Tyre wear calculation methodology

The total emissions from tire wear in [mg] are given by the following equation:

TETij = Nj · Mj · fTi · (EFT TSP)j · ST(V)

where
i = TSP, PM10, PM2.5, PM1, PM0.1 depending on the fraction used in the
equation each time.

N = the number of vehicles.

M = the mileage per vehicle for the period considered [km].

fTi = the fraction of TSP that can be classified as TSP, PM10, PM2.5, PM1 or
PM0.1.

(EFT TSP)j = the TSP emission rate in [mg/vkm] at a speed of 80 km/h for
vehicle category j = PC (passenger car), LDV (light duty vehicle), HDV (heavy
duty vehicle) or MC (motorcycle).

ST(V) = the speed correction factor which depends on the mean vehicle
velocity.

• Speed correction factor

In case that the mean trip speed is known, ST(V) factor can be obtained from the
following diagram:

1,6
speed correction factor [S(V)]

1,4

1,2

0,8

0,6
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
mean trip speed [V] (km/h)
 V < 40km/h: ST(V) = 1,39
40km/h ≤ V ≤ 90km/h: ST(V) = -0,00974·V + 1,78
V > 90km/h: ST(V) = 0,902

Note that ST(V) = 1, when mean trip speed is 80 km/h.

• Emission factors

Note: The complete procedure that was followed in order to conclude to the
emission factors proposed here is presented in the annex.

The emission factors proposed for the different vehicle categories j are given below:

1. Passenger Cars

Using the values shown in Table 1 (Annex) and the procedure described there, we
have concluded to an (EFT TSP)PC range and an (EFT TSP)PC value.

Proposed (EFT TSP)PC range : 6,7 - 16,2 [mg/vkm]

Proposed (EFT TSP)PC value : 10,7 [mg/vkm]

2. Light Duty Vehicles

Using the values shown in Table 3 (Annex) and the procedure described there, we
have concluded to an (EFT TSP)LDV range and an (EFT TSP)LDV value.

Proposed (EFT TSP)LDV range : 8,8 - 21,7 [mg/vkm]

Proposed (EFT TSP)LDV value : 16,9 [mg/vkm]

It appears that the TSP emission factor from tyre wear for light duty vehicles (16,9
mg/vkm) is approximately 60% greater than the respective emission factor for
passenger cars (10,7 mg/vkm), a fact which was expected due to the increased
LDV’s weight and its larger tyres.

3. Heavy Duty Vehicles

Using the values shown in Table 4 (Annex), we have concluded to an (EFT TSP)HDV
range.

Proposed (EFT TSP)HDV range : 22,7 - 89,8 [mg/vkm]

For reasons mentioned in the Annex, the following equation is proposed for the
calculation of the emission factor from tyre wear for HDV’s:

(EFT TSP ) PC
(EFT TSP ) HDV = N axle ⋅ LCF ⋅ (eq. 1)
2
 where
Naxle = the number of the heavy vehicle’s axles.

(EFT TSP)PC = the TSP emission factor for passenger cars.

LCF = the load correction factor, which can be obtained from the
following diagram. Load factor (LF) needs to be estimated on the
average truck’s load basis. If the truck is completely empty or fully
loaded, the load factor should be 0(%) and 100(%) respectively.

3
2,795
Load Correction Factor

1,414 LCF = 0,01381LF+1,414

1

0
0 100
Load Factor (%)

In case that there is no available information for the parameters Naxle and LF, an
average (EFT TSP)HDV value for Naxle=4 and LF=50 → LCF=2,1 (half-loaded truck) is
proposed:

Proposed (EFT TSP)HDV value if Naxle and LF are unknown: 45 [mg/vkm]

4. Motorcycles

Using the values shown in Table 2 (Annex) and the procedure described there, we
have concluded to an (EFT TSP)MC range and an (EFT TSP)MC value.

Proposed (EFT TSP)MC range : 4,2 - 5,3 [mg/vkm]

Proposed (EFT TSP)MC value : 4,6 [mg/vkm]

As expected, the TSP emission factor from tyre wear for motorcycles (4,6 mg/vkm) is
approximately 40% smaller than the respective emission factor for passenger cars
(10,7 mg/vkm). This is due to the two wheels and the lighter weight per wheel for a
motorcycle.
 • Fractions

For the calculation of mass emission from different particle sizes, the following
fractions fTi are suggested:

i fTi
TSP 1
PM10 0,6
PM2.5 0,42
PM1 0,06
PM0.1 0,048

As it is shown in the table above, the fraction of TSP that can be classified as PM10 is
0,6.

• Examples for each category

The next chart provides PM10 emission factors as a function of speed for different
vehicle categories. Smaller particle sizes are calculated on the basis of this.

Correlation between emission factors

and mean trip speed

60

50
EF for PM10 (mg/vkm)

PC
40 LDV
HDV, 4 axles, LF=20%
30
HDV, 4 axles, LF=100%
Motorcycles
20

10

0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
mean speed (km/h)
ANNEX: TSP emission rates from tyre wear for passenger cars, light duty
vehicles, heavy duty vehicles and motorcycles - Methodology verification.

In order to estimate a final value of the TSP emission factor for each vehicle
category, all values found in the literature were collected (and shown in the tables
below), some of them were taken into consideration and others were rejected.

Table 1: Wear rates, PM10 emission factors and TSP emission factors from tyre wear for
passenger cars found in the literature

Source Wear rate EF for PM10 EF for TSP

(mg/vkm) (mg/vkm) (mg/vkm)

Kolliousis (2000) 40,0 4,0 6,7

Gebbe (1997) 53,0 5,3 8,8
Garben (1997) 64,0 6,4 10,7
Lee (1997) 64,0 6,4 10,7
Legret (1999a) 68,0 6,8 11,3
Baumann (1997) 80,0 8,0 13,3
Warner (2002) 97,0 9,7 16,2
CARB (1993) 120,0 12,0 20,0
G ttle (1979) 120,0 12,0 20,0
Malmqvist (1983) 120,0 12,0 20,0
BUWAL (1998) 135,0 13,5 22,5
SENCO (1999) 163,0 16,3 27,2
Baekken (1993) 200,0 20,0 33,3
Dannis (1974), Clark
(1988) 300,0 30,0 50,0
Cadle (1979) 400,0 2,4 4,0
USEPA (1995) 50,0 5,0 8,3
Rauterberg-Wulff(1999) 61,0 6,1 10,2

The values shown with red color have been estimated or calculated in surveys, while
the ones shown with black color are derived using the equations:

EFPM 10 = 0,1 ⋅ WearRate

EFTSP = EFPM 10
0,6

It is found in the literature that 1-10% of a tyre’s wear is emitted as PM10. The factor
0,1 is the upper limit of this range. The factor 0,6, which is used for transformation
of PM10 to TSP, is also obtained from the literature (Miguel et al. 1999).

The proposed value for each vehicle category is calculated as the average of the
values shown in blue color in each table. Also, the min and max values in blue color
form the proposed range. The values that are not shown in blue in the column ‘EF
for TSP’ were excluded from the proposed range and the calculation of the proposed
value, because they were either out-dated or providing values which were much
higher than expected.

Therefore, using information from Table 1, the proposed TSP emission factors and
ranges from tyre wear for passenger cars respectively are:

Proposed (EFT TSP)PC range : 6,7 - 16,2mg/vkm

Proposed (EFT TSP)PC value : 10,7mg/vkm

Similarly, proposed emission rates for motorcycles, light duty vehicles and heavy
duty vehicles can be obtained.

Table 2: Wear rates, PM10 emission factors and TSP emission factors from tyre wear for
motorcycles found in the literature

Wear rate EF for PM10

Source (mg/vkm) (mg/vkm) EF for TSP (mg/vkm)

Gebbe (1997) 26,4 2,6 4,4

Garben (1997) 32,0 3,2 5,3
Env. Austral. (2000) 2,5 4,2
EMPA (2000) 7,0 11,7

As before, using information from Table 2, the proposed TSP emission factor and
range from tyre wear for motorcycles are derived from the values shown in blue:

Proposed (EFT TSP)MC range : 4,2 - 5,3mg/vkm

Proposed (EFT TSP)MC value : 4,6mg/vkm

Table 3: Wear rates, PM10 emission factors and TSP emission factors from tyre wear for light
duty vehicles found in the literature

Wear rate EF for PM10

Source (mg/vkm) (mg/vkm) EF for TSP (mg/vkm)

EMPA (2000) 53,0 5,3 8,8

Gebbe (1997) 110,0 11,0 18,3
Garben (1997) 112,0 11,2 18,7
EMPA (2000) 13,0 21,7

Similarly, the proposed LDV TSP emission factor and range from tyre wear are
derived using information from Table 3:

Proposed (EFT TSP)LDV range : 8,8 - 21,7mg/vkm

Proposed (EFT TSP)LDV value : 16,9mg/vkm

Table 4: Wear rates, PM10 emission factors and TSP emission factors from tyre wear for
heavy duty vehicles found in the literature

Wear rate EF for PM10 EF for TSP

Source (mg/vkm) (mg/vkm) (mg/vkm)

Legret (1999a) 136,0 13,6 22,7

Baumann (1997) 189,0 18,9 31,5
Baumann (1997) 192,0 19,2 32,0
Baumann (1997) 234,0 23,4 39,0
Gebbe (1997) 539,0 53,9 89,8
Garben (1997) 768,0 76,8 128,0
SENCO (1999) 1403,0 140,3 233,8
EMPA (2000) 798,0 200,0 333,3
Rauterberg (1999) 32,0 53,3

The proposed TSP emission range from tyre wear for heavy duty vehicles is:

Proposed (EFT TSP)HDV range: 22,7 - 89,8mg/vkm

However, the category of heavy duty vehicles is characterized by the variability of

the number of axles and by the wide range of a truck’s load. Therefore, the number
of axles and the load factor need to be taken under consideration for the calculation
of HDV emissions from tyre wear. In order to develop an equation that calculates
these emissions, it was assumed that the lower limit of the proposed range
corresponds to a HDV with 3 axles (Naxle=3) and no load (LF=0%), while the upper
limit corresponds to a HDV with 6 axles and full load (LF=100%). The equation
proposed is the following:

(EFT TSP ) PC
(EFT TSP ) HDV = N axle ⋅ LCF ⋅ (eq. 1)
2

Note that the average (EFT TSP)PC is used. Also, the parameter Naxle used in the
equation ranges from 3 to 6. For example, although it is likely that a part of the fleet
of the HDVs has only 2 axles or more than 6, the minimum value of 3 and the
maximum value of 6 for the parameter Naxle must be respectively used in this case.

The following figures 1 and 2 represent the dispersion of the values that appear in
the tables shown above.
 PC, LDV and motorbikes TSP EFs

50,0
50,0

PC-Values derived from wear

rate/not used for calculating the
proposed value
PC-Values derived from wear
40,0 rate/used

PC-Values derived from PM10

EF/used

PC-Value found in the literature/not

used

33,3
PC-Proposed value

30,0 LDV-Values derived from wear

rate/used

LDV-Value derived from PM10

TSP (mg/vkm)

27,2
EF/used

LDV-Proposed value

22,5
motorbikes-Values derived from
21,7
wear rate/used
20,0
20,0 20,0 20,0 motorbikes-Value derived from
18,7 PM10 EF/used
18,3

16,9 motorbikes-Value derived from

16,2
PM10 EF/not used

motorbikes-Proposed value
13,3

11,3 11,7
10,7 10,7 10,7
10,0
10,2
8,8 8,8
8,3

6,7
5,3

4,6 4,4
4,0
4,2

PC LDV Motor
0,0

Figure 1: Dispersion of the TSP emission factors from tyre wear for PCs, LDVs and MCs
 HDV TSP EFs

350,0

333,3

300,0

250,0
HDV-Values derived from
233,8 wear rates/used

HDV-Value derived from

wear rate/not used
200,0
TSP (mg/vkm)

HDV-Value derived from

PM10 EF/not used

HDV-Value derived from

PM10 EF/used

150,0 HDV-Value derived from

methodology for Naxle=6
and LF=50%
128,0
HDV-Proposed value

100,0
89,8

53,3
50,0 50,3
44,7
39,0
32,0 31,5
22,7

0,0

Figure 2: Dispersion of the TSP emission factors from tyre wear for HDVs