenic
association was arrived.
4.3.2 Baiting technique
Healthy heart wood discs which
were collected and subjected to baiting
technique reveled that all the heart wood
discs were infected by the fungus and a
thread of mycelium was seen first after
three weeks and a thick patch of fungus
was seen after four weeks in all the heart
wood discs which confirmed that the
disease can also spread through soil
where pathogen is of both root rot and
heart rot causing nature. Similarly Huang
and Kuhlman (1989) have characterized
Rhizoctonia soloni in slash pine. In the
similar line, Prasad (2000) showed that
heart rot discs of A. mangium were
colonized by fungi when subjected to soil
block technique, confirming that the heart
rot causing fungi also spreads through
soil.
 My Forest, June - 2012

4.3.3 Characterized pathogens in applanatum, G. calosum. Bakshi (1963)

Terminalia alata characterized many fruiting bodies that
In total, 12 different fungi were occurred on sal trees for heart wood
recorded in association with the root and decay. The work done by Bakshi (1963)
heart disease viz., Ganoderma are still in lime light till date in India as not
lucidum, G.colosum, Ganoderma many reports are available in recent past.
applanatum,Trametes versicolor,
4.3.3 Characterized pathogens in
Daedalea quercina,Lenzites
associated species
betulina,Trametes sauveolens,Phellinus
The list of recorded pathogens are
sp., Hexagonia sp., Lenzites sp.,
enlisted in (Table 9). Most commonly
Daedalia sp., Microporous
Ganoderma lucidum, Trametes versicolor,
xanthopus,Trametes sp., Among them
Ganoderma colosum, Phellinus sp.,
Ganoderma lucidum was found in
Hexagonia sp. Trametes sauveolens,
common in causing root rots. Trametes
Daedalea sp. Lenzites sp. were seen in
versicolor was observed to be in
association with important species. The
association with both root rot affected
fruiting was distict in Delonix, Anogeissus,
and heart rot affected ones. In heart rot
Xylia, Careya and Emblica. It gives a clear
affected trees most commonly G.
cut indication that pathogens are cross
applanatum, Trametes versicolor,
inoculable from one species to another. In
Ganoderma colosum, Phellinus sp.,
future there is high chance of new tree
Hexagonia sp. Trametes sauveolens,
species getting infected and high severity
Microporous xanthopus and Trametes
in the already infected species. So overall
sp. In the advanced stage of infection,
effort is required to protect not only
Daedalea quercina, Lenzites betulina,
Terminalia alata but also much timber
Lenzites sp., and Daedalia sp. were
valued associated species.
recorded. All other species the other
species of Ganoderma like G.

98
 My Forest, June - 2012

Table 7. List of causal pathogens for root rot and heart rot
disease induced mortality in Terminalia alata

Sl. Casual fungal pathogen Id. no. in NCFT, New AMH accession in

No Delhi ARI, Pune

1. Ganoderma lucidum 3471.09

2. Ganoderma applanatum 3474.09

3. Trametes versicolor 3478.09

4. Daedalea quercina 3475.09

5. Lenzites betulina 3476.09

6. Trametes sauveolens 3479.09

7. Phellinus sp. - 9419

8. Hexagonia sp. - 9420

9. Lenzites sp - 9421

10. Daedalia sp. - 9422

11. Microporous xanthopus - 9423

12. Trametes sp. - 9424

13. Ganoderma calosum - -

99
 My Forest, June - 2012

Table 8. List of associated fungi for root rot and heart rot
disease induced mortality in Terminalia alata

Sl. Companion tree species Associated wood rooting fungi

1. Carya arborea G. applanatum, Daedalea flavida, Cantherallus sp.

2. Xylia xylocarpa Ganoderma lucidium, Ganoderma applanatum

Lenzites sp. Daedalea sp, Trametes versicolor

3. Lagerstroemia lanceolata Lenzites sp. Polyporous xanthopus

4. Anogessius latifolia G. lucidium, G. applanatum, Cantherallus sp.

Polyporous xanthopus, Phellinus sp., Hexagonia sp.

5. Dillenia pentagyna Daedalea sp, Phellinus sp., Hexagonia sp.

Trametes versicolor

6. Emblica officinalis Ganoderma lucidium, Trametes versicolor

7. Syzyigium cumini Phellinus sp. Ganoderma lucidium,

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Champion, H.G., 1953, Regeneration and
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Chan, H.H., 1984, Study of timber recovery of
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K.B., 1958, A survey of pathological
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Gibson, I. A. S., 1981, Seed source
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Harsh, N.S.K. and Tiwari, C.K., 1995,
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Harvey, A.E., Larsen, M. J., Jurgansen, M. F. and
Jones, A., 1989, Nitrogen activity
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1993, A survey of heart rot in some
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 My Forest, June - 2012
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Pp. 86.
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OBSERVATIONS MADE AT RIVER TERN ISLETS
- BHADRA TIGER RESERVE
D.S. GOANKAR*1, IFS, SANTOSH R SUTAR*2 and NEHA PAI*3
Terns are any of about 45 water
bird species belong to the Sternidae
family. They are known for their long
migratory routes, gregarious behavior and
colony breeding. The birds are medium to
large in size and usually have white or
grey plumage with black markings on the
head. They are extremely vocal and make
loud cackling noises particularly during
breeding. One of the popular members of
Tern family is the Arctic Tern, which has
the longest annual migratory route among
all the birds and is known to migrate from
Arctic to Antarctic and back covering a
distance of about 38,000 km every year.
Terns are mostly sea birds but can also be
found near inshore coastal waters,
estuaries, large rivers and other inland
fresh water bodies.
The Indian River Tern (Sterna
Figure 2 : River tern carrying its prey to feed its young ones
Figure 1 : An adult river tern in breeding plumage
Deputy Conservator of Forests, Bhadra Wildlife Division, Chickmagalur.
104
My Forest, June, 2012
Vol.48(2) Page No. 104-107
aurantia) is a fresh water bird that is a
member of the Sternidae family and
belongs to the Sterna genus. They are
local resident breeders and can be found
throughout India. The birds are about 38-
43 cm long with dark grey upper parts,
white under parts and characteristic
forked tail, which is found in all birds of the
Sterna genus. They have a yellow bill and
red coloured legs. During the breeding
period, they have a black cap, which
during winter turns greyish white with
black markings. Unlike most Sterna terns,
they are mostly found near freshwater
bodies and rarely venture to tidal creeks.
The River Terns feed by plunge diving, a
process of catching swift moving prey by
diving into water from flight. They mostly
feed on fish, crustaceans, tadpoles and
aquatic insects.
Figure 3 : The four river tern islets
 My Forest, June - 2012
The backwaters of Bhadra Reservoir in
Bhadra Tiger Reserve are favourite
breeding place for Indian River Terns. The
Reservoir is located near Lakkavali
Village (13 42’ 5.5” N, and 75 39’ 58.6” E)
of Chickmagalur District. The birds can be
seen breeding and nesting in four small
islets that emerge when water levels are
low in the resevoir. The islets are located
roughly at a distance of about 500 m from
the dam gates. The size of the largest islet
is about 3000 sq m, while the smallest is
about 800 sq. m. The birds arrive in flocks
Figure 4 : Large flock of river terns
hovering on the largest islet
The local people have known of
Indian River Terns arriving here for more
than 50 years. It was a practice among the
locals to collect the eggs of the birds and
sell it in the market for consumption. With
the declaration of Bhadra Tiger Reserve,
such activities have been stalled and the
islets are now protected by boat patrolling
in the area.
The following questions haunt
anyone who has had the chance to
observe the birds:
a. Why do the birds come only to the
islets in the backwaters of Bhadra
105
of thousands to the four islets during
February-June every year and form large
colonies. It is estimated that about 3000-
5000 birds nest on the largest islet. The
birds then reside here for the next 80-90
days for nesting and breeding. When the
monsoons begin, the water level in the
Reservoir rises and causes the islets to
submerge. Before this happens, the birds
fly away with their young ones. Apart from
Bhadra Reservoir, it is not known whether
River Terns breed near any other inland
water bodies inside the reserve.
Figure 5 : A typical river tern ground nest
has a clutch of 2-3 eggs
Resevoir and not to any other
inland waters nearby?
b. What is so unique in the habitat of
these islets that attracts the birds?
c. Why do they come only during
summer season (May-
June) and not in any other season?
The following are the possible reasons:
The inherent behavior of each bird
including the Indian River Tern during
breeding season is to find a safe place
with no disturbances and adequate
availability of food in the surrounding area.
 My Forest, June - 2012

The colour of the rocks and land forms of
the islets is very similar to that of the eggs
and body colour of hatched chicks. This
helps the nests to camouflage with the
surrounding terrain and thus remains
protected from any predators.
The islets have small saucer
shaped depressions in their terrain with
rocks and stones and is covered with
grassy bushed on the islets. This forms an
ideal habitat of the birds to breed. The
depressions are used by the birds to build
ground nests, which are made of dried
twigs and sticks that forms a perfect
camouflage with the ground.
In summer, the residing water
levels causes the tips of the islets to
gradually emerge from the waters of the
Reservoir, the moist of the islets gets
exposed to the sun the tip of the islets
gradually get covered with grass. The
grasses protect the nest by acting as a
shield from wind and summer showers.
The grasses are flushed by the birds to
feed on tiny insects and worms the water
around the islets is about 80 m in depth
and has a variety of fish species.

Figure 6a and 6b : The soil and stones of the islets provides the perfect camouflage for the chicks

The abundance of fishes in the waters
surrounding the islets acts as a major
source of food for the birds. The depth of
the water also deters the locals from going
to the islets. The islets provide safety,
abundance of food and least anthropo-
genic disturbances making them a
popular conducive habitat for breeding
and nesting for the birds.

Figure 7a and 7b : Islets covered with a green patch of ground flora such as grass protecting the eggs

106
 My Forest, June - 2012

Apart from the rerasons mentioned above, Threats and Conservation:

abiotic factors such as temperature (30-
One of the threats the birds face is
50 c) and relative humidity (50%) are also
the influx of tourists visiting River Tern
suitable for the birds to breed and nest in
Lodge, which is located in close proximity
the islets during summer. Moreover, the
to the islets. These visitors go for boating
islands are also formed only during
in the Reservoir to see the River Terns,
summer when the water level reduces in
which disturb the birds. This must be
the reservoir. Hence the birds prefer to
avoided by disallowing boating during the
come here during March-June which is
breeding season.
late summer.

Figure 8 : The water around Figure 9 : Other ground Figure 10 : Soil composition
the islets is deep flora of the islet of the islets

Conclusion : predators and no anthoprogenic

The islets formed during the
summer in the backwaters of Bhadra
Resevoir are a favoured habitat for the
River Terns to breed and nest besause of
the availability of food, safety from
disturbances. However, a detailed study
needs to be conducted on the habit,
habitat and the behavior of Indian River
Terns visiting the islets of Bhadra Tiger
Reserve.

Figure 11 : Fresh hatchlings of the river tern birds

107
108
 MY Forest
Quarterly Journal of Karnataka Forest Department

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109
 My Forest, June, 2012
Vol.48(2) Page No. 110-122

SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVORINMENTAL

PERSPECTIVE OF AGROFORESTRY IN INDIA

RICHA KAKKER, RAJAT S. PAL and H.N. HYMAVATHI

ABSTRACT

This review paper deals with the complex relationships between the socio economic and
environmental aspects of Agroforestry. It analyse to the impact that adoption of
Agroforestry has made in the increase or tree cover in India and its contribution to the
Indian Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and its potential for ecological amelioration. This
GDP does not reflect the true picture of welfare and growth that takes place; it indicates
the productivity level of the output. The increase in area was the result of Agroforestry
being adopted but decline in its contribution to GDP is a bottleneck of the Agroforestry
system on the basis of the socio-economic and environmental indicators mentioned
earlier. The paper suggest the strategies that need to be adopted to increase the adoption
of Agroforestry in India keeping in view its socio-economic and environmental
consequences.

INTRODUCTION Agroforestry holds good as it fulfills both

Agroforestry is an integrated
approach of using the interactive benefits
from combining trees and shrubs with
annual crops or livestock. It combines
agriculture and forestry technologies to
create more diverse, productive,
profitable, healthy and sustainable land
use systems. As per the definition
provided by the International Centre for
Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF)
“Agroforestry is a collective name for land
use systems and technologies where
woody perennials are deliberately used on
the same-land management units as
agricultural crops or animals in some form
of special arrangements or temporal
sequence”.
Agroforestry Division, Tropical Forest Research Institute, Mandla Road, Jabalpur-482021 (M.P.)
110
ecological and economic interactions
between the different components. All
Agroforestry systems emphasize on one
common concept i.e. the purposeful
growing or deliberate retention of trees
with crops or animals in an interacting
environment for obtaining multiple
products or benefits from the same
management unit.
There are 3 attributes which all
Agroforestry systems possess:
1.
Productivity: Most, if not all,
Agroforestry systems aim to maintain or
increase production as well as productivity
of factors or production using land, labour,
capital and even the inputs used in
cropping system.
 My Forest, June - 2012
1.
Sustainability: By conserving the
product potential of the resource base,
mainly through the beneficial and
ameliorating effects of woody perennials
on soils, Agroforestry can achieve and
maintain conservation and fertility goals.
2.

Adoptability: Agroforestry has been
adopted by the farming community to a
large extent. These attributes sum up to
conclusion that it is advantageous to
adopt Agroforestry systems owing to its
potential to optimize utilization of
resources which earmarks its importance
in the socio-economic and ecological
area.
Forestry is an important area
meriting consideration in our country.
Thus, it becomes our responsibility to
preserve it because it is a valuable
resource which cannot be grown in a
bundle of few days. Forest also provides
ecological balance and environmental
stability. Beside this it also provides socio-
economic well being and development of
a country. It creates shelter, food and
backward and forward linkages for a high
percentage of our population including the
industrial and service sector. Therefore to
increase its spread the National Forest
Policy1988 aims at maintaining 33% of the
country's land mass under forest and tree
cover. As per the latest estimates
presented in the India State of Forest
Report 2009 which is based on the
interpretation of satellite data for the
period 2006 – March 2007 published by
the forest survey of India, Dehradun, the
Forest Cover of India, assessed through
interpretation of satellite imageries stood
as 21.02% (6,90,899 sq.km) of the
geographical area of the country
111
(32,87,240 sq.km) and the tree cover
which has been assessed on the basis of
sampling based methodology in which
high resolution satellite data has been
used for stratification followed by field
surveys carried out in the sampled
districts stood at 2.82%(92,769 sq.km) of
the geographical area of the country
making the total of forest and tree cover to
be 23.84% as assessed for the year
2007. This shows that of 33% for forest
and tree cover for the country as a whole is
yet to be achieved.
. The main drawback of growing
forests for commercial purpose is the long
gestation period required for trees to grow
or mature completely i.e. to be
marketable.
Similarly, Agriculture is also one of
the strongholds of the India and accounts
for 18.5% of the GDP (GROSS Domestic
Product) a report by the IBEP (Indian
Brand Equity Participation) 2007-08. The
Indian economy has not bond adequate
emphasis in these sectors which forms the
backbone of the Indian economy and with
almost 60% of the 1.1 billion population
dependent upon it, reforms are strongly
required in this sector. The anticipated
growth rate of agriculture sector of about
4% but has seen a growth of about 1%
(Indian economy overview) in the past few
years. The main problem affecting
agriculture is that farmers themselves
don't see it as a profitable option today.
The farmers are indebted and if the
monsoons are not on their side and the
crops fail, and then they are often staring
at unemployment and mere survival (C.J
Shishir Srivastava).
 My Forest, June - 2012
Therefore, looking at the drawbacks of
both the agriculture and forestry sectors
initiatives were taken to develop a mixed
sector combining the characteristics of
both the sectors so that drawback of one
sector can be favorable for another and
vice versa. As a result the concept and
there practice of Agroforestry was
developed which acted as a viable
technique to achieve respective targets.
HISTORY OF AGROFORRESTRY
Agroforestry is not a modern
man's invention. This system of farming
has been in practice since our ancestor's
time spanning centuries. Cultivating trees
and agricultural crops, in intimate
combination with one another is an
ancient practice and has been carried out
worldwide. It was present there in Europe,
America, Asia and Africa.
In India the traditional
Agroforestry systems have sustained
Indian farmers and livestock owners for
generations. Thus, Agroforestry is an age
old practice which has survived from the
Vedic era.
Agroforestry during the Epic era:
The Epic era is the period in which
the two great epics i.e. Ramayana and
Mahabharata were written. In this era,
Valmiki illustrated the way in which rishis
and munis utilized land for growing fruits
and vegetables in a proper arrangement.
The trees of Ashoka (Saraca indica),
Neema(Azardirachta indica), Peepal
(Ficus religiosa) and Bargad (Ficus
benhalensis) in the outer ring and Jack
fruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) and
Mangoes (Mangifera indica) in the middle
112
ring and flowers in the inner ring keeping
the water tank in the centre. It is evident
that the Agroforestry practices such as
agri-silviculture and agri-horticulture were
in operation since primitive times.
Agroforestry during the Medieval
period:
During the medical period
Agroforestry practices existed which
included planting trees for shade and
shelter, boundary demarcation, timber
firewood, vegetables, flowers and fodder.
Multipurpose and nitrogen fixing trees
were planted for improving the nutrient
status of the soil. The tribal's bias towards
protecting trees can be gauged by the fact
they performed dances around them and
this practice had social, ethnic and
religious backing.
Agroforestry during the recent past:
In recent times, especially during
the last 3-5 centuries, spectacular
improvements were made in technique of
planting and rising trees. In India,
Agroforestry practices are of an ancient
origin but organized Agroforestry research
which began in 1979 at Imphal have been
expanded towards promoting and
implementing Agroforestry practices in the
rest of the country by establishing centers
like The Indian Society of Agroforestry,
National research Centre for Agroforestry
(NRCAF), Jhansi(U.P), Centre for Social
Stability Research Institute, Karnal
(Haryana), North- Eastern Regional
Institute of science and Technology,
Nirjuli, Itanagar (Arunachal Pradesh) to
promote Agroforestry research in almost
all the agro-climate zones. The most
 My Forest, June - 2012
important Agroforestry practice is known
from the Kangeyam tract of Tamil nadu
where slivipasture system was perfected.
Tree plantation continued throughout the
country as a demarcation and control
measure against wind erosion. Multi-
storey and home-gardens were in
existence in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil
nadu as an important Agroforestry
practice. This practice is still followed in
these states to fulfill the needs of fodder,
fuel-wood, fruits, vegetables, medicines
etc. the Green Revolution in India which
was heralded especially in the 1960's was
a mixed blessing. Ambitious use of agro-
chemicals, high-yielding variety and
intensive cultivation boosted food
production but also destroyed the
agricultural ecosystem. Of late, Indian
farmers and agricultural scientists have
realized this and are anxious to find
alternatives such as non-chemical
agriculture and are even experimenting
with the traditional agricultural techniques
to make farming organic. The miracle of
green Revolution may had arrived but for
most of the poor farmers it was not
available because they could not afford to
pay the irrigation, pesticides, the fertilizers
as for the land itself.
Against this bottleneck in the
system, the World Bank actively
considered supporting nationally oriented
forestry programs which could support
farmers by increasing food production and
conserving the environment. As much as it
helps the traditional forest services to
produce and process wood, the Food and
113
Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO
of the UN) 1976, redirected its focus and
assistance in the direction of the rural
poor. It also focused on the benefits that
will accrue to both farmers as well as
nation as a whole. Policy reforms were
brought about to check the problems of
deforestation and environmental
degradation and thereby develop land-
use approaches which would be socially
acceptable, environmentally sustainable
and ensure the sustainability of the
developments during the1960's and
1970's were instrumental in initiating
organized efforts in Agroforestry.
However, these developments led to
increased demand in technology and
certain costly inputs and increased the
demand for fertilizers, which was beyond
the reach of small and marginal farmers in
developing countries. These short
comings observed in the Green
Revolution initiated new studies which
heightened the concept of intercropping
and integrated farming systems.
Furthermore, the international Institute of
Tropical Agriculture (IITA) ,in Ibadan,
Nigeria extended its work to include
integration of trees and shrubs with crop
production. Other research organizations
in world also initiated work on the
integration of animals with trees and crops
and with the success of these experiments
a new system was initiated after observing
the flip side of the green revolution which
gave weightage to the basic requirements
of the farmers and Agroforestry emerged
as the most preferred land use system for
small and marginal farmers.
 My Forest, June - 2012
EVALUTION OF A AGROFORESTRY WITH
RESPECT TO THE ENVIORNMENT,
SOCIETY AND THE ECONOMY
Agroforestry has been viewed as
a solution to the problems which were
observed after the green revolution and
was earlier believed to be a complete and
perfect package. To evaluate a change, it
is important to adopt a multi dimensional
approach to a system, thereby giving
weightage to the society economy and the
ecology and brining about sustainable
development.
Development is concerned with
the enhancement of living conditions,
sustainable development (SD) is integral
to the processes of development. SD
highlights how the resources available
should be used so that it sets the contours
of development. The concept of SD takes
note of socio-economic and ecological
aspects of the resources and something
mere. The creation of waste and hence
investment on its management,
investments on regeneration of natural
capital and exhaustibility and species
extinction and giving weightage to future
generations are some of the important
characteristics of the ecosystem
approach to development. The ecosystem
approach leads to direct utilization of
natural resources by providing natural
beauty, security and intergenerational
equity.
In the models of economic growth
(Rostow stage model and Harred Domar
model) activates such as production and
consumption generally relies on the
principle of efficiency i.e., the greatest
benefit of an action to the society is
114
achieved when Marginal Social Benefits
(MSB) from allocation of resources are
equivalent to the Marginal Social Cost
(MSC) of the allocation [MSB=MSC], but
besides efficiency there are various
attributes which should be considered.
They are, proper valuation of all
resources, equity, understanding or
renewable and non-renewable resources
as natural capital stocks and resistance of
eco- system.
Proper valuation of all resources: This
is calculated depending upon the scarcity/
availability of resources and the resources
and the irreversibility of the ecology i.e. to
understand what relative importance does
a species hold and the rate at which the
extinct species will regenerate.
Equity: As the name implies, it means
equal distribution of resources after the
production process, which should be
equitable not only in the present phase but
should also hold good for intergenera-
tional equity.
Resilience; Resilience is an attribute
which ensures minimum security,
continuity and sustainability in the eco
system.
Therefore for a system or
developmental phase to be marked as a
complete package it I important to have all
the above attributes.
Thus, for Agroforestry to be called
as a development in the area of forestry it
should be evaluated properly on the basis
of the above mentioned attribute to qualify
as sustainable development. Agroforestry
fulfills all the attributes but is syills a myth
in the mind of many people.
 My Forest, June - 2012

Eventually, all the agricultural and forest
policy reforms have an important goal of
achieving adequate levels of food and
shelter requirements to fulfill the basic
needs of the people. On the contrary, the
data on hunger released by the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO)
of the Untied Nation, on the 10th December
2008 reveals that the numbers of
chronically hungry people have increased
by 40 million worldwide in 2008. Upto 93%
of people affected due to chronic hunger
live in developing country. India has the
highest number of chronically hungry
people in the world, amounting to nearly
20% of the global total. Steep rise in food
prices from late 2006 to the first half of
2008, has been the biggest challenge in
45 years as alerted by the World Food
Programme (WFP). The UN secretary
General, Bank-ki-Moon, at a ministerial in
Ghana in April 2008 warned that grain
stocks in the world were at their lowest in
30 years. The world is consuming more
food than it produces. What is required is
to have a more stable, long term and
sustainable strategy to come out of this
most complex crisis.
As per the report it is difficult to say
that the changes brought about in the
agricultural sector cannot be rated
positive on social grounds of striking out
the problem of hunger. Therefore
irrespective of the developmental change
we are not in a condition to record an
escalating effect on poor people.
Food constitutes an important
factor for the economic development of
our country along with social
development. Food adds to the
enhancement of productivity of people
resulting in greater economic output in the
economy any hence increased income.
On social grounds it provides health which
helps then to work. This shows that it is a
vicious circle where an error in a
component may affect society, economy
and environment as well.
In the forest front, India is likely to
face severe shortages of supply of timber
to meet its requirements from between
domestic and international front. Demand
is likely to grow from 58 million cubic
meters in 2005 to 153 million cubic meters
in 2020. The supply of wood is projected to
increase from 29 million cubic meters in
2000 to 60 million cubic meters in 2020.
The productivity of timber in India is 0.7
cubic meter / ha / year, whereas as the
world average is 2.1 cubic meters /ha /
year. The supply of timber is mainly from
forestry plantations and wood production
is showing a negative growth rate. In the
absence of adequate supply from
domestic sources, the nation has to
depend heavily on imports to meet its
demand for timber. [ WWF (World Wild
Life Federation),Juy,2007].
The above cited data shows that
Agroforestry has not been able to
contribute greatly towards sustainable
development and has some flaws.
WEIGHING AGROFORESTRY ON THE
GROUNDS OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
BENEFITS
In societies, where the major part of the
population still makes their living from the

115
 My Forest, June - 2012

land, the primary concern should be that
the practice should make complete
utilization of resources and secondly, it
should fulfill all the socio-economic
benefits which can be derived from the
output, Economy, environment and
society have a complementary relation
ship.
The Economy consists of all
firms, household, government and the
external sector involved in financial
relations amongst themselves.
Environment means all the
natural resources including land
ecosystem resources, deposits beneath
the land surface, oceans, natural climate
and nutrient cycles.
Society comprises of people,
having diverse lifestyle and habitats which
run the external sector. Therefore an effect
on any one of this will affect the other too.
Agroforestry from the Economic point
of view
Economy and Environment have
a positive and negative relationship with
each other.
Firstly, the environment provides
inputs of raw materials and energy
resources and these inputs are
transformed into outputs through the
economic system.
Secondly, the economy uses the
environment as a waste sink. Pollution,
which occurs as a result of economic
which is dispersed in the environment.
These focus on the negative and positive
correlation amongst them.
Environmental activities involve
both forest and agriculture activities.
116
Combining the two areas, the team
Agroforestry emerged which being a part
of the environment has a relationship with
the economy too.
Agroforestry when reviewed
through micro economic lenses also fulfills
Pareto optimality condition, i.e., being
better off without making the other one
worse off.
Agroforestry provides the
landowner the opportunity to develop a
system of short and long term investments
that allow for some spreading of financial
advantages, although it also introduces
the need for additional management
expertise to deal with added complexity of
the farm operation.
The general economic benefits of
Agroforestry are:

Spending (sharing of fixed costs
because of the joint – production
relation ship).

Reducing the initial time period
required to produce income from
land devoted exclusively to tree
production.

Diversifying income sources, in
effect spreading the risk generally
associated with monoculture.
But, in contrast there are certain
constraints in this system which breaks
down the pareto optimality condition
where the Agroforestry practices and the
production level gives rise to competitive
relation i.e. negative correlation and
increase in production of one product is
achieved with a corresponding decrease
in level of production of the other. As an
Agroforestry system matures, this
 My Forest, June - 2012
relationship changes. Therefore, it is
important to be fully informed and familiar
with the dynamic nature of the system
because the adoption decision should be
made with respect to maximizing the
cumulative net benefits. If the adoption
decision i.e. regarding the combination of
tree and agricultural crop, soil type,
rainfall, climatic conditions is wrong , then
acceptance of an Agroforestry technique
Perennial
Output
A
B
Annual Crop Output
Given both biophysical and human
constraints, production combinations that
lie above the curve are unattainable while
those which lie below the curve utilize
resources in an inefficient manner. The
most efficient combinations are those
which lie on the curve. Financial analysis
includes society and utilizes the
opportunity cost of on-farm family labour
as a factor in calculating wage rate of
talking as zero.
Economic analysis also includes
production and transportation cost of
seedlings and the imputed rent of land for
analysis instead of taking as zero.
All these cost expenditure added,
117
will be a cost estimated venture which may
give rise to mere economic, social and
ecological hurdles.
Any economic analysis of
Agroforestry should keep in mind its
complementarity and long term
characteristics, the essence of which can
be illustrated through the utilization of
production possibility curve as at Fig1.
below:
Figure : 1
will further help in calculating the cost
benefit analysis. Economic constrains, if
not calculated properly, will result to
incorrect assumptions.
Therefore to make proper
calculations regarding the Benefit to Cost
Ratio (BC Ratio) B:C Ratio and determine
whether the present Agroforestry
practices have provided favorable results
on the whole, it is important to consider the
parameters which are hidden and need to
be explored, such as seeking advice from
an economist and to build an
interdisciplinary approach to evaluations
which is a cumbersome process.
 My Forest, June - 2012

As per the World Development Report of Forestry and fishing) as in Table-1 below:
2006-07 data on Agriculture (including

Table - 1: Gross Domestic Product (G.D.P.) at Factor Cost from Agriculture

and Allied Sectors (Including Forestry and Fishing)

Percentage Share of
G.D.P. (Total) G.D.P. Agriculture Agriculture

Year At At At At At At
Current 1999-00 Current 1999-00 Current 1999-00
Prices Prices Prices Prices Prices Prices
2 3 4 5 6 7

1999-2000 1786525 1786525 446515 446515 25.0 25.0

2000-01 1925017 1864300 449565 445403 23.4 23.9

2001-02 2097726 1972606 486617 473249 23.2 24.0

2002-03 2261415 2048287 472060 438966 20.9 21.4

2003-04 2538171 2222758 532342 482676 21.0 21.7

2004-05 2877706 2388384 552422 482446 19.2 20.2

2005-06 3275670 2612847 615845 511013 18.8 19.6

2006-07 (Q) 3790063 2864309 695424 530236 18.3 18.5

This shows that the Gross domestic
Product (GDP) of India has shown
increasing trend but from Rs.17,86,525
crores in1999-2000 to Rs.37,90,063
crores in 2006-27 (at current prices) but
the contribution of agriculture (including
forestry and fishing ) hs shown decling
trend from 25% in 1999-2000 to 18.5% in
2006-07 (at current prices). This is owing
to rapidly increasing population,
deforestation in forest areas and the
agricultural sector being trapped in the
population problem resulting in an
imbalance in land to labour ratio, and
118
uneconomic landholding i.e. fragmented
land holding which is difficult to be used for
some economic purpose. These are some
of the important factors resulting in the
declining trend. But, according to some
economists, it is incorrect to conclude that
there is growth in agriculture and forestry
sector by merely measuring the
contribution of this sector to the GDP. As
the process of economic growth is
invariably accompanied by increased
level of pollution and environmental
degradation, for e.g., increasing the level
of agricultural production and productivity
 My Forest, June - 2012
require pushing the frontier of extensive
cultivation which results in soil
degradation and intensive cultivation
which in turn results in soil degradation
and lowering of ground water levels.
In case of forests, there are
pressures to push up generation of forest
products for multifarious activities and
over exploit mineral resources.
In the case of industrialization it
can be said that all programmes of
industrialization result in some causing
environmental pollution.
Crop yields also show negative
results in Agroforestry and break the
assumption of complementarity between
annual agricultural crops and perennial
tree- crops because the distribution of root
system in space and in time is usually
influenced by both genetic character of the
species and soil condition which also
influences the competition between them
(Puri et a, 2002).
Allelopathy : Allelopathy also
affects geographic systems. Its effects
could be more important in simultaneous
systems than in sequential systems
because of the permanent presence of
trees and direct exposure of agricultural
crops to the continuous release of
chemicals .Allelopathaic effects also
depend on the other plants which are
dependent principally upon the
concentration as well as the combination
in which one or more of these substances
is released in the environment (Putnam
and Tang, 1986). It was found that the
amount of Nitrogen removed from the
cereal crop was two and half time more
119
than that removed by Eucalyptus
plantations and the phosphorous removal
was fifteen times more.
Soil erosion and nutrients:
Agroforestry systems also reduce soil
erosion. Closely spaced tress on slope
reduce soil erosion caused by water by
acting as a physical barrier against it. This
increases water infiltration in to soil
resulting in improved texture and
structure. The FAO of the UN came to a
conclusion that trees generally less
degrading to the soil than many
commercial agricultural crops (FAO
2000).
G l o b a l Wa r m i n g : G l o b a l
Warming is caused amongst others by the
rising CO 2 content in the earth's
atmosphere as a result of burning of fossil
fuels and fire-wood. According to the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), if it continues unabated
the mean annual global temperatures are
projected to increase by 1.4 to 5.8 o C over
the next century and sea levels world wide
are projected to rise by meters.
Agroforestry has the potential of reducing
global warming as trees and agricultural
crops sequester atmospheric CO2 and
store it in the farm of wood or crop biomass
as also organic soil carbon. Only if the
trees are put to proper usage i.e. if
furniture is made from timber paper pulp
then it would be a bad storage device for
sequester carbon.
Competition for water: Competition for
available water is likely to occur in most
Agroforestry systems at some period of
time.
 My Forest, June - 2012
The effect of the event depends on
droughts and the drought tolerance of the
plants and on the degree of competition
for other resources especially nutrients.
Malik and Sharma (1990) reported
reduction of over 30% in crop yields at a
distance of 10 m from tree line. Thus,
despite the use of drought adapted plants
competition for water plays a major role in
reducing productivity of Agroforestry
systems.
To view sustainability against
economic, ecological and social
considerations we have to establish a link
between these three domains and it is
here that Agroforestry fulfills many of the
beneficial criteria.
3.

While selecting the agricultural crop
MEASURES WHICH SHOULD BE
TAKEN MAKE AGROFORESTRY AS
AN ADVANTAGEOUS PRACTICE
Reviewing Agroforestry on
economic, social and ecological
grounds raises some concern which
could be resolved through some
measures as suggested below:
1.


Collective framing – This is the most
radical solution, whereby the state is
made the sole land owner with a
simultaneous regrouping of people to
live on the least fertile places, which
was not a successful move in history
except in some states like the Soviet
Union and China, because of
government (state) intervention, but
implanting it in democratic India may
not feasible.
2


Im
provement in productivity of
forest resources on sustainable
120
basis is important for meeting
national needs and conversing forest
resources. Agroforestry plantations
should be raised from improved
planting stock which assures greater
genetic gain and appropriate
silvicultural practices be adopted
which may result in enhanced
productivity levels of timber of upto
20-30 m3/ha. Therefore, the nation
policy must accept Agroforestry as
the preferred strategy for
reforestation of degraded forest and
agricultural lands. Enhanced
productivity is also the result of better
adoption of tree – crop combination
which can complement each other.
emphasis should be aid on the
production of staple food which will
further help in overcoming difficulties
found in the marketing of the product
as local demand exists.
The World Development Report
2008 (WDR) asserts that GDP growth
based on agriculture growth is much
as 4 times more effective in reducing
poverty as growth in the industrial and
services sectors. Therefore, it is
important to look upon agriculture
growth as one of the imperative
factors. The efforts to reduce hunger
and ensure enough food for all needs
to be linked to efforts for
environmental regeneration with
special emphasis on soil
conservation, water conservation and
afforestation.
 My Forest, June - 2012
4.
Developing extension partnership
among Public, Private and Non
Governmental Organizations (NGOs)-
Pubic extension appears better suited to
undertake a wide range of extension
programmes dealing with natural
resources and farm management.
Private sector firms have access to
superior and more efficient technologies
and they can provide farmers with
information to complement these new
technological products.
NGO's are well suited to assist the rural
poor through different types of
programmes and bring awareness
amongst them.
In strengthening the national extension
system for the 21th century, policies and
resources should reflect the comparative
strengths of public extension, private
firms and NGOs. If this type of public
private partnership (PPP) can be
achieved it would be a more effective
approach of developing extension
programmes to serve the technology,
human resource and organization needs
of all groups of farmers in developing
countries.
Pluralism and not a single dimension
strategy should be adopted in organizing
extension programmed in developing
countries (Antolt, 1994).
The framework of PPP can protecting
societal interests that can help strengthen
effective partnership among public
121
institutions, private firms and NGO's. The
government should also encourage
development of NGO's and provide
programmatic resources to their
organization which are required to build
social capital in rural communities.
This strategy will further help in improving
the productivity and GDP of our country
with greater equity, which in totality will
improve our human Development Index
(HDI). As per the WDR report for 2007-08
India is ranked 128 out of 174 countries.
This index reflects the calorie intake,
improvement in heath, life expectancy and
other qualitative measures which can be
achieved by improving our agricultural
and forestry techniques because
agricultural and forestry techquies
because agricultural growth is as much as
4 times most effective in reducing poverty
then growth in other sectors.
5.
Establishment of a larger number
of institutions and training centers for
providing forestry education around the
world especially in developing countries.
“There has been serious
degradation of forestry education around
the world especially in developing
countries and this is having a damaging
impact on rural development” explains
August Temu, partnership coordinator at
the World Agroforestry Center (Nairobi,
Kenya). The following recommendation
have been made by him to improve
Agroforestry education.
 My Forest, June - 2012
CONCLUSION
As per the Indian State of Forest Report
2009 published by the Forest Survey of
India, Dehradun, the forest and tree cover
of India is 23.84% of the geographical
area, i.e. 78.37 million ha. In 2007.
Similarly agricultural land covered 60.6%
of our geographical area until 2007, which
is a creditable achievement , but returns
from the forestry and agricultural sector is
not impressive as agricultural (including
forestry and fishing) has shown declining
trend as the contribution of this sector
towards the GDP has shown declining
trend as the contribution of this sector
towards the GDP has fallen from 25% in
1990-91 to 18.3% in 2006-07 (at current
prices), through it is said that GDP does
not reflect the true picture of the welfare
and growth that takes place, it indicates
the productivity levels of the output. The
increase in area was the result of
Agroforestry being adopted widely, but the
decline in its contribution to GDP is a
bottleneck of the Agroforestry system
determined on the basis of socio-
economic and environmental indicators,
REFERENCES
Antholt, C. 1994. Getting ready for the Twenty
first century: technical change
and Institutional Modernization in
Agriculture. World Tank
Technical paper no. 339. Asia technical
department series. Washington.
Arnold, J.E.M. 1987. Economic
considerations in Agroforestry projects.
In : steppler, H.A. and Nair, P.K.R.
Agroforestry; a decade of development.
ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya. Pp.173-190.
Bharat Dogre. Food crisis : Get priorities
122
mentioned earlier, which could be
improved if certain reforms (as suggested
under measures) are implemented.
To achieve environmental amelioration, it
would be more appropriate to have a
proper planning framework in place,
Agroforestry designs may be typically
based on site- focused assessments at
the farmer level. To realize Agroforestry's
capability to provide multiple services to
farmers and society, must be planned and
designed using information gathered from
a variety or spatial and temporal scales.
Thaman and Clark (1993) pointed out that
“to maintain the landscape in good health,
it is not necessary that every landholding,
every stretch of land, contain trees, just as
every farmer need not be an Agroforestry
but it is necessary that there be sufficient
trees in the right places”. Due to
landscape heterogeneity, a strategic land
use planning approach is necessary for
Agroforestry systems (Sanchez, 1995).
Thus, it is imperative to devise proper
planning strategies to enable the system
to be made more effective and robust,
thereby having the ability to deliver proper
resuts.
right. In Economic times.
Burton E.Swanson. developing an
extension partnership among Public,
Private and Nongovernmental
organizations. Champagiri.
Christoffel and Biggelar. Solution on
Agroforestry-> Farmer
Experimentation and innovation.
FAO,2000. the global outlook for future
wood supply from forests plantations.
Working paper GFPO'S/WP/03. Rome .
Italy.
123
 My Forest, June, 2012
Vol.48(2) Page No. 124-130

PRODUCTIVITY & ECONOMICS OF EUCALYPTUS PELLILTA IN

DIFFERENT RAINFALL SITUATIONS OF HILLY ZONE

PRADEEP PAWAR and K.S. CHANNABASAPPA

ABSTRACT

Eucalyptus pellita is fast growing & it has ability to adopt a wide range of edaphic
&climatic factors. The present study was carried out at four sites of hilly region with three
age gradations. Maximum yield (110t/ha) was recorded at Thirthahalli plantation & lowest
yield was recorded at Sorab plantations (86.65t/ha). Cost of cultivation was also
maximum at Thirthahalli plantations (Ra 1,66,612 /ha) and lowest cost of cultivation
was recorded at Sammasgi plantations. Maximum net returns were obtained in
Thirthahalli plantations (Rs. 1,87,787/ha) & minimum net returns were recorded at
Sorab plantations (Rs 1,39,250 /ha)

INTRODUCTION species is capable of producing much

higher biomass per unit area. Besides
Eucalyptus pellita is planted
tropical pines, poplars etc; many species
almost all over India for large scale
of genus Eucalyptus have demonstrated
afforestation and plantation programme
their ability to grow rapidly in a wide range
both to cover denuded and barren areas
of climatic conditions and thus assumed
as well as for covering poor or derelict
great importance in afforestation. Since
forest into fast growing monocultures of
this species is covering the less area in
high productivity. Its fast growing
India among the exotics, very few studies
character along with it ability to adopt a
were undertaken on biomass estimation.
wide range of edaphic and climatic
Primary productivity and biomass gain of a
conditions and its major role as raw
plant or in an ecosystem varies with the
material for pulp and paper industries
availability of resources and characteri-
have made it an ideal plantation species
stics of the environment in which they
for industrial plantation as well as for many
grow. Climate is the strongest ecological
afforestation programmes.
factor in determining primary production.
To meet the rising industrial and Changes in climate of a species can
fuel wood demand, number of exotic causes changes in its productivity and
species is being raised in various parts of sometimes alter the geographic range
the country, as an exotic Eucalyptus over which species can grow.

Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, College of Forestry, Sirsi, University of Agricultural Sciences,
Dharwad, 580008, Karnataka, India
124
 My Forest, June - 2012
Material and Methods
Components of cost incurred
The details of various items of
expenditure viz., seedling cost, site
preparation, ploughing of the area,
alignment and staking, trench-cum-
mound fencing, digging of pits and refilling
of pits after mixing farm yard manure,
fertilizer and insecticide, cost of farm yard
manure cost of plants, planting and
replanting, cost of fertilizer including
application, cost of insecticides including
application, weeding and soil working,
irrigation during stress period etc. was
collected from the respective farmers for
calculation of economics.
Component of benefits:
The details of income of benefits
viz., income from sale of poles were
collected and the details were used for the
calculation of benefit-cost (B/C) ratios.
Results and Discussion
The economics of Eucalyptus
pellita plantations in the present study was
given in Table 1.
Cost of cultivation (Rs/ha)
The results of economics of
Eucalyptus pellita plantations revealed
that the maximum cost of cultivation is
incurred for Thirthahalli (162212.40
Sl. No. Place Cost of Yield
cultivation (tonnes/ha)
(Rs/ha)
1 Sammasgi 128588.20 87.00
2 Soraba 137389.40 86.45
3 Sagara 137389.40 91.50
4 Thirthahalli 162212.40 110.00
125
Rs/ha) plantations followed by both
Sagara and Soraba (137389.4 Rs/ha) and
least was for Sammasgi (128588.2 Rs/ha)
plantations (Table 1 and Fig 1). The
maximum cost of cultivation of Eucalyptus
pellita is incurred in Thirthahalli
(162212.40 Rs/ha), this is due to the
higher cost of wages for labour and higher
cost of transportation. Cost of cultivation in
Sagara and Soraba (137389.4 Rs/ha) is
similar due to the similar rate of wages in
both areas while cost of cultivation was
minimum in Sammasgi (128588.2 Rs/ha)
is due to the lower cost of wages for labour
in Sammasgi (Table 1 and Fig 1).
These findings are in confirmity
with the findings of Lwin (2010),
Bandaratillake (2010), Neupane (2009)
Eucalyptus hybrid and Eucalyptus
comadulensis in Myanmar, Sri Lanka and
Nepal respectively. Prasad (1993) in
Acacia auriculiformis in Bihar, Ansari
(2007) in teak in Uttarakhand and Tewari
(1995) of Ailanthus excelsa in Jaipur area.
Total yield (Tonnes/ha)
The maximum total yield was from
Thirthahalli (110.0 t/ha) plantations
followed by Sagara (91.50 t/ha) and
Sammasgi (87.0 t/ha) while least was from
Soraba (86.45 t/ha) plantations (Table 1
and Fig 2).
Gross Net Benefit-Cost
returns returns ratio
(Rs/ha) (Rs/ha)
278400.00 149811.80 1.17
276640.00 139250.60 1.02
292800.00 155410.60 1.13
352000.00 189787.60 1.16
 My Forest, June - 2012
The maximum total yield was
obtained at Thirthahalli (110.0 t/ha)
plantations,is due to the favourable
climatic, topographic and edaphic factors
viz., temperature, mean annual rainfall,
relative humidity, altitude, soil physical
and chemical properties prevailing
Thirthahalli. The total yield in Sagara was
91.50 t/ha, less compared to Thirthahalli
but superior than Soraba due to the
climatic, topographic and edaphic factors
prevailing in that area which influenced
higher growth and productivity. The total
yield in Sammasgi was 87.00 t/ha while
minimum total yield was from Soraba
(86.45 t/ha) plantations, this was due to
lack of favourable climatic, topographic
and edaphic factors and also due to the
lack of proper care and management
(Table 1 and Fig 2). These findings are in
confirmity with the findings of Prasad
(1993) in Acacia auriculiformis in Bihar,
Murthy (2003) in Acacia auriculiformis,
Webb et al., (1984), Kushalappa (1991) in
Acacia auriculiformis.
Gross returns (Rs/ha)
The maximum gross returns was
recorded from Thirthahalli (3,50,00.0
Rs/ha) plantation followed by Sagara
(2,80.000 Rs/ha) and Sammasgi
(2,78,400.0 Rs/ha) while minimum was
from Soraba (2,76,640.0 Rs/ha)
plantations (Table 1 and Fig 1). The
maximum gross returns was obtained in
Thirthahalli (3,52,000.00 Rs/ha)
plantations, this is due to the higher total
yield obtained from Thirthahalli
plantations. The gross return in Sagara in
2,92,800.00 Rs/ha, this is due to the
higher total yield obtained in Sagara. The
gross return in Sammasgi was 278400
126
Rs/ha, while minimum gross returns was
from Soraba (2,76,649.00 Rs/ha)
plantations, this is due to the lower total
yield obtained in Soraba (Table 1 and Fig
1).
These findings are in confirmity
with the findings of Lwin (2010),
Bandaratillake (2010), Neupane (2009)
Eucalyptus hybrid and Eucalyptus
comadulensis in Myanmar, Sri Lanka and
Nepal respectively and Ansari (2007) in
Teak in Uttarakhand and Tewari (1995) of
Ailanthus excelsa in Jaipur area.
Net returns (Rs/ha)
The results revealed that the
maximum net returns was from Thirtha
halli (,189,787.6 Rs/ha) plantations
followed by Sagara (1,5,410.60 Rs/ha)
and Sammasgi (1,4,811.8 Rs/ha), while it
was minimum from Soraba (1,39,250.6
Rs/ha) plantations (Table 1 and Fig 1). The
maximum net returns was obtained in
Thirthahalli (1,89,787.00 Rs/ha)
plantations is because of higher gross
returns(3,52,000.00 Rs/ha) was obtained
from Thirthahalli plantations. The net
return from Sagara was 1,55,410.00
Rs/ha and Sammasgi was 1,49,811.00
Rs/ha is because of, higher gross return
(2,92,800.00 Rs/ha) and (2,78,400.00
Rs/ha) respectively. while minimum net
returns was from Soraba (1,39,250.60
Rs/ha) because of lower gross returns and
higher cost of cultivation in Soraba (Table
1 and Fig 1).
These findings are in confirmity
with the findings of Lwin (2010),
Bandaratillake (2010), Neupane (2009)
Eucalyptus hybrid and Eucalyptus
comadulensis in Myanmar, Sri Lanka and
 My Forest, June - 2012

Nepal respectively. Prasad (1993) in area, Rawat (2004) in Teak, Mohit Gera et
Acacia auriculiformis in Bihar, Ansari al.(2005) in some medicinal plants,
(2007) in teak in Uttarakhand and Tewari Anonymus (2008) in Pongamia pinnata.
et al (1995) of Ailanthus excelsa in Jaipur

Fig. 1 Cost of cultivation, gross returns and net returns (Rs/ha) of

Eucalyptus pellita plantations

Benefit-cost Ratio higher cost of cultivation in Thirthahalli

The results of the present
investigation revealed that highest
benefit-cost ratio was recorded for
plantations raised in Sammasgi (1.17)
followed by the plantations raised in
Thirthahalli (1.16) and plantations raised
in Sagara (1.13) while least benefit-cost
ratio was recorded for the plantations
raised in Soraba (1.02) (Table 1 and Fig
3). The maximum benefit-cost ratio was
obtained in Sammasgi (1.17) plantations,
this is because lower cost of cultivation as
compared to rest of the sites. Benefit-cost
ratio of Thirthahalli was 1.16, because of
127
and benefit-cost ratio was 1.13 because of
the higher net returns than Soraba, while
minimum benefit-cost ratio was in Soraba
(1.02) plantations is due to the higher cost
of cultivation incurred in Soraba than
Sammasgi (Table 1 and Fig 3).
These findings are in confirmity
with the findings of Lwin (2010),
Bandaratillake (2010), Neupane (2009)
Eucalyptus hybrid and Eucalyptus
comadulensis in Myanmar, Sri Lanka and
Nepal respectively. Ansari (2007) in Teak
in Uttarakhand and Tewar et al (1995) of
Ailanthus excelsa in Jaipur area.
 My Forest, June - 2012

These findings are in confirmity (1995) of Ailanthus excelsa in Jaipur area,

with the findings of Prasad (1993) in Rawat (2004) in teak, Gera et al.(2005) in
Acacia auriculiformis in Bihar, Ansari some medicinal plants, Anonymus (2008)
(2007) in teak in Uttarakhand and Tewari in Pongamia pinnata.

Fig. 2 Total yield (t/ha) of Eucalyptus pellita plantations from different sites

Fig. 3 Benefit-cost ratio of Eucalyptus pellita plantations from different sites

128
 My Forest, June - 2012
References
Anonymus., 2008, Cost of cultivation of
Pongemia pinnata, a research paper,
ICFRI, Dehra dun, Pp. 22-29.
Ansari. M. Y and H. P. Singh (2007). Economics
of Teak plantations in Uttarakhand.
Indian Forester., 133 (3): 402-410.
Bandaratillake. H.M., 2010, Eucalyptus
Plantations in Sri Lanka: Environmental,
Social, Economic and Policy Issues,
FAO Carporate document repository,
vol 2, Pp. 35-44.
Kushalappa, K.A., 1991, Perormance of Acacia
auriculiformis in India. Journal of
Tropical Forestry, 7 (2): 81-91
Lwin, O., 2010, Planting of Eucalyptus in
Myanmar, FAO Carporate document
repository, 2: 57-65.
Mohit Gera., Mahender Singh Gavsin., M. Y.
Ansari. and N. S. Bisht., 2005,
Economics of cultivation of some
commercially important medicinal plants.
Indan Forester, 131 (3): 358-370.
Murthy,B.N.N, 2003, Productivity and
regeneration studies in Acacia
auriculiformis A. Cunn. Ex Benth.
129
Indian Forester, 128 (12): 1235-1242
Neupane, S. S., 2009, Eucalyptus Plantation in
Farmlands: A Prospective Source of
Economic Returns in Bhabar Terai Zones
of Nepal, The Initiation Journal, vol 3,
Pp. 81-85.
Prasad, A. N, 1993, Economic Analysis of
Acacia auriculiformis plantations in
Gaya district of Bihar, Indian Forester,
133 (9): 349-353.
Rawat, J.K., 2004, Value of a 20 year old irrigated
teak plantation. Indian Forester, 125
(5): 555-560.
Tewari, D. N, Sunil Kumar and V. S. Kishan
Kumar, 1995, Growth and Economics of
Ailanthus excels plantations in Jaipur
area, Indian Forester, 121 (8): Pp. 215-
218.
Webb, D. B., Wood, P.J. and Henmamam, G. S.,
1984, A guide to species selection for
tropical and sub-tropical plantations.
Common Wealth Forestry Institute.
Oxford. Tropical Forestry Paper
No.15.
 Table : 3 Influence of organic, inorganic and bio-fertilizers on biomass at 90 days after transplanting in Melia dubia

BIOMASS
Treatments Shoot Root Total
Fresh (g) Dry (g) Fresh (g) Dry (g) Fresh (g) Dry (g)

T1 : Control 13.21 2.37 2.38 0.42 15.59 2.80

T2 : Polutry Manure (20g/seedling) 24.55 2.42 7.24 0.58 31.79 3.01

T3 : Vermicompost (20g/seedling) 13.71 3.36 1.83 0.45 15.54 3.82

T4 : Urea (1.0g/seedling) 19.80 4.97 3.90 1.77 23.70 6.74

T5 : DAP (1.0g/seedling) 52.69 12.34 20.15 3.56 72.84 15.91

130
T6 : NPK 1:1:1 (Sampurna 18:18:18 - 1.0g/seedling) 53.58 12.83 24.82 4.77 78.40 17.60

T7 : Azatobactor (5g/seedling) 22.64 5.83 10.43 2.47 33.07 8.31

My Forest, June - 2012

T8 : Azospirillum (5g/seedling) 20.47 4.48 6.12 1.29 26.59 5.78

T9 : P-solubulizing bacteria (PSB) (5g/seedling) 16.38 3.70 6.57 0.87 22.95 4.58

T10 : Azatobactor + Azospirillum + PSB (5g+5g+5g) 16.67 3.63 8.29 1.74 24.96 5.38

SEM+ 0.64 0.24 0.33 0.14 0.90 0.385

CD@5% 1.87 0.70 0.98 0.42 2.66 1.135

131
 My Forest, June, 2012
Vol.48(2) Page No. 132-138

IMPACT OF ECOTOURISM SUSTAINABILITY IN ACHIEVING

SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN KARNATAKA

VINAYAK NAIK, DR. B.C. SANJEEVIAH

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this article is to describe and evaluate the impact of ecotourism
sustainability on improving the standard of living of local communities in Karnataka from
the points of view of local people in Karnataka's ecotourism destinations, as an example
of an attempt to involve local people in the management of forest reserves and to create
opportunities for local communities to benefit from the forests. This research note
considers ways in which we may better understand how ecotourism ventures impact on
the lives of people living in, and around, the environments which eco-tourists frequent.
From a development perspective, ecotourism ventures should only be considered
'successful' if local communities have some measure of control over them and if they
share equitably in the benefits emerging from ecotourism activities. An empowerment
framework is proposed as a suitable mechanism for aiding analysis of the social,
economic, psychological and political impacts of ecotourism on local communities. A
survey approach was implemented to collect data and researcher has made over sixty
field visits to eight-five villages and interacted with local communities and authorities
using a completed questionnaire technique. The research outcomes show that local
people can achieve socioeconomic value from ecotourism activities that are implemented
in the ecotourism destinations in Karnataka.

Keywords: Ecotourism, Local Communities, Sustainability, Eco-tourists, Empowerment

INTRODUCTION Ekster, D, 2002). Wight, P, (1993) points

1.1 Definitions and meaning of
Ecotourism
A walk through the rainforest is not
ecotourism unless that particular walk
somehow benefits that environment and
the people who live there. Ecotourism has
become a vital part of sustainable
community development and at present is
the fastest-growing sector of the tourism
industry (Weinberg, A., Bellows, S.,
out that ecotourism can also be referred to
as nature tourism, alternative tourism,
cultural tourism, soft tourism, green
tourism, adventure tourism, or
responsible tourism (Hawkins, D. & Khan,
M, 2001). As said by Honey, Martha
"Ecotourism is tourism that consists in
travelling to relatively undisturbed or
uncontaminated natural areas with the
specific objective of studying, admiring,

Department of Tourism, Bangalore University, Bangalore - 560 001, Karnataka, India

132
 My Forest, June - 2012
and enjoying the scenery and its wild
plants and animals, as well as any existing
cultural manifestations (both past and
present) found in these areas. In these
terms, nature-orientated tourism implies a
scientific, aesthetic or philosophical
approach to travel...The person who
practices ecotourism has the opportunity
of immersing himself/herself in nature..."
(Honey, Martha, 2008)
The Ecotourism society in 1991
defined it as “Responsible Travel to
natural areas that conserves the
Environment and sustains the well-being
of the local people” (Bar kin, D, 2002)
According to Clarkin, T. and K. N.
Kähler “Natural areas have originally been
home to numerous indigenous
communities. Their culture, lifestyle, is
completely in synchronization with their
natural surroundings. When more and
more people took to these virgin
wilderness areas in the name of
ecotourism, there came an expected
reaction from the locals and thus came in
the component of welfare of the local
people” (Clarkin, T. and K. N. Kähler,
2011).
1.2 Ecotourism objectives:
Lew, A, (1998) cite work done by Nozick,
M, (1999) when outlining three objectives
of ecotourism, namely:
That ecotourism generates financial
support for the formation, management
and protection of natural areas.
That residents living near the natural
133
areas benefit economically.
That due to the economic benefits,
conservation is supported by local
residents.
1.3 Facts about Karnataka's
Ecotourism:
Eco-tourism has been extremely
popular in Karnataka; it was one of the first
states in India along with Kerala which
tapped the potential of Eco-Tourism.
Jungle Lodges and Resorts, setup as a
unit of Karnataka Tourism was established
two decades ago with the vision of tapping
the vast potential of Eco-tourism within
Karnataka (Susheela Nair, 2009).
It is one state with many worlds. It
represents variations of topography- high
mountains, hills and long coastal
stretches. It is part of high biodiversity-rich
region. It contains tropical evergreen
forests, mangroves. It has 4500 species of
flowering plants, 600 species of birds,
160species of mammals, 160species of
reptiles, 70sp of frogs, and 800sp of fish. It
comprises 25% of elephant population,
and 10% of tiger population. It blessed
with 5 national parks and 25 wildlife
sanctuaries, 14 heavy rainfall stations,
20% of forest cover (Karnata Forest
Department, 2004).
Major Eco-Tourism destinations in
Karnataka cover a wide range of Eco-
tourism options including Wildlife Safaris,
Island Living, River Rafting, Angling and
Organized Treks (http://news.oneindia.in,
2006). Eco-tourism options for both
Budget and Luxury options have
progressively two to three new
 My Forest, June - 2012
eco-tourism circuits and or destinations
are being added every year providing new
avenues for travellers to experience
Karnataka's rich eco-diversity.
Karnataka ecotourism is shelter
for many local communities who live in
and around the ecotourism destinations.
There are many benefits of ecotourism
when it is created and managed by local
communities. One of the biggest benefits
of ecotourism is that, with no negative
impact being made upon the environment,
the communities are reaping the financial
rewards without having to shoulder any
burden of stress upon the land. Tourism
has been good for many economies, but
often at a high price to the environment
and those people who are dependent
upon it (Madhav Gadgil, 2006).
Karnataka ecotourism benefiting
local residents - "One of the basic tenets of
ecotourism is to engage local
communities so they benefit from
conservation, economic development and
education. While nearby inhabitants are
those most directly affected by the
establishment of parks and protected
areas, they also stand to profit the most by
their conservation. By bringing residents
into the business of ecotourism, not only
can local people meet their economic
needs, but they also can maintain and
enhance the 'sense of place' that is critical
for guaranteeing long-term conservation
(Agrawal et. al, 2001).
1. MATERIAL AND METHODS
2.1 Methodology:
The study is descriptive in nature
134
and has the 'fact-finding' survey method.
Primary data has been collected by
administering interview schedules to the
respondents and researcher has made
over twenty field visits to thirty villages and
interacted with local communities and
authorities using a completed
questionnaire technique. Data required
for the research has been collected from
both primary and secondary sources.
Primary data has been collected from the
respondents, namely, local people, eco-
tourists and forest officials.
Secondary data has been colleted
from reputed journals, magazines,
articles, conference proceedings, news
papers, televisions, books, e-books,
dedicated to the tourism industry and
house journals of industry bodies such as
FICCI and CII.
2.2 Selection of Sample Units:
Before embarking survey, working
plan of various national park divisions
were reviewed to obtain base line
information about the role of sustainability
of ecotourism and welfare of local
communities. After consultation and
discussion with forest officials, field trips
were carried out. Main districts that were
targeted for the study were Bangalore,
Uttara-Kannada, Chikkamagaluru,
Chamarajanagar, Mysore and Kodagu:
Following national parks were finally
chosen for the current study:
1. Bannerghatta National Park, located in
Bangalore District, Karnataka, India.
2. Anshi National Park, located in Uttara
Kannada District, Karnataka, India.
 My Forest, June - 2012

3. Kudremukh National Park, located in experience and support environmentally-

Chikkamagaluru District, Karnataka, conscious projects.
India.
The second positive impact of
4. Bandipur National Park, located in
ecotourism is job creation, including direct
Chamarajanagar District, Karnataka,
and indirect employment opportunities.
India.
Weinberg et al. (2002) lists the first direct
5. Nagarahole National Park also known
employment opportunity as jobs within the
as “Rajiv Gandhi National Park”
park or protected area. Though these jobs
located in Kodagu district and Mysore
are relatively few, they are an important
district, Karnataka, India.
economic contributor to the community.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Research by Lindberg et al. (1994) and
(Weaver (1999) argue the multiplier effect
Following are the results
(the increased purchase of local goods
researcher obtained from sample
and services) as being a secondary
population such as local communities,
benefit to the many wage-paying jobs in
forest officials and eco-tourists during the
the service and accommodation
study and an examination of three
industries. In national parks of Karnataka,
pertinent social and economic benefits
local people have become employed as
associated with Karnataka's ecotourism
national park tour guides, campground
will be discussed: the creation of parks
operators, and craft and food producers,
and natural protected areas, job creation,
and through these initiatives have
and community empowerment.
produced successful community
The first positive impact is that development projects such as clinics,
successful ecotourism ventures generally schools, and water sources (Susheela
result in the formation of parks or natural Nair, 2009). In Kodagu and Mysore
protected areas within the host district, the success of ecotourism has
community. Discussed earlier by Lew, A, also brought positive changes such as
(1998) as one of the basic objectives of increased income and employment, an
ecotourism, this is important in many ways improved service industry, more
to the community. First, it aids in the awareness of conservation (Agrawal et.
environmental protection of the area; it al, 2001).
generates financial revenue through
Let have a real time example of
entrance fees, donations, and
Keoladeo national park (situated in
government support; and it provides
Bharatpur district in eastern Rajasthan,
valuable jobs that add to the social and
India that lies in the Indus-Ganges
economic structure of the host community
Monsoon Forest Bio-geographical
(Lew, A, 1998). Hawkins, D. & Khan, M,
Province with a total area of 2,873
(2001) further argue that since eco-
hectares) ecotourism sustainability and
tourists are more affluent than the average
local community development from
tourist and have more leisure time, they
economic point of view: (Vijayan, V.S,
are willing to pay more money for services
1991) (Cook, C.D.K, 1996)
and products in order to get a natural
135
 My Forest, June - 2012
First, most of the tourist
development has taken place within a
relatively small geographical area, on the
urban side of the park. There is therefore a
high degree of linkage to the local urban
economy, while the rural economy,
formerly dependent on natural resources
within the park, remains marginal.
Second, the majority of operations
are owned by local elites-al though some
profits from the hotel sector accrue to
urban-based tour companies (and their
overseas counterparts) the degree of
vertical integration by tour companies is
relatively small. Most of the hotels are
owned and run by a small local elite who
benefit by virtue of location (almost all land
near the entrance to the park is owned by
them) and historical regional, national and
international connections.
Third, access to tourist spending
is mediated by patron-client relations
between owners of enterprises and
ancillary service providers and
employees, but tempered by the state
through assistance to rickshaw-pullers,
etc.
Fourth, opportunities for informal
sector involvement (street vendors etc.)
are largely hampered by the mode of
arrival ('method of delivery') of package
tourists. The local employees are less well
represented in the higher levels of
administration.
The third positive impact of ecotourism is
the opportunity for community
empowerment. Scheyvens (1999)
examines the prospect of community
empowerment and argues that there are
four levels of empowerment that may be
achieved through successful community-
based ecotourism ventures
136
psychological, social, political, and
economic (Scheyvens, R, 1999).
Four levels of community
empowerment which may be achieved
with successful community-based
ecotourism:
Economic empowerment:
Karnataka ecotourism brings
lasting economic gains to a local
community. Cash earned is shared
between many households in the
community. There are visible signs of
improvements from the cash that is
earned (e.g. improved water systems,
houses made of more permanent
materials)
Social empowerment:
Ecotourism maintains or
enhances the local community's
equilibrium. Community cohesion is
improved as individuals and families work
together to build a successful ecotourism
venture. Some funds raised are used for
community development purposes, e.g. to
build schools or improve roads.
Political empowerment:
The community's political structure, which
fairly represents the needs and interests
of all community groups, provides a forum
through which people can raise questions
relating to the ecotourism venture and
have their concerns dealt with. Agencies
initiating or implementing the ecotourism
venture seek out the opinions of
community groups (including special
interest groups of women, youths and
other socially disadvantaged groups) and
provide opportunities for them to be
represented on decision-making bodies
e.g. the Wildlife Park Board.
 My Forest, June - 2012
Psychological empowerment:
Self-esteem of many community
members is enhanced because of outside
recognition of the uniqueness and value of
their culture, their natural resources and
their traditional knowledge. Increasing
confidence of community members leads
them to seek out further education and
training opportunities. Access to
employment and cash leads to an
increase in status for traditionally low-
status sectors of society e.g. women,
youths.
CONCLUSION
The purpose of this paper was to
examine what, if any, role ecotourism
played in achieving sustainable
REFERENCES:
Agrawal et. al. (2001). Communities
and the environment.
Ethnicity, Gender and tate in Community-based
conservation. Univ Press.
iBar kin, D. (2002). In Eco tourism for
sustainable regional
development (pp. 245–253). United
Kingdom: John Wiley and Sons.
Clarkin, T. and K. N. Kähler. (2011).
Ecotourism." Encyclopedia of
Environmental Issues. Salem Press.
Cook, C.D.K. (1996). Aquatic and
wetland plants of India. New York,
U.S.A: Oxford University Press.
Hawkins, D. & Khan, M. (2001). In
Ecotourism opportunities for
developing countries (pp. 191-204).
137
community development in Karnataka.
Based on the literature reviewed for this
paper researcher would have to conclude
that ecotourism is a valuable contributor to
sustainable community development,
though it is evident that often outside
assistance such as NGO's and
government funding may be needed as a
backup option due to the uncertainties of
the tourism market. In general the
ecotourism market appears to be
producing sound environmental and
socio-economic benefits as per the
objectives of any individual ecotourism
venture. The rationale behind the
framework is that ecotourism should
promote both conservation and
development at the local level.
Oxford, UK: Butterworth
Heinemann.
Honey, Martha. (2008). In Ecotourism
and Sustainable Development: Who
Owns Paradise? (p. 33).
Washington, DC: Island Press.
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in tourism: FICCI. Retrieved January
10, 2012, from news.oneindia.in:
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natak-ranks-among-top-five-states-in-
tourismficci-1147644798.html
Karnata Forest Department. (2004,
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h t t p : / / k a r n a t a k a f o r e s t . g o v. i n :
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 My Forest, June - 2012
Lew, A. (1998). In The Asia-Pacific
ecotourism industry: putting
sustainable tourism into practice
(pp. pp. 92-106)). Addison Wesley
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Nozick, M. (1999). Sustainable
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Scheyvens, R. (1999).Ecotourism and the
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wild and wondrous jungles. Retrieved
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139
 My Forest, June, 2012
Vol.48(2) Page No. 140-152

ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF TECTONA GRANDIS LINN.F.AND THE

FOUR EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED ON THIS SPECIES IN
BANGALORE RESEARCH WING
RITU KAKKAR, I.F.S.

ABSTRACT

This article briefly explains all characteristics of Teak including its occurance, Botany,
Geology and essential elements required, selection of plus trees, silviculture, genetics,
natural regeneration, Nursery techniques, tending operations of teak, utilization, timber
characteristics, Diseases etc., with special reference to Karnataka. Then it goes on to
explain the four experiments conducted in Bangalore and neighbouring areas in
Bangalore Research wing juridiction. These experiments include (i) Clonal Orchard of
Tectona grandis of 83 Clones brought from Chandrapur (ii) Teak & Oxytenanthera stokcci
1997 Plantation at Nallal-C Hoskote (iii) A study on Irrigation schedule on Tectona grandis
at Doresanipalya. These experiments are still continuing and final results can be studied
after they attain 30 years of age.

INTRODUCTION and forms are T. grandis var. glabrifolia

Teak (Tectona grandis Linn.f.), a
species of world wide reputation as
paragon among timber trees belongs to
the family Verbenaceae and is distributed
predominantly in tropical or subtropical
regions. In India, Teak is distributed
naturally in the Peninsular region below
240 latitude. The most important teak
forests are found in Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
Kerala besides Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat,
Orissa, Rajasthan and Manipur (Kabaw
Valley).
The well-known “Teli” variety of
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Kerala is mainly based on
leaf characters, resistance to a skeltoniser
Hyblaea puera and phenologically by its
early leafing and flowering; other varieties
Chief Conservator of Forests, Research, Bangalore - 76.
140
Moldenke and forms abludens and
canescens.
Teak is a large deciduous tree
upto 30m high with deep and stout tap
root. Bark is pale brown or grey. Leaves
opposite, broadly elliptic, obovate, stellae-
pubescent. Flowers in large, 60-90 cm
long panicle, actinomorphic; calyx enlarge
in fruit forming and becomes inflated;
corolla pale white; stamens 5-6, alternate
with corolla lobes; ovary with axile
placentation. Drupe with thick shaggy
exocarp of matted hairs, epicarp inflated,
spongy; seeds 1-4.
The tree is a pronounced light
demander ; it does not tolerate
suppression at any stage of its life and
requires complete overhead light as well
as fair amount of side room for its proper
development.
 My Forest, June - 2012
The tree is capable of thriving on variety of
soils and geological formations, but
requires good sub-soil drainage. The teak
produces a large deep root-system. At first
a long thick tap root is formed; this may
persist or may disappear, but in either
case strong lateral roots are produced.
Teak coppies and pollards
vigorously, and sometimes retains the
power of coppicing to a considerable size.
Natural regeneration:- It is difficult to
understand why this tree which often
regenerates naturally with ease in certain
localities should fail to do so in others
though adequate light is allowed on the
soil by creating gaps in the canopy.
There is generally, a sharp
alternation of dry season and wet season
in teak zones of India. This is beneficial to
its regeneration because the fruit which is
shed at the beginning of the dry season,
weathers in that season, soaks in the pre
monsoon showers of April-May, dries out
in the monsoon break that follows and
finally soaks again in the monsoon.
However, if the break between the pre
monsoon is too long the seed whose
germination would start in the pre
monsoon rain, will die. The hard seed coat
beneath the spongy layer of seed protects
it from premature germination during pre
monsoon rains. If the first, good pre
monsoon showers are followed by a long
dry spell, hardly any seedlings can
survive.
In natural forests the annual
ground fire scorches the seeds and
facilitates germination. There was
instance where in a burnt plot in Betul
141
Division (M.P) 26 per cent of seedlings
came up against none in the unburnt plot.
The establishment of a teak seedling
depends especially on light.
Sowing of teak seed in patches or
lines is resorted to in a few cases. The
common practice, however, is to raise new
crops with the help of nursery stock either
in the form of entire plants or root-shoot
cuttings (stumps).
The oldest teak plantation in
Karnataka is the Karmed plantation (in
Coorg) started in 1868 and extended till
1875. The technique of teak planting has
now been almost completely perfected.
Teak seeds are collected during February
and March; usually sown in the nursery,
made close to the plantation in May and
June. In North Kanara and Belgaum,
however, the seeds are treated in the first
season and sown in the nursery in the
following year.
Nursery Technique:
The fruit is hard, irregularly
globose, a nut enclosed in a thick covering
calyx which causes delay in germination.
Therefore pre-treatment of fruits is
necessary.
It is seen that when the soil is still
warm and the regular monsoon is yet to
start, the heat of the soil has conducive
effect on germination of seeds. Sowing of
seeds a fortnight prior to the start of the
regular rains is recommended.
Pre-Treatment :
One year old fruits give better
germination than the freshly collected
fruits, however it is a prevalent practice
 My Forest, June - 2012
to use seeds collected during the same
season. Pre-treatment of seeds by
alternate wetting and drying, with weekly
interval, for 6 weeks is done. Initially the
fruits are soaked for a week, thereafter the
fruits are taken out and dried properly
under sunshine for one week by heaping
the seeds in the evening and spreading it
again in the morning. After six weeks i.e.
after three rounds of one week each of
wetting and three rounds of one week
each of drying the fruits become ready for
sowing.
Standard raised beds are
prepared in well drained open areas. The
fruits are sown in lines (latest by the end of
May in the Western Ghats region of
Karnataka) and covered with soil.
Germination starts within 15 days and
continues for almost another year. Up to
90% germination is observed in very well
treated fruits. Root grub attack is noticed
and it can be controlled by application of
insecticides like Thimet to the soil.
Preparation of Stumps:
For raising planting stock through
pre-sprouted stumps, the seedlings which
are of pencil to finger thickness at the
collar are uprooted and stumps having 10
cm of root and 1 cm of shoots are
prepared. Clean cut with a sharp tool is a
must. The shoot portion must have at least
one good bud. All side roots are removed
from the tap root. Such stumps are planted
in polybags of 15 X 23 cm. Shade is not
necessary. Within 3-4 days these stumps
start sprouting.
Planting :
The seedlings raised in polybags
by using stumps are planted in well
142
drained, open slopes having deep soil. It
will not thrive in water logged areas and
does not tolerate shade or any
suppression.
On suitable sites direct planting of
one year old stumps is also equally
successful. However pre-sprouted
stumps are better suited in gap planting
and on poorer sites.
Tending operations in Selection
Forests :
In the areas that are worked under
the improvement felling (i.e. those areas
which are unfit for undertaking conversion
operations), the exploitable diameter of
the trees is fixed and their removal
controlled. The felling mainly consists of
thinning in immature crop, removal of
certain proportion of silviculturally
available mature trees, lifting of canopy
over the established advance growth
which is cut back, climber cuttings,
removal of inferior growth suppressing the
teak and its valuable associates, and
cutting of dead and moribund trees. These
fellings are extremely beneficial to the
forests.
Thinning : To begin with, these
crops were thinned to the spacing given in
the All India Yield tables for plantation teak
using the formula D=3/2(d+3) for spacing
between stems. Where (D= distance in
feet between stems, d= Average diameter
in inches). Thinning carried out according
to this formula approximated to C grade
thinning. The first thinning was carried out
when the height of dominant stem was
7.5-9 m and second thinning when it was
10.5-12m, as it was noticed from the All
India Yield table for plantation teak, that in
 My Forest, June - 2012
the initial stages the “top” height of the
crop up to 14m was independent of site
quality. However, it was soon realized that
crops thinned on diameter and number of
stems per acre as given in Yield table
remained congested. Hence in order to
arrive wider spacing between stems the
formula given above was modified as
under.
D= 3/2 (d+5)
Karnataka : The teak crop raised by 2x2
m spacing in mechanically thinned once in
the 6th or 7th year and again at 10th or 12th
year, depending on the site quality.
Subsequent thinning is by “Elite” method.
Spacing of stems, approximately 8m apart
provide full room for growth. In the
plantation where 3x3 m espacement is
adopted (Belgaum circle) the first
mechanical thinning is done in the 9th year
of formation. The second thinning is also
mechanical and is done in the 15th or 18th
year depending on the growth.
Subsequent thinning are silvicultural
thinning (Hussain 1959).
Teak Forests in Karnataka : The
bulk of teak forests is confined to the
Western Ghats. The teak forests of this
state are classified in to following types :
1.
Moist deciduous forests: The rainfall
varies from 1520-2030 mm. The main
associate species are : Dalbergia latifolia,
Terminalia tomentosa, Lagerstroemia
lanceolate, Haldina cordifolia,
Pterocarpus marsupium, Dillenia
pentagyna, Bambusa bambos,
Dendrocalamus strictus.
2.

Mixed deciduous teak forests: In
143
these forests, the rain fall varies from
11210-1527 mm. The common associates
of teak in these forests are Anogeissus
l a t i f o l i a , Te r m i n a l i a t o m e n t o s a ,
Pterocarpus marsupium, Grewia
tiliaefolia, Kydia calycina, Haldina
cordifolia, Albizia odoratissima,
Stereospermum personatum, Garuga
pinnata, Emblica officinalis,
Dendrocalamus strictus.
3.

Dry deciduous teak forests: The rain
fall varies from 890-1140 mm. The main
associate of teak of this region is
Anogeissus latifolia, bamboo
Dendrocalamus strictus) and sandal is
also fairly abundant.
4.

Dry teak forests: Rain fall is below 890
mm. Anogeissus latifolia is the main
associate of teak. Other species are
Stereospermum xylocarpum, Mitragyna
parviflora, Albizia lebbeck, Garuga
p i n n a t a , Te r m i n a l i a c h e b u l a , T.
tomentosa, Gmelina arborea Gulbarga,
Bangalore and Sandur are some of the
good examples of these forests.
Geology and Essential nutrients
required: It predicted that substantial
amounts of Ca will be removed from the
site by the teak harvest, which many not
be replenished by atmospheric inputs and
soil mineral weathering, especially on the
highly productive sites.
Geology v/s teak growth: Teak
prefers basic to acidic ones. Very shallow
and less moisturized soil leads to stunted
growth of teak. Kadambi (1951) observed
better teak growth in valleys than hill tops
due to better moisture content.
 My Forest, June - 2012
Chemical properties of soil vs teak growth:
Calcium appears to be the essential for the
growth of meristems in teak.
Genetics and Silviculture: Teak
has chromosome number 2n=36
(Kedharnath & raizada 1961, Hedegart &
Eigaard 1965). In teak lot of natural variation
is available due to its wide distribution with in
India and in other countries.
Selection : The work on selection of plus
trees in India was started around 1960 and
to date about 1000 plus trees are available
for use in establishing clonal seed orchards
as grafts. These plus trees have been
assembled in four National germplasm
banks located at Chandrapur (Maharash-
tra), Londa in Belgaum district (Karnataka,
Mulug, 40 Kms from Hyderabad (Andra
Pradesh) and at Arunachal Pradesh. Plus
tree should distinguish itself in some or all of
the following characters, vigour i.e. greater
height and diameter, straight cylindrical
clear bole without too much of taper, bumps,
epicormic shoots, flutes and buttresses,
narrow or compact crown with light
branching, a reasonable amount of seed
production. Selected tree must be distinctly
superior to the average of the stand.
Emmanuel and bagchi (1988)
identified following phenotypic characters
for selection of plus trees in South India
(Kerala, Karnataka and tamil Nadu).
1.
Age . more than thirty years.
2.
Growth
(I). Vigourous, healthy and showing
superiority in height and diameter
when compared with the crop.
(ii). Dominants or co-dominants,
height being more than 15 m.
144
3.
Stem Form
(i). Straight stem.
(ii). Stem cylindrical circular incross
section, without excessive taper.
(iii). Absence of spiral grain, if
present not exceed 5 degrees.
(iv). Free from pronounced buttress
or fluting.
4.
Crown and branching
(i). Narrow to intermediate in width.
(ii). Not suppressed either from the
top or from the sides at any time
(iii). Light and spreading branches
which are either flat or moderately
ascending.
(iv). Good natural pruning. None or
few epicormic branches.
(v). Dense mass of healthy foliage.
5. Free from leaf skeletoniser and leaf
defoliator.
6. Moderate to good flowering and
fruiting.
It is much easier to locate and
evaluate plus trees in plantations where
every tree is of the same age and has been
subjected to a common management
regime and grows under more or less
similar general site conditions.
Progeny testing of plus trees:
The selected plus trees are required to be
first genetically tested in progeny trials,
before being assembled in seed orchards
as graft or seedlings. Since in teak the
results from such trials may take several
years to obtain, usually in almost all tree
improvement programmes dealing with
long rotation timber species, orchard
establishment is not deferred but
proceeds concurrently.
 My Forest, June - 2012
Fortunately, it has been the general
experience of many tree breeders that
plus trees usually produce a good quality
progeny. Those plus trees which are
shown by progeny testing to be genetically
undesirable, would however, be
subsequently removed from the orchard
and only those of proven genetic worth
retained. They are the “elite” trees from
which second cycle seed orchards can be
established. It is essential to select seed
production areas and treat them by
removing the inferior trees and allowing to
remain only good trees so that quality
seed can be harvested.
The CSO is an orchard composed
of vegetatively propagated trees which
can yield seed comparatively earlier and
be used for short term genetic
improvement of a tree crop. The SSO is a
plantation of seedlings which takes a
longer time to produce seeds. But it has
the advantage of having a broader genetic
base combined with progeny testing, thus
serving the dual purpose in one planting.
The first generation orchard consists of
phenotypically selected plus trees in
which the genetic make up of selected
trees are not tested. The second
generation CSO consists of progeny
tested clones (elite trees). Third and
subsequent generation CSO's have
clones of desirable selection of the best
trees in the best families from the progeny
trial of plus trees.
Layout designs and spacing of
grafts in orchard : The grafts of the
assembled plus trees in a seed orchard
are planted according to a randomized
145
design taking care that grafts of the same
plus tree never adjoin each other. This is to
discourage inbreeding and encourage
natural crossing among all the assembled
plus trees.
Karnataka: Fifty plus trees of teak
have been selected and twelve seed
orchards measuring a total area of 121.20
ha. Have been established. The state is
also a participant of national level
provenance trial of teak.
Characters measured (i) Height
(ii) Diameter character scored (iii)
Straightness/crookedness (iv) Persista-
ncne of axis/banch (v) Branch size (vi)
Mode of branching (vii) Flowering and (viii)
Health (ix) Survival (x) Non-descriptive
Trees (xi) Plus tree candidates; health (xii)
attack of insects and or fungi/bacteria;
Persistance (xiii) Broken axis-two
categories; Straightness: (xiv) Three
categories of branches, epicormic
branching; Flowering (xv) A typical
flowering from side –branch.
The two major seed origins in Karnataka
state have, for example, been
distinguished (Kadambi 1945) on the
basis of morphological differences as
below:
Mysore origin
Trees relatively short and less well
formed, branchy, with the powerful
branches arching upwards like an inverted
sabre, crowns generally less full and
round-headed, displaying a greater
tendency to stag-headedness, less higher
than broad in the adult trees.
 My Forest, June - 2012

Shimoga origin: upon their utilization. In Kerala following

Trees with relatively tall and better formed
boles, less branchy with crowns round
headed higher than broad in the adult tree.
UTILIZATION:-
Teak timber and pole are
classified in various states depending
four classes of timber and five classes of
teak poles are recognized. Timber of
quality class-I, free from all defects is
considered of export quality whereas
timber below 3 m is considered as short
log.

Timber classification

I Class - 150 cm and above in girth, 3 m and above in length.

II Class - 100 cm to 149 cm in girth, 3 m and above in length.
III Class - 76 cm to 99 cm in girth, 3 m and above in length.
Iv Class - 60 cm 75 cm in girth, 3 m and above in length.

Poles classification
I Class - 65 cm to 75 cm in girth, 3 meter from butt end.
IA- above 12 meter in length
IB-between 9 and 11.99 meter in length
IC-between 6 and 8.99 meter in length
ID-below 6 meter in length
II Class - 53 cm to 64 cm in girth, 3 meter from butt end.
IIA- above 12 meter in length
IIB-between 9 and 11.99 meter in length
IIC-between 6 and 8.99 meter in length
IID-below 6 meter in length
III Class - 41 cm to 52 cm in girth, 3 meter from butt end. 1 Minimum length
1 6.99 meter
IV Class - 28 cm to 40 cm in girth, 3 meter from butt end. 1 and above
V Class - 15 cm to 27 cm in length.

KARNATAKA- Markets : Dharwar, Timber charecteristics: The popularity

Hunsur, Kadur, Mysore, Mundagod,
Mathigodu, Nagarcoil, Nanjangud,
Shimoga and Tarikere.
Depots : Alnavar, Barchi,
Bhagaweethi, Chipgi, Dandeli, Hattikevi,
Jagalbet, Jodia, Kadra, Kirwathi,
Ramanguli, Tavaragatti and Yerechalli.
and demand of teak is explained by its
inherent properties, such as dimensional
stability, durability, satisfactory strength
for almost all purposes, and its working
qualities. Teak wood is moderately heavy,
strong and tough, very steady, hard,
straight grained and coarse textured. It is

146
 My Forest, June - 2012
the best Indian timber in dimensional
stability and has very low fibre saturation
point and shrinkage. Teak wood is also
moderately refractory to seasoning and
can be seasoned free from defects with a
little protection against rapid drying
conditions. It is extremely durable,
resistant to decay and termite attack, easy
to work, gives smooth surface, good in
carving, amenable to bending and can be
finished to give very good gloss. Though it
has beautiful grain and colour, the same
could be further improved through
ammonia fumigation. It is excellent for
furniture, joinery, cabinet making,
decorative veneer, plywood and all sorts
of constructions.
The inherent quality of the wood is
largely attributed to the presence of oil.
Various parts of the tree, including the
wood are credited with medicinal
properties. The kernels yield about 40
percent of fatty oil (about 2 per cent in the
seeds). Flowers are considered useful in
biliousness, bronchitis and urinary
discharges. Both flowers and seeds are
considered diuretic. Leaves are used in
indigenous medicine and extracts of the
leaves indicated complete inhibition of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The leaves
contain yellow or red dye. This has been
recommended for dying silk, wool and
cotton. The leaves are occasionally used
as plates for dining purposes, for making
cheap umbrellas and for thatching
temporary huts in some places. The bark
is regarded as an astringent and
considered useful in bronchitis. This has
been found to be good source of oxalic
acid. Various compounds have been
isolated and identified from the wood bark,
root and leaves of the tree. Some
147
compounds are responsible for the termite
resistance property of the wood. Lops and
tops and other rejected portions are used
as fuel. Activated charcoal can be
prepared from the sawdust.
Diseases and Pests:-
Teak suffers in varying degree,
damage by about 280 and odd species,
comprising chiefly the defoliators, gall
formers, root bores and stem borers etc.
Eutectona machaerlis and Hyblaes puera
in the Indian region and bee-hole borer.
All future efforts will have to be
directed towards the development of
economically viable and environmentally
safe pest management strategies. Aerial
spraying of insecticides, though very
successful in containing the pest
population below the economic injury
level, have also been responsible for
mortality in non-targetted and beneficial
fauna as well as environmental and
related hazarduous problems.
Work done on Teak Improvement in
Karnataka in brief :
Teak is one of the important timber
species planted on a large scale in the
State. So far 569 Plus trees of Teak have
been identified at different regions of the
State. Tree improvement works in Teak
started in 1975 and till date 354.99 ha of
Clonal Seed Orchards and 32.81 ha of
Seedling Seed Orchards have been
established. All the 50 Plus trees of Teak
identified with the help of FRI, Deharadun
have been multiplied through bud grafting
and planted in CSOs in different locations
for seed collection and further
multiplication.
 My Forest, June - 2012

Apart from CSOs the Department come to leaf earlier in the season, have
has undertaken establishment of National stronger timber and higher oil content than
Clonal Germ Plasm Banks. They are at the common Teak trees.
Janganamatti in Belgaum (1.60 ha) and at
Silviculturist, Northern Zone,
Thittimatti in Kodagu (0.25 ha) with 218
Dharwad has established trial plots of Teli
clones from several states. The CSOs and
Teak at Sakrebyle in Shimoga Division in
germ plasm banks were established in
the year 1976 over an extent of 0.5 ha by
late 1970s and early 1980s. Most of the
stump planting and in 1977 by pre-
Clonal Seed Orchards have started
sprouted polybag seedlings over an area
flowering and producing seed. It is
of 1.7 ha. Growth measurements at the
observed that there is no synchronization
end of 25th year of 1976 plantation
in flowering among various clones planted
indicated mean annual girth increment of
in the CSOs. This aspect needs further
3.04cm as against the normal girth
study.
increment of 1.9cm. Similarly, in case of
On a good site we get an average height the increment was 70cm as against
of 50 kg of seeds per ha from CSOs. Low the normal height increment of 60cm. The
yield of seeds needs to be studied. We corresponding value for 1977 plantation is
also need to establish more CSOs of Teak 2.6cm and 80 cm at the end of twenty-
in order to meet the requirement of good three years.
quality seed. Teak CSOs that have been
Experiment:
established in the wet zone of the state are
Analysis of Experiments conducted in
not yielding enough quantity of seeds.
Research in Bangalore and
Therefore, since last few years CSOs of
Neighbouring areas.
teak have been established in the
transitional dry zone of the state. The
assumption is that such CSOs will I. Clonal Orchard of Tectona grandis of
produce more quantity of seeds. 83 Clones brought fron Chandrapur.

Teli variety of Teak Area : 0.5 Ha

No. of Plants : 249
A variety of teak called Teli variety
Espacement : 2x2
is planted in Uttara Kannada district near
No of Clones : 83
Hudsa in Haliyal division. It has smooth
Replications : 3
and shiny leaves. It has lesser proportion
Year of Planting : 1993-94
of white wood and more of heartwood,
Place : Doresanipalya
which is darker in colour than the common
Research Station
Teak. The bole of Teli Teak is more
cylindrical than that of common teak and
the bark is smooth with dull coloured. Teli
Teak trees are believed to grow faster,

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 My Forest, June - 2012

Criteria to study which clone performed the best was survival percentage, age,
Height, Girth, Length, Stem form, Disease, regenerations, flower and seeds. As list
of 83 clones would be very long only clones with height 8 m and above are detailed
below:-

Height Girth Flower seed Other

1 ORPB 20 9.5m 47

2 ORPB 17 9.5m 32 branchy

3 ORAN 2-S 9.5m 39

4 MY HVS 9.1m 39 Knots

5 ST -33 8.7m 54 branchy

6 ST – 29 8m 48

7 ST -48 8m 41 Yes

8 MY HV – 3 8m 24

9 ST – 21 8m 40 Bent

10 TNT – 18 8m 35 Bent

11 TNT – 11 10 m 56

12 APNPL -19 10 m 58

13 APNPL – 1 8m 32

14 SBL -1 8m 43

15 HPT -17 9m 46

16 APNPU 9m 44

17 APT -20 10 m 43 Yes

18 APT -8 8m 64

19 Up -4 8m 52 Yes

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 My Forest, June - 2012

Result : The above clones are doing well so far, with APT–20, APT - 8, TNT-11, ORPB – 20,
ST 33 being the most suitable Clones.

2 (A) Teak - Marihal Bamboo 1997 Plantation :

Objective was to workout the economics of Teak- Oxytenanthera stokcci estate using
ordinary grade seedlings.
Soil is Red Sandy loam
Experiment is for 20 years
Annual rainfall is 700mm
Growth is 2011-12
Average height of Teak is 3.63m
Average GBH is - 18.78 cm
Average height of Bamboo is - 7.988 m
“No” of culms of Bamboo - 37
Teak is severally suppressed
2 (B) Teak – Medhar Bamboo 1997 Plantation objective
Measurements : 2011-12
Teak-
Average height of Teak : 4.816 m
Average GBH : 17.36 cm
Average height of bamboo: 7.73m
Average No. of culms : 31

In the above plantations it is observed that Maharashtra teak was planted at a

Teak is very much suppressed due to
blocking of sunlight by bamboo. On the
border areas teak is performing much
better due to space & sunlight. Teak is a
pronounced light demander it does not
tolerate shade at any stage of its life &
requires complete overhead light as well
as fair amount of side room for its proper
development.
Teak and Bamboo should not
have been planted at the same time. In
spacing of 3mx1.5m and bamboo was
inter planted in the fourth year of teak
plantation (A monograph on Teak by Dr.
D.N. Tewari). Bamboo working trials can
be conducted to remove culms in bamboo
to reduce congession. This will be done
this year in 50 % of the plantation to see if
this would help in growth of Teak.

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 My Forest, June - 2012

III. A study on Irrigation schedule on
Tectona grandis at Doresanipalya:-
In 1990-91 a study was conducted
to see the effect of irrigation on Tectona
grandis. One plot was initially irrigated
once in 8 days (controlled plot), while the
other was done once in 2 days (irrigated
plot). The experimental plots were of
same size and each consisted of 6 rows of
16 trees.

The purpose of the experiment was to study the Irrigation of Teak.

Location : Doresanipalya

Area : 0.2 ha

Year of Plantation : 27.06.1991

No. of Plants Planted : 200

Spacement : 3mx 3m

Pit size : 0.6mx0.6mx0.6m

Planting material was from Sankey Tank Nursery near Aranya Bhavan, Malleshwaram,
Bangalore.
FYM was applied at the rate of 1 cmt/100 plots.
D.A.P was applied - July -1991

Two adjacent plots are taken with same trees whose girth was below the average
soil conditions, Planting material and of the plot were removed to facilitate
identical cultural practices to both of them growth of better individuals.
except their irrigation schedule. Irrigation
In October-2010 and August 2012
schedule was watering once in 2 days for
detailed study was carried out to estimate
one plot and once in 8 days for the other
the differences in the irrigated teak
plot. This Study is of special significance
plantation and the control. This plantation
as it would give a clear picture whether
is about 20 years old and the coppice is 10
farmers can take up teak plantation in their
year old. The criteria which was studied
farms under irrigated conditions.The main
were survival, average height and girth of
hindrance to taking up Teak plantation is
the original Teak plantation, coppicing
the long time it takes to come to the
percentage in both, average height and
exploitable size. This study would indicate
girth of coppice, forking, bends and under
whether time can be shortened by
growth including regeneration. The result
irrigation. In January-2000, thinning was
is as follows:-
carried out in the plantation and all the

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 My Forest, June - 2012

Irrigated Teak Non- Irrigated Teak

1 Survival Percentage 64 % 82 %

2 Average height 15.5 Mtrs 5.49 Mtrs

3 Average Girth 0.9 M 0.57 mtrs

4 Coppicing Total Cut – 18

Total Cut – 63 Coppiced –3
Coppiced – 27 Not Coppiced - 15
Not Coppiced - 36

5 No of forking - 2 No of forking - 10

6 No of Bends - Nil No of Bends - 3

7 Flowering and Seeding - 17 Flowering and Seeding 14

Hence, we can see that even though D r. S . N . R a i - Nursery and

survival percentage of non –irrigated teak
is more, all other characteristics like
height, girth, freedom from defects etc.,
are better in irrigated teak.
These experiments are still
continuing and final results can be studied
after they attain 30 years of age.
References:
Dr. D.N. Tewari – A monograph of teak
(Tectona grandis Linn.,f)
planting Techniques of Forest
Trees in tropical South Asia.
Kedarnath, S., Rawat, M.S.,
Chauhan, V.S. (1970)- Early
growth performance of twenty
clones of teak (Tectona grandis
L.f.) in a seed orchard.
Proceeings of the Seminar-cum-
Workshop on genetic Improvement of
Forest Seed in India.

152
153
 My Forest, June, 2012
Vol.48(2) Page No. 154-160

LINKING VILLAGE FOREST COMMITTEES WITH PRIs IN KARNATAKA

JAGMOHAN SHARMA, IFS

ABSTRACT

Village Forest Committees (VFCs) have been established in forest-fringe villages in

Karnataka to rejuvenate the forests on which people from such villages depend to meet
their sustenance needs. However these forests are at various stages of degradation due
to overuse and their productivity is dwindling. Reduced forest productivity reinforces
poverty among forest-dependent communities. Establishing a VFC in a forest-fringe
village provides the community an opportunity to improve the status of livelihood by
nurturing their forests. A VFC can be considered as a 'forest-user's group' that is
characterized by its high vulnerability to local factional and marginalizing politics. It is
seen that while the VFCs constituted for notified forests must be supported and
encouraged by Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs) their integration into the hierarchy of
PRIs is excluded by the 'Constitution of India'. It is desirable to support and build capacity,
and maintain the apolitical nature of VFCs, and thereby preserve their purposefulness for
long-term well being of forest-dependent communities through productive forest
resources.

Key words : Gram Panchayat, Gram Sabha, forest-user group, village forest committee

Introduction VFC and the forest department jointly

Rejuvenation and restoration of
fringe-forest by involvement of local
communities and other stakeholders was
initiated in early 1990s in Karnataka. For
this purpose, community-based groups
called village forest committees (VFC),
which consist of forest dependent and
other interested persons, are established
at hamlet/village level. Section 31A of the
Karnataka Forest Act 1963 provides for
establishment of a village forest
committee for the purpose of joint forest
planning and management (JFPM) of
degraded forest areas in Karnataka. A
manage an identified JFPM area. IN
Karnataka, 5210 VFCs have been
constituted by May 2011. Of these, 1186
VFCs have been constituted for non-
forest areas in Social Forestry Divisions,
which are working under the overall
guidance and supervision of jurisdictional
Panchayats. The remaining VFCs
constituted for joint management of
notified forest areas are working under
direct technical guidance of the Karnataka
Forest Department. The present article
attempts ot examine the issue of bringing
all VFCs under the jurisdiction of
Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs).

Conservator of Forests (on study leave) at Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.

154
 My Forest, June - 2012
What is a VFC? At the outset it is
necessary to appreciate the purpose of
establishing VFCs, and their functional
limitations and vulnerabilities. A VFC is an
institution consisting of a group of persons
from a forest-fringe village who have
common interest in maintenance of a
forest that they have been traditionally
accessing and who are willing to
participate in its regeneration and joint
management with forest department. VFC
members depend on forest and use it to
meet their day-to-day sustenance needs
and therefore can be called a forest-user
group. They are immediate and direct
stakeholders in maintenance of forests
and whose sustenance depends much on
the health and productivity of their forests.
They involve themselves in regeneration
and development of identified forest area
(called joint forest planning and
management (JFPM) area), jointly with,
and under the technical guidance and
supervision of forest department and
share the benefits that accrue from such
forest area. A VFC therefore operates
under “Care and Share” principle through
a formal memorandum of understanding
(MoU) with the forest department that
contains mutually agreed roles and
responsibilities in conformity with the
standing government orders and
provisions. More often than not, these
forest dependent people are landless, and
belong to socially deprived and
marginalized section of the society. A VFC
therefore is not a body “parallel” to Gram
Sabha nor is it in any way comparable to
Gram Sabha, and least the Gram
Panchayat, which is an ominibus
155
institution for development at village level.
In an extreme case a VFC may be as large
and same as a Gram Sabha when all the
members of Gram Sabha are members of
VFC. Such situation is likely to emerge
very rarely; say in case of all tribal Gram
Sabha. In such situation the common
interest of VFC members persists and
automatically gets protected. Majority of
the times however the social homogeneity
is not found at Gram Sabha level and the
low social status of forest dependent
people (VFC members) results in their
deprivation. The voluntary participation by
members, autonomy in decision making,
common-interest bondage, group
homogeneity and apolitical nature of
VFCs enable them to achieve
maintenance of forest, and through it, the
wellbeing of their members. The
'apolitical' and 'forest-user group'
character of VFC makes all the above
possible and brings about successful
livelihood support and forest
conservation.
The constitutional provision
regarding jurisdiction of Panchayats
on notified forests: The provision for
Panchayats (to be established at village,
intermediate and district levels) has been
made by insertion of Article 243 in the Part
I X ( T H E PA N C H AYAT S ) o f t h e
Constitution by 73rd amendment in the
year 1993 (w.e.f 24-04-1993). The original
contents of Part IX were omitted by
Constitutional (Seventh) Amendment Act
1956. The purpose of providing for
Panchayats is given in Article 243G of the
Constitution, which reads as under.
 My Forest, June - 2012
“The Article 243G (the Constitution of
India): Subject to the provisions of this
Constitution, the Legislature of a State
may, by law, endow the Panchayats with
such powers and authority as may be
necessary to enable them to function as
institutions of self-government and such
law may contain provisions for the
devolution of powers and responsibilities
upon Panchayats at the appropriate level,
subject to such conditions as may be
specified therein, with respect to-
(a)

The preparation of plans for
economic development
and social justice;
(b)
The implementation of schemes
for economic development and
social justice as may be
entrusted to them including those in
relation to the matters listed in the
Eleventh Schedule.”
As per the Article 243G therefore
the purpose of providing for Panchayats is
to deliver economic development and
social justice including certain specific
matters listed in Eleventh Schedule.
Specific mention and listing of certain
subjects in Eleventh Schedule is clear of
the intention of discreetly defining and
regulating the role of Panchayats with
regard to such matters. Pertaining to
forestry, the listing in Eleventh Schedule is
limited to Social forestry and Farm
forestry, and Minor Forest Produce –
MFPs. Furthermore, under the
Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled
Areas) Act 1996 (PESA) – pertaining to
forests – the jurisdiction of Panchayats
has been distinctly defined and limited to
156
“ownership of minor forest produce”. The
Constitution therefore consciously
excludes, and does not intend,
superintendence and management of
notified forest by Panchayats. Regulatory
and enforcement jurisdiction like
p e r t a i n i n g t o l a w a n d o r d e r,
control/superintendence of natural
resources (except minor water bodies)
including grant of land, or management
and use of notified forest, has been
excluded from the purview of Panchayats.
Exclusive State mechanisms (through
technically competent agencies with
specifically assigned mandate on such
matters) have been put in place by the
Constitution to ensure efficient and
effective conduct of such functions of the
State. In the subject matter of forest, it is
the state forest department that is
technically qualified agency mandated
with control and management of forest
resource and which has technical
capability to ensure its integrity and
productivity.
The lack of constitutional
provision for extending the jurisdiction of
Panchayats over forest resources cannot
be considered a slip but a conscious
exclusion, which underlines the
followings.
1.


Forest resources are situated locally
but their significance extends much
beyond a local region and often
beyond a state.
2. For control and management of forests
(that provide lifeline ecosystem
services like supply of fresh water and
breathable quality
 My Forest, June - 2012

air by pollution abatement), a safeguard forestlands, and through it the

competent agency with necessary larger national interest, the Government of
technical capability is necessary. India has enacted Forest Conservation
3. Such an agency, for its internal Act 1980. The above-mentioned
hierarchical structure and technical provisions suggest that the larger wisdom
knowhow will have capacity to arrive of the nation expressed through these
at a decision that is socio- special legislations, which emanate from
economically viable and ecologically the Constitution, is more than clear in its
sound. intent in preserving integrity and
4.
Only such an agency can, not only maintaining productivity of forest through
withstand but counter, any local need-sensitive but risk-aversive control
pressure that apparently does and management of forest, and this needs
immediate local good but causes to be upheld.
long-term compromise on larger
good. Panchayats, politics and VFCs:
The Constitution recognizes complexity of As per the Karnataka Panchayat
forest ecology and its sensitivity to drivers Raj Act 21993, a “Village” for the purpose
of forest degradation, and further, its of establishing a Gram Panchayat is
fundamental-to-life nature, and nature, notified by the Governor and such a
and consequently, by design avoids the notified village may not actually be a single
local political-factors that may make habitation, or a village as may not actually
forests vulnerable, as degradation/loss of be a single habitation, or a village as may
forests directly impacts livelihood normally be understood, but it is generally
sustainability of local communities and a group villages since a revenue village is
compromises wellbeing of population declared on population criterion. A Gram
beyond local areas.
Panchayat can therefore have even four
to six villages and is a much larger entity
It may be noted that recognizing the
than a forest-fringe hamlet for which a
adverse multiplier effects of
VFC is constituted. Gram Sabha is body of
degradation/loss of forest biodiversity on
all the persons on the electoral rolls from a
economy of the state, and on the social
Village, which as described above may be
structure and functioning of civil society,
consisting of several hamlets located
the day-to-day superintendence and
control over the forest constituted in within the area of a Gram Sabha. A Ward
Protected Areas (Pas), which are the Sabha is a constituency of a Gram
repository of invaluable biodiversity, it is Panchayat member. Compared to these,
the Chief Wildlife Warden (and not any a VFC is just a 'forest-user's group' from a
other agency, not even the state habitation/s located on the fringe of a
government) that alone is entrusted with forest and such habitation/s oftentimes
the responsibility under the Wild Life could be same as or smaller than or bigger
(Protection) Act 1972. Further, to than a Ward Sabha. A largest size VFC
157
 My Forest, June - 2012
may be equal in size to a Gram Sabha but
that is likely to be rare. Size of VFC
therefore does not compare/match with
that of a Gram Sabha. Further, the
situation and purpose of a VFC is more
akin to that of a user-group than politically
organized unit like Ward Sabha or Grama
Panchayat – or even a Grama Sabha,
Which is apparently apolitical yet not
completely devoid of political undertones.
As opposed to this, apolitical nature of a
VFC is considered central to its success
as an institution for forest department of
Assam state in the national workshop on
Status of JFM in India in June 2011 that
the relationship between Panchayat and
VFC should be such that VFC gets
advantage of the administrative and
financial capacity of Panchayat for
management of forest resources while the
unquie and separate apolitical identity of
VFCs a “guardian of forests” is ensured
(ICFRE 2011). In the same workshop,
Chhattisgarh Forest Department opposed
brining VFCs under the umbrella of PRIs
are politicized bodies and forest
conservation is a low priority for them. The
vulnerability of VFCs to politics is common
concern shared by conservationists and
forest departments across the country.
The apolitical character of VFCs is
sustainable due to the binding common-
interest and social homogeneity among
VFC members. Such a forest department
group has direct interest and hence the
stakeholdership in maintenance of forests
and if suitably(and adequately)
incentivized it is likely to contribute its best
efforts for successful conservation, which
would generate benefits that are received
158
far and wide in the society. Setting
up/organizing VFCs on any other basis
that is not rooted in 'forest-dependence'
and hence the common-interest in
maintenance of forests, is likely to add to
issues connected to participation and
governance, and as a result increases
their vulnerability to failure ultimately
compromising conservation of forests.
The way ahead: keeping in view, the need
for conservation of forests which secure
other natural resources like fresh water to
meet the needs of economic
development; the vulnerability of forests to
drivers of degradation including climate
change and local pressures of all shades,
and; competing demand for forest land,
the administration and control of forests
needs to be secured. Management of
forests must be conducted through an
instrument of proven track record and that
involve minimum uncertainty for achieving
successful conservation since forests in
densely populated tropics, among other
things, directly and significantly influence
food and water security.
Furthermore, forests as a source
of useful materials for consumption and
manufacture; the forest lands and
landscapes producing varied ecosystem
services, and; the forest biodiversity, are
too precious a resource to be subjected to
uncertainties. And it is more so because
little of it is left to serve our ever-increasing
population and development needs.
Though enhancement and total
preservation of forestry resources may be
the desirable approach however keeping
in view the constraints to achieve this it
appears appropriate to at least trade a
 My Forest, June - 2012
Accordingly, and in view of the
discussion hereinabove, the following is
suggested regarding defining relationship
between VFCs and PRIs.
a.

VFCs must constituted in every village
irrespective of the fact whether notified
forest are available or not within its
revenue limits. This is likely to contribute
towards enhancing tree cover within and
outside the notified forests, which is
necessary to strengthen the ecological
and overall economic base in the State.
b.

For villages that do not have notified
forest areas within their revenue limits,
VFCs need to be constituted by
Panchayats as a Committee of Gram
Panchayat under Section 61 A of the
Karnataka Panchayat Raj Act 1993 and
such VFCs should work under overall
guidance and supervision of Panchayats.
Tree growth created outside the notified
forest areas by such VFCs would increase
the availability of forest products which will
reduce/address direct dependence /biotic
pressure on notified forest areas and
thereby ensure their better conservation.
c).

For villages that have notified forest
areas within their revenue limits, the
setting-up and supervision of VFCs
should be by the forest department, which
is a technically qualified agency of the
State. VFCs for notified forest areas
cannot be constituted under the
Karnataka Panchayat Raj Act 1993 (but
under Section 31A of the Karnataka
Forest Act 1963). However the VFCs
constituted for forest areas could function
under guidance and supervision of Gram
Panchayat (but limited to the matters
159
connected to 'Social Forestry and Farm
Forestry', and, 'right to MFP' – this is as per
the Eleventh Schedule of the Constitution
as these subject matters do not interfere
with the regulation and control of notified
forests) and could be recognized as an
organ of Gram Panchayat Raj Act 1993 for
the above stated limited purpose.
Furthermore, to enhance the organic
linkage between VFCs and PRIs, the
following procedure can be adopted while
establishing a VFC.
i).

The persons interested in
establishment of a VFC for a part village or
a village may appoint a few Promoters
from among themselves for this purpose.
ii).
Such Promoters may approach the
jurisdictional Range Forest Officer, who
would then propose to the jurisdictional
Revenue Inspector or such other village
level revenue authority, to call a meeting of
the Gram Sabha wherein the Promoters
will place the proposal to constitute VFC,
and which by a resolution may decide to
provide for establishing a VFC.
iii).


The Range forest Officer would
submit the resolution made by the Gram
Sabha to the jurisdictional Deputy
Conservator of Forests along with the by-
laws governing the duties,
responsibilities, powers and jurisdiction of
the VFC who may after such verification
as may be necessary provide further
directions to the Range Forest Officer
regarding establishing a VFC. All adult
persons of such part of a village or a
village shall be members of the General
Body of the VFC however those wanting to
benefit from the sharing mechanism
 My Forest, June - 2012
iv).

and or activities under JFPM
approach must register themselves with
the VFC by paying prescribed
membership fee and could be referred to
as 'Core-members'.
v).


The jurisdictional Revenue Inspector
or such other village Panchayat level
revenue authority would call meeting of
the General Body of the VFC, preside over
it (without right to vote), and in such
General Body meeting, the president and
other members of the VFC Management
Committee would be elected. Only the
'Core-members' would be eligible to hold
an office of VFC.
vi).

All the elected member/s of a Gram
Panchayat from such part of a village or a
village would be ex-officio member/s of the
References:
ICFRE (2011). Status of JFM in India.
Proceedings of National
Workshop on JFM. FRI, ICFRE,
Dehradun.
The Constitution of India.
160
Management Committee of the VFC with
right to vote only if such member is also a
'Core- member'.
vii).

The secretary of Gram Panchayat
and the Panchayat Development officer
would be Ex-officio members of the
Management Committee of VFC but will
not have the right to vote.
d.


A VFC could be registered as a society
under the Karnataka societies
Registration Act 1960(in Tamil Nadu, VFC
is registered as society under Tamil Nadu
Society Registration Act 1975). The State
Government can authorize the
jurisdictional Deputy Conservator of
Forests as a registration authority by a
notification under Section 28A (1) (iv) of
the Karnataka Societies Registration Act,
1960 for this purpose.
The Karnataka Panchayat Raj 1993.
The Panchayats (Extension to the
Scheduled Areas) Act 1996.
The Karnataka societies Registration Act
1960.