UNIVERSITY OF SAN CARLOS

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

NASIPIT, TALAMBAN, CEBU CITY, PHILIPPINES 6000

INTERSECTION
CONTROL

Submitted by:

Dxn Dan Flores

Camina Mari Patrice Lacson
Denise Marielle Litonjua
Kyla Jin Malaque
Ina Maila Rendon
Ken Abraham Tagalog
Julius Constantin Tupa
Niña Mary Vera Cruz
Mary May Villacampa
What is Intersection Control?
Also known as Traffic Signal Controller (TSC) is a management board that controls
traffic signals (traffic lights) at signalized intersections.

General Concepts of Traffic Control

- CONTROL PURPOSE

To assign the right of way to drivers, and thus to facilitate highway safety by
ensuring the orderly and predictable movement of all traffic on highways.

CONTROL IS ACHIEVED BY:

o Traffic Signal
o Traffic Signs
o Traffic Markings

- ROAD TRAFFIC CONTROL

At the broadest level, road traffic control includes the layout of streets to
serve a variety of travel needs in a region.
Highways or expressways carry through traffic at high speed. Arterial
streets carry traffic within and across urban areas which are designed to carry
volumes of motorized traffic. Traffic Control helps in mitigating traffic.
Road Traffic Control at its most elemental level is achieved using a system
of signs, signals, and markings.

- SIGNS

Inform road users of traffic laws and regulations which if disregarded will
constitute an offense.
 - SIGNALS

Are devices placed along, beside or above a roadway to guide, warn, and
regulate the flow of traffic.
Traffic Signal Black Out - occurs if all traffic signal lights are not working
because of an electrical power failure. If this happens, all the traffic enforcers would
take over.

- MARKINGS

Bare roads will lead to total confusion. Markings are painted on the road to
direct, guide, and regulate the road users.
The lines, shapes and etc painted on the roads each have its own purpose
to indicate that a certain part of the road is only one way or is possible for a u-turn
etc.

- TRAFFIC SIGNALS AND SIGNAGES

Due to conflicting traffic movements, roadway intersections are a source of

great concern to traffic engineers. Intersections can be a major source of crashes
and vehicle delays.

CONFLICT POINTS

▪ Conflict points are points where two vehicles can potentially clash with each
other. It occurs when traffic streams that move in different directions interfere
with each other.
TYPES OF INTERSECTION CONTROL

▪ Manages the impact

▪ Oversees all aspects of highway engineering
- Planning for appropriate size of the intersection
- Geometric design
- Proper alignment of the intersection & its concept
- Safety performance

● UNSIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

- “Passive Control
- Controlled by stop or yield signs
- Area: Very less traffic
- Stop signs are usually in low-volume junction like on university campus
- Yield sign usually used in roundabout or blind curve.
o To drive in low speed
o Low rate of serious injury and fatal crashes
● SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

- “Active Control”
- Area: High traffic or High-volume junction
- Commonly used: Traffic Signals
- Traffic signals: red,yellow, green
- Estimating the capacity of each approach
- Accomodating the needs of various periods by optimizing the signal timing
at an intersection
- Coordinates movements from one section to the next

● SEMI-CONTROL INTERSECTIONS

- Enforce rules or restrictions which are expected to follow;

- Which they do in most cases due to the geometry and shape of the control
measures
 ● GRADE SEPARATED INTERSECTIONS

● ACTIVE CONTROL INTERSECTIONS

- Effective and movement of vehicles are managed by the control

measures
- Violations of these controls are subject to severe fines.
- Drivers must follow the path requirement by the control measures

SIGNAL TIMING

⮚ technique which traffic engineers use to distribute right-of-way at a signalized

intersection

⮚ includes selecting appropriate values for timing which is implemented in

specialized traffic signal controllers

Purpose of Traffic Signals

o improve overall safety

o to decrease average travel time through an intersection and consequently increase
capacity
o to equalize the quality of service for all or most traffic streams
Definitions Pertaining to Intersections & Traffic Signals

1. Offset- the time lapse, in seconds, between the beginning of a green phase at the
intersection and the beginning of a green phase at the next intersection.

2. Intergreen- the time between the end of a green indication for one phase and the
beginning of a green indication for another.

3. Cycle - any complete sequences of signal indications.

4. Phase - the part of a cycle allocated to any combination of traffic movements

receiving right-of-way simultaneously during one or more intervals

5. Interval- the part of or parts of the signal cycle during which signal indications do
not change

6. All-red interval- the display time of a red indication for all approaches. In some
cases, an all red interval is used exclusively for pedestrians crossing very wide
intersections.

7. Peak-hour factor- in the case of street intersections, the ratio of the number of
vehicles entering the intersection during the peak hour to four times the number
of vehicles entering during the 15-minute period.

8. Average Departure Headways- show that for green intervals of 20-30 seconds, the
average headway per vehicle is about 2.5 seconds.
9. Passenger-car Equivalents PCEs - to account for the adverse effects of
commercial vehicles and turning movements on startup time , it is customary to
convert actual flows to an equivalent volume in straight- through passenger cars.
Buses and Trucks- 1.5 PCE, Left Turn vehicles- 1.6 PCE

10. Approach- the portion of an intersection leg that is used by traffic approaching the
intersection

11. Capacity- the maximum number of vehicles that has a reasonable expectation of
passing over a given roadway or section of roadway in one direction during a given
time period under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.

12. Critical Volume- a volume for a given street that produces the greatest utilization
of capacity for that street, given in terms of passenger cars or mixed vehicles per
hour per lane.

13. Delay- the stopped time delay per approach vehicle

14. Green time- the length of green phase plus its change interval, in seconds.

15. Green ratio- the ratio of effective green time to the cycle length

16. Hourly Volume- the number of mixed vehicles that pass a given section of a lane
or roadway during a time period of an hour.

17. Level of service- a measure of the mobility characteristics of an intersection as

determined by vehicle delay, and a secondary factor, volume/capacity ratio.

18. Local Bus- a bus having a schedule stop at an intersection

19. Passenger- car Volume- volume expressed in terms of passenger cars, following
the application of passenger-car equivalency factor to vehicular volumes.

20. Period Volume- a design volume, based on the flow rate within the peak 15 minutes
of the hour, and converted to an equivalent hourly volume.

21. Through Bus- a bus not having a designated stop at the intersection under
analysis

22. Truck- a vehicle having six or more wheels (tires) on the pavement
COMPONENTS OF SIGNAL SYSTEM

● RED- to prohibit movement or to require a stop

● GREEN- to give the right of way to one or a combination of traffic streams
● AMBER- to regulate the switching of the right-of-way from one set of traffic streams
to another or advise caution
ELEMENTS OF SIGNAL TIMING
INTERGREEN PERIOD

❖ a phase consists of both the yellow (amber) indication and the all-red indication.

❖ stopping distance, intersection clearance time, pedestrian crossing time

❖ allow vehicles that are already beyond the point-of-no-return to continue through
the intersection safely

❖ “dilemma zone”, won’t have enough time to stop or safely cross the intersection

CALCULATION OF INTERGREEN PERIOD

1. Stopping Distance
 2. Intersection Clearance Time

3. Pedestrian Crossing Time

Note: The intergreen time is equal to which is larger, the pedestrian crossing time or the
intersection clearance time.

Example:

In a 3.7-meter width of intersection, a 4.2-meter vehicle has a safe stopping distance of

3 meters with a velocity of 11.1 m/s. Also, a pedestrian wanted to cross the intersection
with a velocity of 1.3m/s. Calculate the intergreen time to allow the vehicle and the
pedestrian to safely cross the intersection.
SOLUTION:

S= 3 m
L= 4.2 m
W= 3.7 m

v= 11.1 m/s
Vp= 1.3 m/s

T (Intersection Clearance Time)=?

PCT (Pedestrian Crossing Time)=?

SOLUTION:

T= (3+4.2+3.7)/ 11.1

T= 0.98 second = 1 second

PCT= 3.7/ 1.3

PCT= 2.85 s = 3 seconds

SIGNAL TIMING
SIGNAL TIMING FOR PRETIMED ISOLATED SIGNALS

Traffic engineers used several methods for designing pretimed isolated signals. In recent
times, a number of computer programs were developed for rapid designs.

❖ Pre-timed Signals

o It consists of a series of intervals that are fixed in duration. It repeat a

preset constant cycle.

❖ Three Manual Methods of Design

o Homburger and Kell’s Method

o Pignataro’s Method

o Webster’s Method

HOMBURGER AND KELL’S METHOD

The method developed by Homburger and Kell that utilizes traffic volumes as basis for
allocating time to approaches, keeping off-peak cycles as short as possible (40-60
seconds). Peak-hour cycles can be longer, favoring movement on the major streets.

Where:

W - distance from the stop line until the rear - vehicle is clear (ft)

a - deceleration rate(10 ft/sec2)

δ - perception reaction time (sec)

l - average vehicle length

v – speed
General Procedure of Homburger and Kell’s Method

1. Select yellow change intervals between 3-5 seconds for speeds less than 35
mph to speeds greater than 50 mph.

2. Determine the need for additional clearance time using the equation and lso
ensure if an all-red phase is necessary.

3. Determine pedestrian clearance times, assuming pedestrian walking speed

as 4 ft/sec.

4. Compute minimum green times. With pedestrian signals, the “walk” period
should be at least 7 seconds.

5. Compute green times based on an approach volume in the critical lane on

each street at peak hour.

6. Adjust the cycle length (sum of all greens and yellows) to the nxt-higher 5-
second interval and redistribute extra green times.

7. Compute percentage values for all intervals.

Sample Problem:

Time an isolated signal with pedestrian at the intersection of Pine and Oak: Pine
is 56 ft wide, Oak is 40 ft wide. During the peak hour, the critical lane volume are
350 and 250 veh/hr and approach speeds are 40 and 25 mph (58.7 and 36.7 ft/sec)
for Pine and Oak, respectively.
Solution:

1. Select a yellow change intervals: Pine: 3.5 sec Oak 3 sec

2. Calculate nondilemma clearance times.

Pine: 1 + 58.7/ 20 + (40+20)/58.7 = 4.9 secc or 5 sec

Oak: 1 + 36.7/ 20 + (56+20)/36.7 = 5.0 secc or 5 sec

Calculate all-red clearance intervals.

After Pine yellow: 5 - 3.5 = 1.5 sec

After Oak Yellow: 5 - 3.0 = 2 sec

3. Determine pedestrian clearance times.

Pine (crossing Oak): 40/4 = 10 ssec

Oak (crossing Pine): 56/4 = 14 sec

FDW (Pine) = 10 - 3.5 = 6.5 sec

FDW (Oak) = 14 - 3 = 11 sec

4. Compute minimum green times (pedestrian clearance - yellow + walking

minimum).

Pine: 10 - 3.5 + 7 = 13.5 sec; use 15 sec minimum

Oak: 14 - 3 + 7 = 18 sec

5. Compute green times

350(18)/250 = 25.2 sec = 25 sec (Pine Street green)

6. Adjust cycle length and redistribute extra green time.

Total cycle = 25 + 5 + 18 + 5 = 53 sec, use 55 sec

Extra green time = 55 - 53 = 2sec; give 1 sec to Pine and 1 sec to Oak

7. Compute percentage values for all intervals for key settings.

WEBSTER’S METHOD

It utilized extensive field observations and computer simulation to establish an

excellent procedure for designing traffic signal. He developed the classic equation
for calculating the average delay per vehicle on an intersection approach and
derived an equation for obtaining the optimum time that produces the minimum
vehicle delay.

Saturation Flow is the rate at at

which a continuous flow of
vehicles can pass through a
constant green signal, typically
expressed in vehicles per hour.

❖ Saturation Flow Diagram

Amber Period is the transition interval between of a red signal is called the
clearance amber.

Amber signal is flashed between the

termination of the red signal and the
start of the related green movement
(initial amber or ‘get ready’)
indication for the traffic in a particular
direction. If amber overlaps the last
part of the red indication, it is called
‘red-amber’.
WEBSTER’S METHOD

Effective Green Period is a time during which a given traffic movement or set of
movements may proceed; it is equal to the cycle length minus the effective red
time.

Lost Time is the time lost at the beginning and termination of green phases due
to starting time and termination time. As soon as the signal turns green, the rate of
discharge (or vehicle movement) starts to pick up and some time is lost before the
flow reaches the maximum value. Similarly at the termination of the green phase,
the flow tends to taper off, involving a further loss of time

Sample Problem:

An intersection approach controlled by a fixed-time by a fixed-time signal was

observed for 15 saturated intervals, each of 0.1 minute, providing the following
results.

At the end of the amber period, there is an interval of less than 0.1 minute. The
length of this period and the number of vehicles crossing the stop bar are noted.
These intervals are referred to as the last saturated intervals. The observer noted
the following:

o Total duration of all the last saturated intervals = 50 sec

o Total number of vehicles crossing stop line = 13

o Discharge per 0.1 mi during last saturated interval = 13/(50/60) x 1/10 =

1.56 vehicles

o Estimate the time lost.

 Sample Problem:

Saturated Flow = (2.33 + 2.00 + 1.86 + 1.73)/4 = 1.98 vehicles per 0.1 min

= 1188 veh/hr
The lost time at the beginning and end of the
green period may be calculated with reference
to the previous discussion. The number of
vehicles represented by the rectangle efij is
equal to the number of vehicles represented by
the original bars of the histogram. Also, the
number of vehicles represented by the area
dghk is also equal to the number of vehicles
represented by the four 0.1 min periods of
saturated flows between d and k. therefore, ….

Therefore, Area abdc = Area efgd and

Area hijk = Area nmlk
Therefore, ed x 1.98 = 1.46 x 0.1
ed = 0.074 min
and ce = 0.1 - 0.074 = 0.026 min
Similarly, kj x 1.98 = 1.56 x 0.1
kj = 0.079
and jl = 0.1 - 0.079 = 0.921 min
Therefore, ce + jl = 0.026 + 0.021 = 0.047 min = 2.82 sec

Therefore, the lost time during the green phase is 2.82 seconds.
In this type of experimentation, it is important to note the following points:
 1. If the flow on the approach is not saturated, observations should be discontinued
until the flow onge again reaches saturation level.
2. The distribution of trucks, buses, and other types of vehicles along with turning
movements is also important and should be recorded.
3. The effect of large vehicles and motorcycles is accounted by making the following
conversions (in passenger-car units)
1 passenger car or light commercial vehicle= 1.00 PCU
1 heavy or medium commercial vehicles = 1.75 PCU

1 bus = 2.25 PCU

1 motorcycle = 0.33 PCU
1 bicycle = 0.20 PCU

1 left-turning vehicle =1.75straight-ahead vehicles

4. Right-turn vehicles do not affect flow.

AVERAGE DELAY AND OPTIMUM CYCLE TIME

➔ To enable the delay to be estimated more easily, It can be written as

➔ Webster’s classic equation is,

Where:

d = average delay per vehicle on an approach

c = cycle time
θ = proportion of cycle length that is effectively green for that phase
q = flow rate
s = saturation flow = 1800 veh/hr
x = degree of saturation; ratio of actual flow to max. flow through approach
AVERAGE DELAY AND OPTIMUM CYCLE TIME

➔ Webster’s model computes the approximate cycle length that minimizes the total
intersection delay as well as the effective green time for each approach, by
differentiating the equation for the overall delay wit respect to the cycle time. The result
is:

Where:
C0 = optimum cycle length
L = total lost time per cycle, generally taken as the sum of the total yellow and all-red
clearance per cycle
Y = observed volume/saturation flow, for critical approach in each phase

➔ The distribution of green time to each phase is proportional to the critical lane volumes on
each phase. For a two-phase intersection the net green time is

Where:

G = net green time

C0 = optimum cycle length
A1 = yellow change interval in phase 1
A2 = yellow change interval in phase 2
n = number of phases (n = 2)
l = lost time per phase
Fixed-Time Signal for a Two-Phase Installation
PIGNATARO’S METHOD

➔ An alternative method of designing a four-approach two-phase signal cycle

follows, as suggested by Pignataro (1973).
Then the total time required to pass all vehicles through the intersection during the 15-
minute period is

Where:
N1 - major street critical lane flow, the number of vehicle in a single lane
N2 - minor street critical lane
C - cycle length (sec)
S1 - approximate average headway entering the section among N1
S2 - corresponding average headway among N2
Y1 - vehicle clearance interval for N1 (sec)
Y2 - vehicle clearance interval for N2 (sec)
K - number of signal cycles for a 15 - minute period
TRAFFIC-ACTUATED SIGNALS
“Make the cycle time and green splits responsive to changes in traffic flow, down to the level of
microchanges”

➔ Simplest Type of Traffic-Actuated

Installation
● Detector located at a distance A
ahead of the stop line at an
intersection approach
● Controller sensitive to signals sent
by the detector

At the beginning of a green phase, the maximum number of vehicles caught between the stop line
and the detector (including a vehicle stopped exactly over the detector) is given by formula 1

where:
l=is the average vehicle length
So = is the distance between nearest points of
consecutive stopped vehicles
A =distance location

The maximum indicated green for this approach is formula 2:

Where:
l =is the average vehicle length
So =is the distance between nearest points of consecutive stopped vehicles
qs = is the saturation flow (pcu/hr)
tsd = is the start up delay
A = distance location
 ➔ UNIT EXTENSION of green - extension of green time by a fixed-time interval counted
from the moment of call. It must be long enough to allow a vehicle to cover the distance
from the detector to the stop line moving at a given approach speed, v

where:
h is the unit extension of green or vehicle interval
A distance location

The controller’s memory starts at blank in each green phase. If within Gmin seconds it
does not receive any calls from the detector, signifying additional vehicle arrivals, the
green may be switched to another phase. So the unit extension extends the green time.

For every call that the controller receives, the green time is extended by h seconds
measured from the moment when that vehicle is detected.

Safety considerations dictate that a detector be located no closer than the safe stopping distance
ahead of the stop line. This implies that a minimum length of unit extension is given by

hmin = Ssafe / v

where:
h = is the minimum unit extension of green or vehicle interval
A = distance location

Above this minimum, the length of the unit extension depends on traffic arrival rates. As
with fixed-time signals, it can be selected by referring to average delay or number of
stops.

➔ TIMING OF FULLY-ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

 PROCEDURE for ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS that experience sharp
fluctuations in flow during the day:

1. For a given intersection approach, choose

the headway, h, between vehicles that is
just enough to hold the green indication.
This is usually in the interval between 2
and 5 seconds. This headway is equal to
the unit extension of green per vehicle

2. Calculate the distance, A, upstream from

the stop line at which the detector will be
located by the equation,

A = v x h (ft)
where
v = approach speed of vehicles (ft/sec)
h = headway from step 1

This means that h seconds after the nth actuation, the light will turn amber just as the
nth vehicle is at the stop line, unless the (n+1)th actuation occurred.

3. Calculate the length of the minimum green that should be long enough to pass all the
vehicles that might accumulated between the stop line and the detector, plus one vehicle.

where:
l = average vehicle length
qs = saturation flow (pcu/hr)
So = distance between nearest points
tsd = start up delay of consecutive stopped vehicles
A = distance location
TIMING OF FULLY-ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

PROCEDURE for ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS that experience sharp fluctuations

in flow during the day:

4. Calculate the elements of the lost time: intergreen (amber, all red) and amber effectively
used as green, in the manner previously described.

5. Repeat the calculation for each approach; all components of the minimum cycle are
now ready.

6. Determine the maximum cycle length and the corresponding splits by using the
Webster formula for the optimum cycle, where q values should be maximum design flows
that can be expected during the day.

AUTHORITY FOR SIGNAL INSTALLATION

● Traffic signals should be uniform

● The authority for installation unimpeachable
● Their compliance should be legally enforceable
_________________________________________________
Actions required of motorists and pedestrians are specified by statute or by local
ordinance or resolution consistent with national standards

BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS

● Reduce the frequency of certain types of accidents, especially the right-angle type
● Effect orderly traffic movement
● Provide the continuous flow of a platoon of traffic through proper coordination at a
definite speed along a given route
● Allow other vehicles and pedestrians to cross a heavy traffic stream
● Control traffic more economically than by manual methods
BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS

Unjustified, ill-designed, improperly operated, or poorly maintained traffic signals

● Increase accident frequency

● Excessive delay
● Disregard of signal indications
● Circuitous travel by alternative routes

WARRANT CRITERIA FOR SIGNAL CONTROL

WARRANT 1: 8-HOUR VEHICULAR VOLUME

- for each of any 8 hours of an average day, the traffic volumes given in the 100%
columns of condition A or B in Table 8-1 exist on the major street and on the higher-
volume minor-street approach to the intersection

- these major-street and minor-street volumes are for the same 8 hours
WARRANT 2: 4-HOUR VEHICULAR VOLUME

- The warrant defines curves representing vehicles per hour on the major street
(both directions) and on the higher-volume minor street approach (one
direction only)

- For each of any 4 high hours of an average day, the plotted points fall above the
specified curve for the existing combination of approach lanes
WARRANT 3: PEAK-HOUR

- intended for intersections where minor-street traffic experiences excessive delay

or hazard in entering or crossing the main street

- it is based on a critical combination of main-street and cross-street volumes during

any four consecutive 15-minute periods during the peak hour of an average day

WARRANT 4: PEDESTRIAN VOLUME

- this warrant combines pedestrian volumes and available gaps in vehicular traffic
at either intersection or midblock locations

- on an average day, there 100 or more pedestrians for each of any 4 hours, or 190
or more pedestrians in 1 hour crossing the major street

- these values may be reduced by as much as 50% where the predominant

pedestrian crossing speed is below 4 ft/sec

- only applies to locations where the nearest signalized intersection is more than
300 feet and the proposed new installation will not unduly affect progressive flow

WARRANT 5: SCHOOL CROSSING

- this warrant recognizes the unique problems related to children crossing a major
street on the way to and from school, particularly near the school, and may be
considered as a special case of the pedestrian volume warrant
- a traffic control signal may be warranted at an established school crossing when a
traffic engineering study of the frequency and adequacy of gaps in the vehicular
traffic stream
- alternative traffic control measures
 ● warning signs
● flashers
● school speed zones
● school crossing guards
● grade-separated crossing

WARRANT 6: COORDINATED SIGNAL SYSTEM

- the progressive movement in a coordinated signal system relates to the desirability
of holding traffic in compact platoons and may necessitate installing signals where
they would not otherwise be needed

- this warrant applies when the adjacent signal were so far apart that they do not
provide the necessary degree of platooning and speed control on a one-way or
two-way street

- the installation of a signal should not be considered where the resultant signal
spacing would be less than 1000 feet or 300 meters

WARRANT 7: CRASH EXPERIENCE

A. An adequate trial of less restrictive remedies with satisfactory observance and

enforcement has failed to reduce the accident frequency

B. Five or more reported crashes of types susceptible to correction by traffic signal

control have occurred within a 12-month period, each crash involving personal
injury or property damage apparently exceeding the applicable requirements for a
reportable crash

C. There exists a volume of vehicular traffic not less than 80% of the requirements
specified in Warrant 1 or the volume pedestrian traffic is not less than 80% of the
requirements specified in Warrant 4
WARRANT 8: ROADWAY NETWORK

- this warrant recognizes that traffic signal coordination can be two-dimensional

- progression along an important cross street can be as important as that along what
would normally be called the major street

- it is applicable when two or more major routes meet at a common intersection and
the total existing or immediately projected entering volume is at least 1000 vehicles
during the peak hour of a typical weekday and has a 5-day projected traffic
volumes

COORDINATION OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS

3 TECHNIQUES OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS COORDINATION

SIMULTANEOUS SYSTEM

All signals along the coordinated length of the street display the same aspect to the traffic
stream at the same time. This system reduces capacity and encourages the tendency to
travel at excessive speeds so as to pass as many signals as possible.

ALTERNATIVE SYSTEM

Alternative signals or groups of signals give opposite indications at the same time, which
means that if a vehicle travels the distance between intersections in half a cycle time, it
not stop. The cyle must be the same for all signals, so that the speed of progression is
constant.
PROGRESSIVE SYSTEM

SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE SYSTEM

Various signal faces controlling a given street give green indications in accordance
with a time schedule to allow continuous operation of a platoon of vehicles to flow at a
planned speed.

FLEXIBLE PROGRESSIVE SYSTEM

The intervals at any signal may be adjusted independently to the traffic

requirements and in which the green indications at separate signals may be started
independently at the instant that will give the maximum efficiency.

Evaluation & Optimization of Intersection Timing Plans

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS & OBJECTIVES

Four basic elements are generally considered in the design of at-grade intersections:
1. Human factors, such as driving habits and decision and reaction times.
2. Traffic considerations, such as capacities and turning movements, vehicle speeds,
and size and distribution of vehicles.
3. Physical elements, such as characteristics and use of abutting property, sight
distance, and geometric features
4. Economics factors, such as costs and benefits and energy consumption.

SIGNAL TIMING OPTIMIZATION

Setting new signal timing parameters for efficient traffic flow is time-consuming and
expensive. Typically, this process involves five distinct steps:
 1. Fulfill a need
2. Command attention
3. Convey a clear, simple meaning
4. Command respect of road users
5. Give adequate time for proper response

SIGNAL TIMING PROCESS

Signal timing is a task that frequently involves coordinating activities of many different
departments of the jurisdiction. For example, it is not unusual for the Planning Department
to provide the traffic counts and mapping data, and for the Traffic Engineering Department
to conduct the timing optimization analysis, with the Maintenance Shop performing the
actual parameter installation.

SIGNAL TIMING PROCESS

There are eight distinct steps that define the signal timing development process.
1. Identify the system intersections
2. collect and organize existing data
3. conduct site survey
4. obtain turning movement data
5. calculate local timing parameters
6. identify signal groupings
7. calculate coordination parameters
8. install and evaluate new plans

DATA COLLECTION
Signal retiming is not making simple adjustments to a few timing parameters in a
controller. Most jurisdictions follow a more complicated effort to retime a signal or group
of signals using modern computer programs and procedures.
OPTIMIZATION

Once the data are collected, the final step is to generate the optimized signal settings.
While this task can be accomplished manually, most engineers use a computer
program. There are a number of computer programs that can be used to generate
signal timing parameters.

These programs can be placed into one of two categories: those developed by the
private sector and those developed by the public sector.
References:

● Aditya, P. (n.d.) Conflict Points at intersection. [online] Available

at:<https://www.apsed.in/conflict-points-intersection> [Accessed 20 September
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● Garber, N., Hoel, L. (2009). “ Traffic and Highway Engineering” (4th ed.)(p.331).
Cengage Learning

● Gedeon, G. (2005, March). Signal Timing Optimization. Retrieved September 24,

2021, from
https://www.cedengineering.com/userfiles/Signal%20Timing%20on%20a%20Sho
estring-R1.pdf.

● Findley, D. J. (2016). Introduction. Highway Engineering, 1–16.

https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-801248-2.00001-0

● Intergreen time. (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2021, from

https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/niatt_labmanual/Chapters/signaltimingdesign/
exampleproblems/IntergreenTime.htm

● Lall, B. K. (n.d.). Engineering.

● Length, C. (n.d.). What is Signal Timing ? What is Signal Coordination ?

Retrieved from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/intersections?fbclid=IwAR0jj4O
ztF1QuAil9UjtGsLJhO030lPSIa2GtCSbkDr7f-L1Pql8LWS1cII

● Mackey, J., Stevanovic, A., & Ph, D. (2015). Signal Timing Optimization for.
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● Ponce, Javier. “Intersection Operations and Safety.” FDOT,
https://www.fdot.gov/traffic/TrafficServices/Intersection-Operations.shtm.
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