FBS 1 Forest Ecology Final Lab Manual 2023 1st Edition

Forest Ecology (FBS 1)
LABORATORY MANUAL
For. Eduardo G. Espejon Jr.
Northwest Samar State University – San Jorge Campus (NwSSU-SJC)
2023
Copyright © 2023 Eduardo G. Espejon Jr. /
Northwest Samar State University –
San Jorge Campus (NwSSU-SJC)
All rights reserved. No part of this laboratory

manual may be reproduced, distributed, or
transmitted in any form of by any means, including
photocopying, recording, or other electronic or
mechanical methods, without the prior written
permission of the author and or the institution which
is the official publisher of this laboratory manual.
Except in the case of brief quotations embodied in
critical reviews and other non-commercial uses
permitted by copyright law. For permission, please
write a formal letter request addressed to the
institution through the author. Author contact
details: eduardo.espejon@nwssu.edu.ph.
[FBS 1]: [Forest Ecology – Laboratory Manual 2023] Page 2 of 37

About the Author
The author is a graduate of a Master of Science degree in Forestry (MS in Forestry) at

Visayas State University (VSU), Baybay City, Leyte in 2022. In the same institution, he also
earned his degree in Bachelor of Science in Forestry (Cum Laude) in 2014. His fields of interest
are forest ecology, heavy metal pollution, phytoremediation, and plant diversity.
The author was also a recipient of the Erasmus+ student mobility scholarship program
funded by the European Union (EU) with host institution at George August University in
Goettingen, Germany in 2018. He took ECTS units for the Program; Master of Science in
Tropical and International Forestry, where he studied Biometrical Research Method,
Biotechnology and Forest Genetics, Forest Protection and Agroforestry, and Forestry in
Germany.
Currently, he is working at Northwest Samar State University – San Jorge Campus
(NwSSU-SJC) as a faculty and designated as the Head of Research and Development Services
(ORDS). He is Handling Forestry courses, to wit; Forest Ecology, Introduction to Forestry,
Wood Structure and Identification, Forest Management, Forest Surveying, Forestry Statistics,
Forest Health, Chemistry of Forest Products, Tree Physiology, Production Management in
Forest Based Industries, Forest Products Utilization, Tropical Forestry and Climate Change.

Table of Contents
Cover Page .............................................................................................................................................. 1

Copyright Page ....................................................................................................................................... 2
About the Author ................................................................................................................................... 3
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................... 4
Detailed Guidelines in Properly Writing a Technical Laboratory Report ............................................ 5
Exercise no.1 (Ecological Observations and Hypothesis Formulation) ............................................. 12
Exercise no. 2 (Population Growth of Duckweed, Lemna minor) ..................................................... 15
Exercise no. 3 (Energy Flow in a Forest Ecosystem) ......................................................................... 18
Exercise no. 4 (Population Size Estimation: Mark-Recapture Technique ) ....................................... 20
Exercise no. 5 (Leaf Litter Decomposition in a Forest Ecosystem) ................................................... 23
Exercise no. 6 (Soil Fertility Evaluation (Nitrogen and Soil pH)) ....................................................... 26
Exercise no. 7 (Stages of Plant Succession) ....................................................................................... 29

Exercise no. 8 (Mangrove Forest Ecosystem) ................................................................................... 32
References ............................................................................................................................................ 35
Program and College Objectives .......................................................................................................... 37

Detailed Guidelines in Properly Writing a Technical Laboratory Report
*General Format
• Laboratory reports in this course FBS 1 (Forest Ecology) and all courses with laboratory
handled by the author follows the format used in the Philippine Journal of Science (Philipp J
Sci) see link provided, https://philjournalsci.dost.gov.ph. Before writing your laboratory
reports, It is advised to read and scan some papers already published in this journal. However,
a detailed guide in properly writing your laboratory report is presented here in this manual.
• Laboratory reports submitted by individual or group of students should be no more than 2500
words (about 8-10 pages).
• All text in the body of the laboratory report must be double spaced and page numbers on
every page must be clearly indicated at the lower right corner of the page.
• Submitted reports must be objective, accurate, clear, concise, simple and direct. Aside from the
main results and contents of the report, small details in improving the quality of your written
report must be highly considered such as, grammatical, spelling, and clerical errors must be
minimized as much as possible. This could greatly impact your overall performance and rating.
• In writing laboratory reports, “past tense” is mostly used to describe the research
activities/methods that were undertaken (Ex. A total of twenty-five plant species were
collected), except for “established and permanent truths” which should be written in present
tense (Ex. According to Sir Isaac Newton gravitational forces attracts different planets).
• Use the passive voice when writing your report (Ex. “Five grass species were recorded”) instead
of the active voice and first person (Ex. I recorded five grass species). By using the passive
voice, your report will sound more formal & technical as compared with using the active voice.
• Avoid using acronyms (Ex. DENR, FMB, DA, FAA) unless they are really necessary. Instead,
spell out the full name followed by the abbreviation.
• Never use colloquialisms (Ex. The male bee was head over heels over the female bee), slang
words (Ex. The monkey was shooked when the researchers took a photo.), or casual
contractions (ex. “laboratory not “lab”).
• Do not use direct quotes from published sources (journal articles, books, monographs, thesis,
etc.) “Bamboos comprise one of 12 subfamilies within the grass family (Poaceae) and represent
the only major grass lineage to diversify in forests (Clark et al., 2015)”. Paraphrase cited article
in your own words.
• Utilize available online software that can evaluate your laboratory report in terms of spelling.
Recommended free software available for use is Grammarly. Always remember, this free
available online software only detects typographical errors. Re-read your report to find
grammatical mistakes and word choice to improve overall content.

Laboratory reports must contain the following main parts:
1. Cover Page
2. Introduction (Rationale & objectives)
3. Materials and Methods / Methodology
4. Results & Discussion
5. Literature Cited / References
Tables and Figures must also be included in the report to support the findings (data presentation &
illustration).
1. COVER PAGE
Cover Page must contain the following:
(a) laboratory exercise number and title

(b) full name/s of the student/s who conducted the exercise (arranged in alphabetical order)
(c) program, year level, & section (if applicable))
(d) full name of instructor/professor
(e) Date of submission of the report
The title is a brief and concise statement about the nature of your experiment or exercise. Titles usually
are no more than 9-12 words with key words or variables that gives the reader an idea of the scope of
your investigation.
2. INTRODUCTION
In order to write a good scientific introduction, one must consider the following:
1. Establish in the first part of your introduction, the background of your study and the identified
problem that you want to be answered in your report. By doing this, you are setting the current
perspective of your investigation.
2. Cite several literature/published articles to know what has already been done and what else
could possibly be conducted in relation to the identified research problem.
3. Clearly define the research gap and significance of your current research undertaking.
Highlight the uniqueness of your study and need to conduct such investigation.
4. Lastly, your introduction must end with a clear presentation of your objectives. Remember,
objectives must be “SMART” Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time Bound.

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS / METHODOLOGY
This section should clearly state the detailed activities, materials & equipment used, organism/species
under investigation, different treatments applied, variables, parameters being investigated, laboratory
or field methods used, and what data analysis were applied. The methods section should clearly explain
what you did and why you did it. All detailed activities that were conducted must always be written in
the past tense and passive voice. Always remember to cite the source with which you followed the
procedure (in this course, please cite this laboratory manual as your primary reference for your
methodology), If any deviations from the established procedure in this lab manual were conducted,
clearly explain why you did such procedure. As a common rule, write your materials and methods
section in a way that contains enough materials/details that would allow other researchers to replicate
your experiment.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this section, quantitative and qualitative results of the exercise conducted is presented accurately,
clearly and in logical order, as well as provide discussion and interpretation of such findings. The
content should be able to easily guide the reader through your findings and discussion supported with
the presentation of tables and figures in which data are briefly summarized. Give emphasis and highlight
only to the key findings of your exercise. Do not repeat the same data in your tables and figures (choose
1) depending on which would effectively present your results. Never include raw data in your results
and discussion or generated statistical results coming directly from MS-excel. Proceed to the
following pages for detailed discussion on how to create tables and figures.
5. LITERATURE CITED / REFERENCES
List all cited literature in your report in this section. References should be alphabetically arranged based
on authors names. See examples below or a recent issue of an article published in the Philippine Journal
of Science for details of formatting. The general rule of writing references is to make sure that there is
enough details that the reader or other researchers can find the published paper that you have cited.
Paper in Journals
BIAN F, ZHONG Z, ZHANG X, YANG C, GAI X. 2020. Bamboo–An untapped plant resource for the
phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated soils. Chemosphere, 246, 125750.
Books and Monographs
PANDEY VC, SINGH DP. 2020. Phytoremediation potential of perennial grasses. Elsevier.
Thesis
GERMANO BP. 1998. Benthic-pelagic coupling in tropical shallow soft bottoms and implications for
management. PhD thesis, University of Vienna, Austria.
Internet Sources: Do not include the retrieval date, unless the website changes and is being updated
more often (ex. DOST.gov.ph). As much as possible do not cite information coming from Wikipedia or
the likes which can be edited by practically anyone, which could weaken your discussion due to bias.
Department of Science and Technology. 2023. Balik Scientist Program. Retrieved from
https://bspms.dost.gov.ph/home/p_areas on March 09, 2023.

Tables and Figures
1.Tables
• All presented tables must have a brief and informative title that tells us what the table is all
about.
• Table title is always placed at the top of the table.
• Tables must-have table numbers before the table title, sequentially arranged starting from 1 to
n… (Ex. Table 1. Frequency distribution in tree size, by diameter class, in cm. Kahupian,
Sogod, Southern Leyte, Philippines. 2021)
• Under the table title are column headings that show the information for each column. Units of
measurement must always be included in the column header.
• Put a line with width of 1 ½ pt below the table title and at the bottom of the table. Place a single
line with width of 1 pt below the column headings as the separator of the labels to the data. Do
not put any vertical and horizontal lines anywhere in the table. Follow only the indicated line
separators.
• If necessary, especially for statistical comparisons include footnotes. Footnotes should be

placed at the bottom of the table.
• Do not put any shades, color, background in your table. A black text with black line separators
and white background will do.
Example:

2. Figures
• Figure is usually used when data that is being presented is qualitative in nature and instead of
looking at individual values in a data set (which table is suitable to use) looks at the overall
pattern of the data set (which figures is best to apply).
• Figures include pictures, diagrams, graphs, charts and maps.
• Just like in making your table, all figures must have a figure title that gives a short description
of the information that is presented in the figure
• Figure titles should always be placed at the bottom. The title always begins with the Figure
number followed by the figure title (Ex. Figure 1. Frequency distribution in tree size, by
diameter class).
3. Text References to Tables and Figures
Refer to tables and figures in the text by their sequential numbers, as Figure 1, Table 3, etc. The words
“Table” and “Figure” begin with a capital letter. Here are some examples.
Seedlings germinated more quickly at 20 ⁰C than at 15 ⁰C (Table 1).
Table 1 shows more rapid seedling germination at 20 ⁰C than at 15 ⁰C.
The number of grasshoppers captured was closely related to the number of net sweeps made over twenty
minutes (Figure 4).

There is no need to put any other words in parentheses, as in “see Figure 2”. Avoid redundant sentences
like “Table 1 shows results of the seedling germination experiment.” which merely repeat the
information in the caption.
By convention, tables and figures follow the first reference to them in the text, usually on the same page
or the immediately following page. Do not lump them together at the end of the report. Of course, a
table or figure that is not referred to in the text should never be included.
Other Text Conventions
1.Latin names
The scientific name of a species is a two-word combination in Latin, giving the genus and species of
the organism. Falco peregrinus is the scientific name of the peregrine falcon. The genus name is
capitalized; the species name is always in lower case. Both words are always written in italics, to
indicate that they are not English. If italics are not available (as in handwriting), both words are
underlined.
The first time a scientific name is given, spell it out in full. Thereafter it may be referred to by collapsing
the genus name to the first letter followed by a period (F. perigrinus), but spell it out at the beginning
of a sentence. Where the genus name is known but the species is uncertain or unimportant, follow the
genus name with the letters “sp.” (Falco sp.) or “spp.” for several species (Falco spp.). Note that sp.
and spp. are not italicized and neither spaces nor periods are underlined. Names of higher taxa such as
families, orders and classes are capitalized but not italicized (Falconidae).
2. Statistics
Differences or trends that are supported by a statistical test are referred to in the text as “statistically
significant” or just “significant”. When a statement in the text reflects the result of a statistical test, it is
conventional to indicate the level of probability of the test in brackets, as in the following examples.
The statistical test used to make the comparison may also be specified.
Seedlings germinated significantly faster at 20⁰C than at 18⁰C (P<0.05)
More grasshoppers were captured in 20 minutes of net sweeping in the area dominated by grass than in
the area dominated by perennial forbs (t-test, P<0.01).
There was no significant difference in growth rate of plants under low and high light treatments.
The modern trend is to specify exact statistical probabilities (e.g., P = 0.031 instead of P<0.05).
Statistical differences are often incorporated into tables and figures for conciseness.
3. Literature Citations
Use the name-year system to identify cited publications. A citation in this system consists of the
surname of the author or authors of the cited document followed by the date of publication (without
punctuation), enclosed in parentheses. If the author's name is a noun in the sentence, enclose only the
date in parentheses. For works with three or more authors, follow the name of the first author with et
al., followed by the date. Note (1) even though et al. is an abbreviation of a Latin phrase (et alii, meaning
and others) it is not italicized (2) et al. is always followed by a period.
Smith (1969) found that tadpoles develop more quickly at higher temperatures.

Tadpoles develop more quickly at higher temperatures (Smith 1969).
Brown and Crone (2016) showed that dispersal ability varies widely among individual checkerspot
butterflies.
Camp et al. (2015) showed that rabbits make trade-offs when choosing habitat and food
Blueberries and fireweed are examples of plants that flourish after forest fires (Smith et al. 1986;
Donaldbane 2012)
4. Numbers
Use metric units for all measurements. Use words with words (two metres) and numbers with symbols
(2 m). Leave a space between a number and its symbol (2 m, not 2m), unless the measurement modifies
a noun; then use a hyphen (a 430-W light).
When reporting calculated figures such as the mean, round off long decimals (e.g., 46.397805) to
significant digits based on the original measurements (46.4). Beware of “false precision” when
converting Imperial units to metric units (e.g., 1 foot = 30.5 cm, not 30.481036 cm).
Always include a zero before a decimal fraction (e.g., 0.591, not .591).
Remember there are three kinds of people in the world: those who are good with numbers, and those
who aren’t.

Laboratory exercise no. 1
Ecological Observations and Hypothesis Formulation
Laboratory Exercise Objectives:
1. Make qualitative ecological observations within two (2) identified ecosystems

within NwSSU – San Jorge campus.
2. Use the identified observations to formulate testable and simple hypothesis of the
ecological patterns that were observed.
Introduction:
Making detailed observations and making precise & accurate measurements are two essential
abilities in doing scientific work in general, and in understanding forest ecology in particular. Scientific
observations are the foundations of science. In forest ecology, we base our information on ecological
observations that we experienced in nature. Ecological observations are mostly documented through
quantifiable measurements of certain variables, such as the number of seedlings in the forest floor, the
diameter at breast height of trees, or even the inoculation time of a certain mycorrhiza in the roots of a
tree.
In the succeeding laboratory exercises of this course, you will be required to make quantitative
observations and analyze your data using statistical techniques. But keep in mind that statistics are only
as helpful as the data they are based on. All the numerical tricks in the world won't change the fact if
your gathered data are thoughtless or a result of irrelevant observations. Thus, the first skill a
scientist/researcher or even you as a student needs to master is the observation of the natural world.
The use of observations to develop hypotheses is the second crucial aspect of ecological
research. An explanation for an observation or combination of observations is called a hypothesis. For
instance, if we see that a seedling of a shade-tolerant tree species (Apitong -Dipterocarpus grandiflorus)
died when planted in direct sunlight, we can hypothesize that full exposure to direct sunlight somehow
induced the mortality of the seedling. It is through the creation and testing of hypotheses that science
advances in different fields, especially in the field of forest ecology.
A hypothesis needs to possess two qualities in order to be valuable. It must first be consistent
with the observations that support it. In the aforementioned example, a claim that the exposure to direct
sunlight somehow harmed the mortality of the apitong seedlings would be invalid if there are some
apitong seedlings who grows well when planted in direct sunlight. A scientific theory also needs to be
tested. By this, we imply that an experiment or additional observations must be conceivable in order to
determine whether the hypothesis is true. In science, only testable hypotheses are useful. A hypothesis
testability is more crucial than its veracity.
For your first laboratory exercise, you will be tasked to make purely qualitative ecological
observations of what you perceive in two different ecosystems within NwSSU-San Jorge Campus. Your
instructor will assist you in identifying patterns and correlations in the distributions of the plants that
cover each location. After that, you'll use your observations to create straightforward, verifiable
hypotheses regarding the patterns you've observed.

Materials:
-Field notebook
-Pencils/Ballpen
-Appropriate field attire based on the weather
Methodology:
1. Before conducting the field exercise, the class will be divided into six-eight groups
(depending on the class size). All students will be randomly assigned to each group. In each
group, independent roles will be assigned to carry out the field activities.
2. The guided walk is the main method for this laboratory exercise. Students together with
your instructor will take a look at the physical environment and floral composition of two
sites within the campus, the sites are located along NwSSU mini-forest, in the area above
the old forestry building. The two sites are: (1) the edge of a mahogany plantation forest
and (2) within the closed canopy mahogany plantation. There are easy and accessible
walking trails through both sites.
3. Once you reached the site together with your instructor, continue walking slowly and
systematically along the identified walking trail through each site. With the use of your
field notebook and pencil/ballpen, record any significant ecological pattern that you can
observe. You can also bring out your cellphone cameras to take photos of the site as you
move forward.
4. Your instructor will discuss several significant ecological features that could be of interest
along the way. It is not of utmost importance if you cannot identify the names of the
different plant species on the site, if you cannot identify the plant species, ask your
instructor. Our main concern is to assess your ability to make ecological observations,
rather than try to remember all the names of the plants that we encounter. Briefly write at
least one (1) description of an ecologically significant pattern from each of the two sites
that you have observed. Always remember that your observations must be based on as much
data/information as you can possibly get, must be dependable and most of all accurate.
5. Once the guided walk is finished, all students must return to the laboratory room, each
group must allocate some time in developing possible explanations for the ecological
observations that were done on-site.
6. For each observation, all members of the group must propose at least one testable
hypothesis.
7. The group will then decide to pick only one hypothesis that best explains the identified
ecological observations in each site and construct a conceptual experiment that could
possibly test it. Ex. Hypothesis 1: Selaginella can only grow in humid closed canopy forest.
To test this, the conceptual experiment could be. To conduct an inventory and habitat
characterization of selaginella species in different habitat types where it can be found.

Exercise No. 1
ECOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION
ANSWER SHEET
Name:_____________________________________ Lab. Schedule: _______________________

Date performed: ____________________________Date submitted: _______________________
Instructor’s Signature:_________________
Significant Ecological Observations - SITE A (Edge of the Mahogany Plantation Forest)
Hypothesis & Conceptual Experiment
Significant Ecological Observations - SITE B (Within the Mahogany Plantation Forest)
Hypothesis & Conceptual Experiment

Population Growth of Duckweed, Lemna minor
1. Determine the limiting factors that inhibit population growth of duckweed.
2. Evaluate growth and mortality of duckweed as influenced by population density

and nutrient content availability.
Introduction:
Even before the time of Charles Darwin (the middle of the 1800s), it has long been known that:
(1) populations established in a new habitat often grow larger, but at different rates, and (2) no
population will always increase. Consequently, population growth must be restricted by internal or
external influences, which apparently don't affect every species the same way. The subject of how
populations expand and how that expansion is controlled has been a major issue in the study of ecology.
At first, if a small population is established in a new environment without competition and an
abundant supply of resources, population increase will be observed. However, the increase of
population will always reach a point where growth will cease to increase and population will start to
decrease (mortality>natality). Environmental factors always play the role in controlling population
growth of any species on earth. Temperature, density and humidity in an ecosystem is referred to us
limiting factors while macronutrients (N,P,K), water, and minerals are referred to us limiting
resources.
Duckweeds (Lemna minor) are a group of small aquatic plants that is mostly used as aquarium
plant. This plant will be utilized as experimental species for this exercise due to its ability to propagate
fairly fast (thru asexual propagation) and easy to maintain in the laboratory. This plant also is easy to
observe for growth. Each duckweed is composed of a thallus (plural thalli) which is mainly consist of
a tiny floating leaf with one rootlet hanging a few centimeters from the thallus. New plant growth can
be observed with the addition of new leaflets on the edge of the main leaf of a single plant.
The main factors that affects population growth of duckweeds are light intensity, nutrient
content availability, temperature and density (crowding). For this exercise, one (1) limiting factor
(population density/crowding) and one (1) limiting resource (nutrient content availability) will be
evaluated on its effect on population growth of duckweeds under laboratory conditions.
Materials:
-Record book
-Pencils/Ballpen
-Laboratory gowns
-54 pcs of 250 ml beakers
-White tape 2 inches cm
-permanent markers
-UV-Grow lights (provided in the laboratory)
-One (1) tablespoon of complete fertilizer
-One (1) bucket of tap water
-Ten (10) liters of distilled water

Methodology:
1. Before conducting the laboratory exercise, the class will be divided into six (6) groups
(depending on the class size). All students will be randomly assigned to each group. In each
group, independent roles will be assigned to carry out the laboratory activities.
2. This lab exercise will be conducted inside the Agro-Environmental Analytical Laboratory
of NwSSU-San Jorge Campus. Grow lights are already installed inside the laboratory with
temperature and humidity kept at constant within the growing shelves. Duckweeds are also
available in the laboratory provided by your course instructor.
3. Group one (1) will be assigned to prepare the nutrient solution that will used by this
exercise. In a bucket, pour nineteen (19) liters of tap water, then add one (1) tablespoon of
complete fertilizer in the bucket of water. Stir the water vigorously, ensuring the complete
fertilizer is well dissolved in the solution.
4. A total of sixty-three (63) beakers will be needed for this exercise. In each group, ask for
nine (9) two hundred fifty (250) ml beakers, one (1) white tape, and one (1) permanent
marker from the lab in-charge.
5. The experiment will be laid-out using a complete randomized design (CRD) with six (6)
treatments and three (3) replications. Treatments are as follows
Treatments:
Treatment 1 : ten (10) duckweed/beaker + distilled water (control)

Treatment 2 : ten (10) duckweed/beaker + mineral water
Treatment 3 : ten (10) duckweed/beaker + tapwater
Treatment 4 : ten (10) duckweed/beaker + urea
Treatment 5 : ten (10) duckweed/beaker + complete fertilizer solution
Treatment 6 : twenty (20) duckweed/beaker + complete fertilizer solution
Treatment 7 : thirty (30) duckweed/beaker + complete fertilizer solution
Lay-out
-You can use a statistical program (ex. STAR) that could generate randomization layout for
the specific research design you want.

Based on the randomization lay-out generated above we can finalize our set-up.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7
T3R1- T1R1- T5R1- T7R1- T7R2- T2R1- T6R1-

s1,s2,s3 s1,s2,s3 s1,s2,s3 s1,s2,s3 s1,s2,s3 s1,s2,s3 s1,s2,s3
T3R2- T1R2- T6R2- T4R1- T7R3- T5R2- T1R3-

T6R3- T2R2- T3R3- T4R2- T4R3- T5R3- T2R3-

*note: use three (3) beakers per treatment ; a total of nine (9) beakers per group
6. Add test plants to each beaker per treatment indicated above.
7. Each group must record growth of the experimental plants daily, preferably the same time
you did your 1st count and observation. Record your data for each treatment in the table
below:
Table 1. Growth and development of Duckweed applied with different treatments for 7 days
Treatment Day 0 Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7 Remarks
T1R1s1
T1R1s2
T1R1s3
T1R2s1
T1R2s2
T1R2s3
…
Mean
Formula for mean:

∑xi / N
Where: ∑xi = summation of all recorded observation
N = total number of observations
8. Data Analysis: Use Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to determine significant differences of
treatment means (your course instructor will guide you in using STAR to run ANOVA)
students will compute for mean using a calculator.
9. Illustrate population growth of duckweed by plotting the average growth (number of thalli)
per treatment over time (days).

Energy Flow in a Forest Ecosystem
1. Identify the different trophic levels in a grassland ecosystem.

2. Construct a food chain and food web in a grassland ecosystem.
Introduction:
The sun is the ultimate source of energy of all life on earth. Plants make their own food using
the energy from the sun through the process of photosynthesis. The conversion of light energy from the
sun into chemical energy in the plant biomass is being passed into different levels in an ecosystem,
through a process of eating and being eaten which is called a food chain. Interconnected and complex
levels of food chain is what we call a food web. In each levels of a food chain, portion of energy
consumed is lost in the form of heat through respiration. Thus, the higher the level in the food chain,
the less energy is consumed. Energy flows in different levels of the food chain or what we call as
trophic levels. Plants as the primary source of energy in an ecosystem is referred to us producers,
which utilizes light energy to produce food (simple forms of sugar “glucose”). Some forms of animals
rely solely on plants to survive which we call as herbivores (plant eaters), some eat both plants and
animals which we call as omnivores, while there are also animals that eat only other animals to survive
which we call as carnivores.
Understanding the different roles in the trophic levels of each plants and animals in an
ecosystem is very crucial in maintaining the balance and sustainability of such ecosystem. Wildlife
management as one of the fields of work of foresters applies such understanding. Open and close
hunting seasons in identified forest areas are important in controlling the wildlife population of
herbivores and carnivores. Example, control of deer and wolf population in a protected forest in Europe
through open and close hunting seasons ensures an overall healthy forest structure. If population of deer
will increase while wolf population decrease, young tree wildlings as well as new bark of older trees
will be eaten which would result to tree mortality and would increase the growth of young trees. If
population of wolf would increase while deer population will decrease, less regeneration will be
observed in the forest which would result to homogeneity of the forest stand, ultimately resulting to less
forest diversity.
For this laboratory exercise, we will explore energy flow in a forest ecosystem and compare
our findings within two (2) different ecosystems present within the campus.
Materials:
-Field notebook, -Pencils/Ballpen, -1m x 1m bamboo quadrat, -appropriate field attire
Methodology:
1. Before conducting the field exercise, the class will be divided into six-eight groups (depending on
the class size). All students will be randomly assigned to each group. In each group, independent roles
will be assigned to carry out the field activities.
2. Lay out a 1m x 1m quadrat in the open (O), partially shaded (PS) and shaded (S) areas within the
Mahogany plantation NwSSU campus.
3. Identify plants and animals found inside the quadrat using common names.
4. Identify their trophic roles and levels

5. Record all observations in table 2.
6. Construct a food web based on the observations.
7. Present how each trophic roles & levels differ in O, PS & S.
Exercise No. 3
ENERGY FLOW IN A FOREST ECOSYSTEM
ANSWER SHEET
Name:_____________________________ Lab. Schedule: _______________________

Date performed: _____________________Date submitted: _____________________
TABLE 2. Trophic roles and levels in a forest ecosystem.

QUADRAT TROPHIC ROLES TROPHIC LEVEL (i.e.
Producers, Primary,
Secondary, Tertiary, Top Level
Consumer)
1 Open (Full Exposure to Producers
sunlight) Herbivores
Omnivores
Carnivores
2 Partially shaded (slight Producers

canopy cover) Herbivores
Omnivores
Carnivores
3 Shaded (Closed canopy Producers

forest) Herbivores
Omnivores
Carnivores
Guide questions for your discussion
1. Identify and compare the different plants and animals observed in each quadrat
2. What would happen if one component of the trophic level will disappear?
3. What can you say about the status of energy flow in the forest ecosystem observed based on the
existing plants and animals present?

Population Size Estimation: Mark-Recapture Technique
1. Estimate population size of wildlife species through the use of mark-recapture technique.
2. Understand the importance of wildlife population management in managing our forest
resources
Introduction:
The mark-recapture technique is the widely used method in estimating population size of
wildlife population where total count is impractical to do. This technique is used most often by wildlife
biologists, foresters, and researchers to monitor and estimate the total individuals of a population. The
main idea of this technique is to capture a small number of animals in a population, put a harmless tag
on the captured animal and release it back into the wild. After some time, you catch another group of
individuals in the population, record the species that has a tag and record species that do not have a tag.
With the use of a mathematical formula and the data that you have, you can now have a rough estimate
of the total potential population of that species in the wild.
Formula for the mark-recapture technique are as follows:
N = (m * c) / r
Where:
N = total estimated number of individuals of the animal population
m = total number of captured individuals and were marked (1st survey/sampling)
c = total number of captured individuals with and without mark (2nd survey/sampling)
r= total number of individuals that were recaptured (individuals with tags/mark)
To ensure accuracy of the application of this technique, some considerations and assumptions must be
followed.
1. If r = 0, or there are no recaptured individuals which have tags, your result will be undefined. This
shows that the potential total population is very large. To avoid this, you need to mark more individuals
and try again.
2. In putting on the marks/tags in the body of the individual animals, make sure that these would not
affect the survival of the animal in the wild.
3. The tags/mark must be securely placed within the animal so that it is not easily washed or wear away.
4. No significant addition of individuals in the population under survey (immigration) or dispersal of
individuals out of the population (emigration) while during the duration of the sampling.
5. Ensure that no mortality of individuals tagged /marked during the duration of the activity.
6. Ensure that the animals tagged will not imprint themselves on the tagging/marking experience to
avoid getting bias and be likely to be recaptured.
Materials:
-Paper, Pencil, colored pencil, markers, empty cartoon box

Methodology:
1. This laboratory exercise will be conducted inside the classroom. Before conducting this
laboratory exercise, the class will be divided into six-eight groups (depending on the class size).
All students will be randomly assigned to each group. In each group, independent roles will be
assigned to carry out the field activities.
2. Each group will decide on what kind of animal will they choose for this exercise. Once the
group decided on the particular animal species. All members of the group will cut small pieces
of paper (3cm x 3cm) and draw their identified animal on the paper. Make as much as possible,
and remember do not count the number of papers (animals) that you have made.
3. Place all the unidentified total number of animals in the carton box.
4. Each student will try to estimate the total number of population inside the carton box by visual
estimation. Record your estimation in your notebook.
5. Capture a sample of animal from the carton box by taking a handful of animals and placed them
on a sheet of paper to count. Write the number of animals in your table which is represented by
“m”.
6. Put tags in these captured animals by putting/drawing a color somewhere in their body parts.
7. Place the tagged animals back into the carton box and vigorously shake the box to evenly
disperse the animals.
8. Recapture another group of individual animals from the carton box by taking a handful and
pour into a sheet of paper.
9. Write the number of tagged and untagged animals in the table. Place back the entire captured
individuals in to the carton box.
10. Vigorously shake the carton box to distribute evenly the animals in the population.
11. Re-conduct process 7-9, five (5) times. (The first captured individuals (m) remains as constant
for all the collected samples of this exercise.
12. This population proportion allows you to estimate the total animals in the population (N) for
each sampling. Fill in the column on your data table that solves for N (m * c / r).
N (Total animals in Population) = c (Total animal Captured in Sample)

m (Total Marked Animals) r (Marked animals Recaptured in Sample)
13. Compute for the mean of your population estimation (mean of N).
14. Lastly, count all the total number of individuals inside the cartoon box which includes marked
and unmarked individuals. This is the total number of the actual animal population. Write the
number in the table below. Compare your total estimated population to the actual number of
individuals in the population.

Exercise No. 4
POPULATION SIZE ESTIMATION: MARK-RECAPTURE TECHNIQUE
ANSWER SHEET
TABLE 3. Tally of captured and re-captured animal species

Initial number of animals captured tagged/marked (m)
Sampling phase # of animals # of animals Calculation for Estimated total
captured in marked/tagged in population number of
each sampling each sampling phase estimation Population (N)
phase (c) (r) N = (m x c) / r
1
2
3
4
5
Mean of X
Actual
Population (Total
number of
individuals
counted
including marked
& unmarked)
Note: round up all decimal places as result of your calculation. We are dealing with animals. Thus, it
just makes sense if we use a whole number. There are no 5.8 sheeps. Rather we use 6 sheeps.
Guide questions:
1. How accurate is your estimated total number of individuals in the population with your actual
counted total number of individuals in the population?
2. Why is there a need to estimate population of wildlife species in our ecosystem?
3. What do you think would happen if population of different wildlife species are not managed
or controlled properly?
4. How can we apply our knowledge in doing the mark and recapture technique in our study
about forestry?

Leaf Litter Decomposition in a Forest Ecosystem
1. Determine micro and macro decomposers in a mahogany plantation forest in NwSSU-SJC

2. Compute for leaf litter decomposition in the plantation forest
3. Understand leaf litter decomposition and its importance in nutrient cycling
Introduction:
Nutrient cycling is the process whereby organic and inorganic forms of nutrients is converted
into one form or another and is transferred in different components of an ecosystem. Through the
process of photosynthesis plants can make their own food and store the energy and nutrients in their
biomass. Inorganic forms of nutrients present in the soil and atmosphere is then absorbed by the plants
to be made available for consumption by different trophic level consumers in the ecosystem, which then
passed and stored the nutrients from the plants to their biomass. In the process of decomposition,
nutrients stored in the biomass of plants and animals are reverted back to inorganic state and breaks
down complex organic compounds into simpler forms. The conversion from inorganic to organic states
which is closely related and driven by energy flow in the ecosystem and involved the use and re-use of
elements is called nutrient cycling.
Through the presence of the final feeding group of the trophic level which are the decomposers,
nutrient cycling is made possible. Decomposers such as fungi, bacteria, etc. derives their energy and
nutrients from the dead/decaying plant and animal parts in the soil (detritus). Decomposers have
specialized enzymes present in their bodies to convert complex organic compounds to simpler ones.
Plants and animals die in an ecosystem, through decomposition or decay, the nutrients in their biomass
are released back into the soil and can be used again by plants for their growth and development.
Materials:
-white masking tape, markers, 18 nylon net bags, digital weighing scale, laboratory oven drier, meter
tape, newspapers, scientific calculator, ice candy wrapper, plastic straw, ruler
Methodology:
1. This laboratory exercise will be conducted at the mahogany plantation forest of NwSSU-SJC.
Before conducting this field exercise, the class will be divided into six-eight groups (depending
on the class size). All students will be randomly assigned to each group. In each group,
independent roles will be assigned to carry out the field activities.
2. The nested-quadrat sampling technique will be employed for this exercise. Each group will
establish a 20 meter x 20 meter quadrat randomly within the mahogany plantation. A meter
tape will be used to measure accurately the dimension of the quadrat (note: use vertical distance
instead of sloping distance in measuring dimensions of the quadrat). Secure the perimeters of
the quadrat by using a plastic straw. In each quadrat, five (5) nested plots will be randomly
established with a 1 meter x 1 meter dimension using a meter stick. Secure the perimeter of the
5 nested plots using a plastic straw.

3. Once perimeter of the quadrats and the nested plots are secured, each group must record and
list all micro and macro-decomposers within the quadrats. Record the observed organisms using
only their common names.
4. To determine leaf litter decomposition in the study site, each group must collect fresh leaf litter
approximately 100 grams in each nested plot per quadrat. Since there are 5 nested plots per
quadrat per group, each group must collect a total of approximately 100 grams (20 grams per
nylon net bag) of fresh leaf litter. Oven-dry the collected leaf litter in a laboratory oven for 18
hours at 105⁰C. Get the samples from the oven, weigh and record the initial dry weight (W 0).
Put back again the dried samples inside the nylon net bags. Mark and properly label the nylon
net bag with a white masking tape. Pin down each nylon bags on the forest floor where you
have gathered them in your nested plots and allow the samples to decompose.
After one week, collect one bag in the field. Wrap samples in newspaper and oven dry. Get the
final dry weight (Wt) after 7 days. Repeat the same step in the succeeding weeks (up to 5 weeks)
for the remaining samples. Record all dry weights of leaf litter samples in the table provided.
5. Compute for the following using the formula:
a. %MC = (FW – ODW) / FW *100

b. %Dry weight = 100 - %MC
c. %Decomposition = (Wo-Wt)/Wo *100
Where:
W0 = Initial dry weight (g)

Wt = Dry weight at time t (g)
FW = fresh weight (g)
ODW = oven-dried weight (g)
MC = moisture content (%)

Exercise No. 5
LEAF LITTER DECOMPOSITION IN A FOREST ECOSYSTEM
ANSWER SHEET

TABLE 4. Decomposers found within the forest litter of a mahogany plantation forest
Decomposers Abundance (Abundant ; Few ; Rare )
TABLE 5. Weekly percent decomposition

Week Initial Dry Weight (g) Final Dry Weight (g) Percent Decomposition (%)
W0 Wt
1
2
3
4
5
Show your solution and computations below.
1. Why are decomposers important in an ecosystem?

2. What do you think are some of the biotic and abiotic factors that could influence the percent
decomposition in the forest ecosystem?
3. Why is leaf litter decomposition fast within the forest floor?

Soil Fertility Evaluation (Nitrogen and Soil pH)
1. Utilize soil test kit and litmus paper to determine nitrogen and pH in soil samples
2. Determine nitrogen availability and pH of three (3) different soil samples coming from three
(3) different land-use types
Introduction:
Soil is considered as the ultimate medium for plant growth. Plants derive nutrients from the soil
for their growth and development. Of all the nutrients that is present in the soil, there are some that is
required by plants in large amounts which we call as macro nutrients, this includes nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and sulfur (S). There are also some
nutrients that is need by plants in trace amounts which we call as micro nutrients, this includes iron
(Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), molybdenum (Mo), boron (B), manganese (Mn), and chlorine (Cl). The
availability of these macro and micronutrients in the soil determines soil productivity in the area and
could be used as an indicator to evaluate soil fertility of an area for crop production.
Nitrogen as one macronutrient plays a significant role in the growth and development of all
plants. Deficiency of nitrogen affects overall productivity of all plant species. Chlorosis or the
yellowing of leaves are symptoms and indicators that a plant lacks nitrogen which is present in the soil.
Chlorosis greatly affects the total overall photosynthetic output of the plant by having few developments
of chlorophyll in the leaves. Remember that the green pigment present in the leaves of the plants which
we call as chlorophyll is responsible for photosynthesis. Without or less supply of nitrogen in the soil
will inhibit the development of chlorophyll in the leaves of the plants which would result to low
photosynthetic productivity.
Thus, determination of nitrogen as well as other macronutrients present in the soil through
descriptive analysis (soil test kit and litmus paper) or through soil laboratory chemical analysis could
provide us an idea of the availability of these nutrients in our soil samples. This baseline information is
used to come up with fertilization recommendation to improve soil fertility and productivity of the soil.
Materials:
-Soil Test Kit (from UPLB-ATI); Litmus Paper (strips); Soil auger; wooden mallet; plastic bags;
permanent markers; manila papers; soil mesh sieve set; Soil samples from 3 different land use types
(forest, grassland, heavy metal contaminated soil); beakers; test tubes; record book; ballpen
Methodology:
1. This laboratory exercise will be conducted at the agro-environmental analytical laboratory of

NwSSU-SJC. Before conducting this laboratory exercise, the class will be divided into six-
eight groups (depending on the class size). All students will be randomly assigned to each
group. In each group, independent roles will be assigned to carry out the field activities.
2. There will be three soil samples that will be utilized for this exercise. 1. Heavy metal
contaminated soil, which is already available in the lab; 2. Forest soil which will be collected
at the mahogany plantation of NwSSU-SJC; 3. Grassland soil which will be collected within
NwSSU-SJC campus.

3. Each group will collect two (2) soil samples per site (forest & grassland) using a soil auger.
Soil samples will be collected randomly within the site and must be in the 0-20 cm soil depth
or surface soil of the site.
4. All collected soil samples per site by each group is then placed in one (1) plastic bag
(composite sample), mixed thoroughly and labeled accordingly.
5. After the collection of composite samples from the forest and grassland soils. Composite
samples are then placed in a manila paper for air drying. Air drying is done for 3-5 days until
the soil is relatively dry.
6. Air-dried soil samples are then prepared for analysis. Composite soil samples will then be
pulverized using a wooden mallet. Pulverized soil samples will then be passed on into a fine
soil mesh sieve.
7. Passed fine soil sample will then be subjected for nutrient analysis (N) and soil pH
determination using a soil test kit developed by UPLB-ATI and litmus paper. Please ask for
your instructor for assistance. Record clearly all the data that you have gathered from this
exercise in the table.

Exercise No. 6
SOIL FERTILITY EVALUTION (NITROGEN AND SOIL Ph)
ANSWER SHEET

TABLE 6. Nitrogen content in soils of different land-use types

Land-use type Soil Nitrogen Description (low, medium,
Grassland
Forest
Heavy Metal Contaminated
TABLE 7. Soil pH in soils of different land-use type

Land-use type Soil pH (1-14)
(over 7.5 is basic, 6.5-7.5 is neutral, 6.5 below is
acidic, and below 5.5 is highly acidic)
Grassland
Forest
Heavy Metal Contaminated
1. On what land-use type is nitrogen less or more?

2. Why are their different levels of nitrogen in these three land-use types?
3. How does soil pH affects plant growth?

Stages of Plant Succession
1. Become exposed and familiarized with different stages of plant succession (grassland,
pioneer, climax).
2. Conduct rapid species inventory of different stages of plant succession
Introduction:
Plant succession is the process of replacement of one plant species by another in an area. The
disappearance of earlier ones and appearance of new plant species are governed by the changing
physical/chemical conditions of the ecosystem as well as the presence of disturbance, either natural or
human induced. The time involved in this process can take weeks, months, years, or even decades
depending on the life-form involved. The replacement of grassland by shrubs and pioneer trees can be
observed for months, dominance of big diameter pioneer tree species in shrublands could take years,
and displacement of pioneer tree species with climax tree species could take even decades. The rate of
plant succession slows down over time, species that disappear tend to be replaced with other longer-
lived plant species.
Improvement of the overall physical conditions (local edaphic & climatic conditions) of the site
and disturbance, shapes plant succession. During the succession process, modification of the micro-
environment of an area promotes the growth of new set of plant species. In an area with bare soil, with
exposed soil surface and rocks, grass species tends to establish first. Grass species are known well to
adapt in a wide range of environment which makes them dominate in these arid conditions. Through
time with the dominance of grass species (grassland stage), organic matter in the soil increases with
the addition of biomass from grasses. This improvement of soil quality promotes the growth and
germination of pioneer tree species which dominates the pioneer stage of plant succession. Pioneers
could grow really well in areas where there is direct sunlight exposure. This species are fast growing
and could proliferate faster with small fruits and seeds which could be dispersed pretty easily by air,
water, insects, or birds. With the dominance of bigger pioneer tree species in an area, light that passes
through the forest canopy is now very minimal which would result to the elimination of most grass
species. This changes the micro-environment inside the closed canopy forest with more shade, low
temperature, high humidity, and less competition from grass species in the forest floor which then is
the perfect environment for plant species under the climax stage. Climax tree species are mostly shade-
tolerant species. These type of plants can grow well in shaded areas away from direct exposure to
sunlight unlike their pioneer species counterparts. In the Philippines, our native forests are dominated
by shade tolerant tree species coming from the family Dipterocarpaceae but due to rampant illegal
timber poaching, kaingin farming, and other unsustainable practices, these climax forest tree species
are now set to increasingly disappear. Disturbed and deforested areas are now converted back again to
its grassland stage.
Thus, knowledge on how to conduct rapid species inventory to determine the amount of plant
species present in a vegetation is very important for us to know what kind of interventions are we going
to do in order to improve the status of a certain vegetation. As forest managers, this is our main line of
work and is crucial in ensuring the protection and conservation of our forest resources.

Materials:
-Appropriate field attire, plastic straw, record book, pencil/ballpen, diameter tape, clinometer
Methodology:
1. This laboratory exercise will be conducted at the mahogany plantation forest of NwSSU-SJC.
2. There will be three (3) sites that will be visited for this exercise. 1. Mahogany plantation,
Grassland, Pioneer stage all can be found within NwSSU-SJC.
3. The circular plot sampling technique will be employed for this exercise. Each group will lay-
out a circular plot with 5 meter radius in each site randomly. A meter tape will be used to
measure accurately the radius of the circular plot.
4. Collect leaf samples and take photos of all plant species (grass, shrubs, trees) that can be found
inside each plot that you have established. Write the common name only (if you cannot identify
the species, ask your instructor for assistance). Record your data in your record book.
5. Within the forest plantation and the pioneer stage, measure diameter at breast height and total
height of all the trees present inside the plot. Estimate percent (%) canopy cover of each tree
species. Record your data on the table.
6. For grassland, estimate percent (%) cover of each grass species recorded inside the circular
plot. Record data on the table.

Exercise No. 7
STAGES OF PLANT SUCCESSION
ANSWER SHEET

TABLE 8. Species composition and % plant cover of different levels of plant succession
Grassland stage % Plant Cover (1%-100%)
1.
2.
3.
Pioneer stage % Plant Cover (1%-100%)
1.
2.
3.
Climax Stage % Plant Cover (1%-100%)
1.
2.
3.
1. What stage of plant succession did you record more species? Where are less?
2. Why are their less or more species in different stages of plant succession?
3. Why is plant succession important in studying the ecology of our forests?

Mangrove Forest Ecosystem
1. Discuss the different unique morphological features of mangrove species and their adaptive
mechanisms
2. Identify potential threats to the ecosystem and management interventions to conserve and
protect our mangrove forests.
Introduction:
Mangroves are plant association consisting of trees, shrubs, vines, and even woody lianas which
thrive along the coastlines of tropical and sub-tropical estuaries of the world. Mangroves as compared
with other terrestrial forest types is the only forest that can withstand high water salinity. This plant
adaptation is what makes these trees so unique and valuable. Mangrove trees are known to produce high
quality fuel wood, furniture, poles, and even wood for construction. Aside from the direct tangible
resources that we can get from the mangrove forests, this ecosystem also provides key ecosystem
services for communities living along the coastlines. Mangroves are breeding and spawning grounds of
different kinds of fishes, mollusks and crustaceans alike. Mangrove trees acts as buffer against strong
winds and waves. This ecosystem also acts as a filter that reduces water pollution and soil erosion
coming from the uplands into our marine ecosystem.
Mangrove species can be divided generally into two types. 1. True mangrove species which
consist of mangrove tree species such as, Rhizophora, Sonneratia, Avicennia, Lumnitzzera, Aegiceras,
and Xylocarpus; and 2. Mangrove associates such as Nypa, Acanthus, Dungon etc. All of these
mangrove species have their own unique morphological structures that enables them to adapt in such
harsh environmental conditions along the coastlines (high salinity, low soil oxygen, water logged).
This exercise will enable us to look into much deeper the different morphological characteristics
of these mangrove species, adaptation strategies, potential threats and conceptualize management
interventions to ensure protection and conservation of our remaining mangrove forests.
Materials:
-field notebook, ballpen/pencil, camera, booties/boots/field shoes, appropriate field attire
Methodology:
1. This laboratory exercise will be conducted in a natural mangrove stand at Sta. Margarita, Samar.
2. The guided walk is the main method for this laboratory exercise. Students together with your
instructor and a hired field guide will take a look at the physical environment and mangrove
composition of a natural mangrove stand within Sta. Margarita, Samar. There are easy and
accessible walking trails through the site,
3. Once you reached the site together with your instructor, continue walking slowly and
systematically along the identified walking trail through the site. With the use of your field

notebook and pencil/ballpen, record any significant morphological features of mangrove
species that you can observe. You can also bring out your cellphone cameras to take photos of
the site as you move forward (landward, middleward and seaward).
4. Your instructor will discuss several significant morphological features of mangrove species that
could be of interest along the way (leaf shape, root structures, branching habit, etc.). It is not of
utmost importance if you cannot identify the names of the different mangrove species on the
site, if you cannot identify the plant species, ask your instructor.
5. While walking, record and identify natural and human-induced disturbances in the area.

Exercise No. 8
MANGROVE FOREST ECOSYSTEM
ANSWER SHEET

TABLE 9. Morphological features of mangrove species

Mangrove Species Morphological Observations
Features (leaves,
fruits, roots)
1. What are stilt roots, pneumatophores, and knee roots? What mangrove species can they be
observed?
2. What are the pressing issues and concerns that our mangrove forest is facing?
3. What management interventions can you recommend to stop or just minimize human induced
disturbances in the mangrove forest where you have visited?

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Forest Ecology (FBS 1)

For. Eduardo G. Espejon Jr.

Northwest Samar State University – San Jorge Campus (NwSSU-SJC)

All rights reserved. No part of this laboratory

[FBS 1]: [Forest Ecology – Laboratory Manual 2023] Page 2 of 37

The author is a graduate of a Master of Science degree in Forestry (MS in Forestry) at

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Cover Page .............................................................................................................................................. 1

Exercise no. 7 (Stages of Plant Succession) ....................................................................................... 29

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Cover Page must contain the following:

(a) laboratory exercise number and title

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4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5. LITERATURE CITED / REFERENCES

Books and Monographs

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• Table title is always placed at the top of the table.

• If necessary, especially for statistical comparisons include footnotes. Footnotes should be

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• Figures include pictures, diagrams, graphs, charts and maps.

3. Text References to Tables and Figures

Seedlings germinated more quickly at 20 ⁰C than at 15 ⁰C (Table 1).

Table 1 shows more rapid seedling germination at 20 ⁰C than at 15 ⁰C.

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Other Text Conventions

Seedlings germinated significantly faster at 20⁰C than at 18⁰C (P<0.05)

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Ecological Observations and Hypothesis Formulation

Laboratory Exercise Objectives:

1. Make qualitative ecological observations within two (2) identified ecosystems

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Name:_____________________________________ Lab. Schedule: _______________________

Significant Ecological Observations - SITE A (Edge of the Mahogany Plantation Forest)

Hypothesis & Conceptual Experiment

Significant Ecological Observations - SITE B (Within the Mahogany Plantation Forest)

Hypothesis & Conceptual Experiment

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Population Growth of Duckweed, Lemna minor

Laboratory Exercise Objectives:

1. Determine the limiting factors that inhibit population growth of duckweed.

2. Evaluate growth and mortality of duckweed as influenced by population density

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Treatment 1 : ten (10) duckweed/beaker + distilled water (control)

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Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7

T3R1- T1R1- T5R1- T7R1- T7R2- T2R1- T6R1-

T3R2- T1R2- T6R2- T4R1- T7R3- T5R2- T1R3-

T6R3- T2R2- T3R3- T4R2- T4R3- T5R3- T2R3-

6. Add test plants to each beaker per treatment indicated above.

Formula for mean:

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Energy Flow in a Forest Ecosystem

Laboratory Exercise Objectives:

1. Identify the different trophic levels in a grassland ecosystem.

-Field notebook, -Pencils/Ballpen, -1m x 1m bamboo quadrat, -appropriate field attire

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Name:_____________________________ Lab. Schedule: _______________________

TABLE 2. Trophic roles and levels in a forest ecosystem.

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