U19EE504 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN

Study Material

UNIT II DESIGN OF DC MACHINES

Syllabus: Output equation – main dimensions: separation of D and L – choice of number of

poles – core length, armature diameter – pole proportions – Armature design: number of
armature coils, and slots – Pole design – design of shunt field winding – design of commutator
and brushes.

CONSTRUCTION
The dc machines used for industrial electric drives have three major parts.
Field system; Armature and Commutator.
Field system
The field system is located on the stationary part of the machine called stator and consists of
main poles, interpoles and frame or yoke.
➢ The main poles are designed to produce the magnetic flux.
➢ The interpoles are placed in between the main poles. They are employed to improve the
commutation condition.
➢ The frame provides mechanical support to machine and also serve as a path for flux.
Armature
➢ The armature is the rotating part (or rotor) of a dc machine
➢ It consists of armature core with slots and armature winding accommodated in slots.
➢ The conversion of energy from mechanical to electrical or vice-versa takes place in
armature.
Commutator
➢ The commutator is mounted on the rotor of a dc machine.
➢ The commutator and brush arrangement works like a mechanical dual converter.
➢ In case of generator it rectifies the induced ac to dc.
➢ In case of motor it inverts the dc supply to ac. (In motor, the commutator reverses the
current through the armature conductors to get unidirectional torque).

OUTPUT EQUATION
The output equation relates the power developed in armature to the main dimensions
and speed of the machine. The main dimensions of dc machine are the armature diameter, D
and armature length, L.

Power developed in armature, Pa = C0 D2L n in kW

The output coefficient, C0 = π2Bavac x 10-3
Maximum gap density, Bg = Bav / Kf = Bav / Ψ
C0 in terms of Bg is given by, C0 = ʌ2 ȌBg ac x 10-3
Power developed by the armature, Pa is different from the rated power output P of the
machine. The relationships between the two are
Pa = P/η for generator
Pa = P for motors

Choice of armature length

 The factors to be considered for the choice of armature length are Cost, Ventilation,
Voltage between adjacent commutator segments, Specific magnetic loading.
When the length of the core is large, the ratio of inactive copper to active copper will
be small. Hence the machine may cost less. When the core length is very large then ventilation
of the core will be difficult. The centre portion of the core tends to attain a high temperature
rise and so the core must be ventilated (or cooled) by special methods.
For better commutation the voltage between adjacent commutator segments at load is
to be limited to 30V. The induced emf in a conductor should not exceed 7.5 / Tc Nc.
where, Tc = Turns per coil
Nc = Number coils between adjacent segments
Nc = 1, for simplex lap winding
Nc = p/2, for simplex wave winding
Induced emf in a conductor = Bav LVa, Where, Va - Peripheral speed
Maximum value of armature core length, Lmax= 7.5/TcNcBavVa. From the above
equation it can be observed that the maximum value of armature core length depends on
specific magnetic loading and peripheral speed.

Choice of armature diameter

The factors to be considered for the choice of armature diameter are Peripheral speed,
Pole pitch, Specific electric loading, Induced emf per conductor, Power output.
In dc machines the peripheral speed lies in the range of 15 to 50 m/s. Normally the
peripheral speed should not exceed 30 m/s. If the speed exceeds 30 m/s then special rotor
construction methods have to be employed to prevent the damage due to excessive centrifugal
force. The diameter should be suitable for accommodating desired number of poles with
normal values of pole pitch.
We know that the induced emf in a conductor should not exceed 7.5/TcNc volts for
better commutation conditions. Hence an equation for diameter of armature can be derived in
terms of induced emf per conductor.
Induced emf, E = emf per conductor x conductors per parallel path = ez Z/a
Specific electric loading, ac = IzZ/πD = (Ia/a).(Z/πD); IaZ/a = πD ac
Power developed in armature, Pa = E Ia x l0-3 in kW
On substituting for E in above equation we get, Pa = ez (Z/a) Ia x l0-3
The above equation can be written as, Pa = ez πD ac x l0-3
Maximum value of armature diameter, Dmax = (Pa x l03) / (π ac ez)
From the above equation, it can be observed that the maximum value of armature
diameter depends on specific electric loading and induced emf per conductor.

SELECTION OF NUMBER OF POLES

The number of poles used in DC machines has an important bearing upon the magnetic and
electric circuits. In case of ac machines, number of poles is fixed by the supply frequency and
the speed of the machine. In the case of DC machine, any number of poles can be used.
However there is always a very small range of number of poles that gives a design which is
sound from the commercial point of view.
The selection of number of poles depends on Frequency, Length of commutator,
Weight of iron parts, Labour charges, Weight of copper, Flash over and distortion of field
form.
The number of poles is chosen such that the frequency lies between 25-50 Hz. With
large number of poles the flux carried by the yoke reduces.
Advantages of large number of poles
➢ Weight of armature core and yoke
➢ Cost of armature and field conductors
➢ Overall length and diameter of machine
➢ Length of commutator
➢ Distortion of field form under load conditions
Disadvantages of large number of poles
➢ Frequency of flux reversals
➢ Labour charges
➢ Possibility of flash over between brush arms

Guiding factor for choice of number of poles

➢ The frequency should lie between 25 to 50 Hz.
➢ The value of current per parallel path is limited to 200 amps, thus the current per brush
arm should not be more than 400 amps.
Current per parallel path = Ia / p for lap winding
= Ia /2 for wave winding
Current per brush arm = 2Ia / p for lap winding
= Ia for wave winding
➢ The armature mmf should not be too large.

Pole proportions
The cross-section of the poles should be circular in order that the length of mean turn
of the field winding is minimum. But circular poles cannot be laminated, hence the next best
alternative is square pole section. In a square section the width of the pole body is equal to
the length of the machine. For square pole face, the pole arc (b) is equal to the length of the
machine.
L = bp, for square pole section & L = b, for square pole face
Usually the ratio of pole arc to pole pitch or the ratio L/ τ is specified.
Ψ = b/τ = 0.64 to 0.72 & L/τ = 0.45 to 1.1

LENGTH OF AIR-GAP
In rotating electrical machines a small gap is provided between the rotor and stator to
avoid the friction between the stationary and rotating parts. A larger value of air-gap results
in lesser noise, better cooling, reduced pole face losses, reduced circulating currents and less
distortion of field form. Also larger air-gap results in higher field mmf which reduces
armature reaction. Gap contraction factor, Kg = 1.15
In general, mmf required for air-gap, ATg = 800,000 Bg Kg lg.
 In dc machines the mmf required for air-gap is normally taken as 0.5 to 0.7 times the
armature mmf per pole. The usual values of air-gap lies between 0.01 to 0.015 times of pole
pitch.

ARMATURE CORE DESIGN

The armature of a dc machine consists of core and winding. The armature core is
cylindrical in shape with slots on the outer periphery of the armature. The core is formed with
circular laminations of thickness 0.5 mm. The winding is placed on the slots in the armature
core. The design of armature core involves the design of main dimensions D & L, number of
slots, slot dimensions and depth of core.
Number of armature slots
The factors to be considered for selection of number of armature slots are
➢ Slot width (or pitch)
➢ Cooling of armature conductors
➢ Flux pulsations
➢ Commutation
➢ Cost
A large number of slots results in smaller slot pitch and so the width of tooth is also small.
This may lead to difficulty in construction. But large number of slots will lead to less number
of conductors per slot and so the cooling of armature conductors is better. If the air-gap
reluctance per pair of pole is constant then the flux pulsations and oscillations can be avoided.
It can be proved that the air-gap reluctance is constant if the slots per pole is an integer plus
1/2. For sparkless commutation the flux pulsations and oscillations under the interpole must
be avoided. This can be achieved with large number of slots per pole. In fact, the number of
slots in the region between the tips of two adjacent poles should be at least 3. The slots per
pole should be greater than or equal to 9, for better commutation. When large number of slots
are used the cost of lamination and the cost of insulation will be high.

Guiding factors for number of armature slots

➢ The slot pitch should lie between 25 to 35 mm. For small machines it can be 20 mm or
even less than 20 mm.
➢ The slot loading should not exceed 1500 ampere conductors. Slot loading = Number of
conductors in the slot x Current per conductor.
➢ To reduce flux pulsation losses the slots per pole should be an integer plus ½ for lap
winding and slots per pole arc should be an integer plus ½ for wave winding.
➢ To avoid sparking the number of slots per pole should have a minimum value of 9. The
slots per pole varies from 9 to 1 6. In case of small machines it can be 8.
➢ The number of slots selected should be suitable for the type of winding. In case of simplex
lap winding the number of slots should be a multiple of pole pair. In case of wave winding
the number of slots should not be a multiple of pole pair to avoid dummy coils.
The dimensions of the slot and the number of slots will decide the dimensions of the
tooth. The dimensions of the tooth should be chosen such that the flux density in any part of
tooth does not exceed 2.1 Wb/m2. The slot opening should be as small as possible in order to
reduce flux pulsation losses. With increase in depth of the slot the eddy current loss in
conductor increases, specific permeance of slot increases, reactance voltage increases and it
becomes difficult to fabricate the lamination with narrow width at the roots of teeth.
ARMATURE WINDING DESIGN
In general the armature winding consists of a number of coils connected in series and
number of such series circuits are connected in parallel. The coils are diamond shaped and
are made in special forming machines. The coils may be single turn or multi turn coil, and a
turn consists of two conductors. The coils are placed in the slots on the armature periphery.
In full pitched winding the two coil sides of a coil are placed one pole pitch apart. The dc
machine armature windings are double layer windings, which mean that each slot has two
coil sides.
The design of armature winding involves the selection of type of winding, estimation
of number of armature coils, turns per coil, conductors per slot, total number of armature
conductors and dimensions of the conductor.
Types of armature winding
DC machines employ two general types of double layer windings. They are Simplex lap
winding, Simplex wave winding.
These two types of windings primarily differ from each other in the following two
factors. The number of circuits between the positive and negative brushes, i.e., number of
parallel paths. The manner in which the coil ends are connected to the commutator segments.
In simplex lap winding the number of parallel paths is equal to number of poles,
whereas in simplex wave winding the number of parallel paths is two. In simplex lap winding
the finish of a coil is connected to start of next coil. In simplex wave winding the finish of a
coil is connected to start of a coil which is lying one pitch away from the finish.
In general the lap winding and wave winding refers to simplex windings.
Steps for designing of lap winding for a dc machine
Step 1: Find the range of slots from the range of slot pitch. Armature slot pitch, Ysa = 25 to
35 mm. Slots, itD/y where D is diameter of armature.
Step 2: In the above range of slots, list the values of slots which are multiples of pole pairs.
Step 3: In order to reduce flux pulsations, the slots per pole should be an integer ± 1/2. The
integer should be in the range of 8 to 16. List all the multiples of integer ± 1/2 from the
list obtained in step 2.
Step 4: Choose the suitable slot from the list obtained in step 3.
Step 5: Estimate the total number of armature conductors, Z using the equation of induced
emf. Find the conductors per slot and choose it to the nearest even number.
Step 6: Find the minimum number of coils.
Step 7: Assume, u = 2, 4, 6, 8 etc., where u = coil sides per slot.
Step 8: For each value of u, calculate the number of coils. Choose the number of coils such
that, it is greater than minimum number of coils. Also the value of u should be a divisor
of conductors per slot.
Step 9: Once the number of coils and slots are finalized, Estimate the new value of total
number of conductors and number of turns per coil.
Total armature conductors, Z = Slots x Conductor per slot.
Number of turns per coil = Z/2C.
If a suitable value of C is not obtained to satisfy the above condition, then make another
choice of slots from the list obtained in step 3.
Design of Commutator and Brushes
The number of commutator segments is equal to the number of active armature coils.
The diameter of the commutator will generally be about (60 to 80)% of the armature diameter.
Lesser values are used for high capacity machines and higher values for low capacity
machines. Higher values of commutator peripheral velocity are to be avoided as it leads to
lesser commutation time. The commutator peripheral velocity vc = π Dcn should not as for as
possible be more than about 15 m/s.
If there are nb brushes / brush arm or spindle or holder, placed one beside the other on
the commutator surface, then the length of the commutator LC = (width of the brush wb +
brush box thickness 0.5 cm) number of brushes / spindle + end clearance 2 cm + clearance
for risers 2 cm + clearance for staggering of brushes 2 cm.
Since the brushes of each brush arm collets the current from two parallel paths, current
collected by each brush arm is 2Ia/A and the cross-sectional area of the brush or brush arm or
holder or spindle Ab = 2Ia/Aδb mm2.
In order to ensure a continuous supply of power and cost of replacement of damaged
or worn out brushes is cheaper, a number of subdivided brushes are used instead of one single
brush. Thus if i) tb is the thickness of the brush; ii) wb is the width of the brush and; iii) nb is
the number of sub divided brushes, then Ab = tbwbnb.
As the number of adjacent coils of the same or different slots that are simultaneously
under going commutation increases, the brush width and time of commutation also increases
at the same rate and therefore the reactance voltage (the basic cause of sparking commutation)
becomes independent of brush width.

Step by step design procedure of commutator and brushes

1) Diameter of the commutator DC = (0.6 to 0.8) D and must be such that the peripheral
velocity of the commutator vC = π DC n is not more than 15 m/s as far as possible.
2) The commutator segment pitch τC = π DC / C should not be less than 4 mm from the
mechanical strength point of view.
3) The number of commutator segments is equal to number of active armature coils.
4) Length of the commutator LC = (width of the brush + brush box thickness 0.5 cm) number
of brushes / spindle nb + end clearance 20 mm + clearance for risers 20 mm + clearance for
staggering of brushes 20 mm.
5) Cross-sectional area of the brush / spindle or arm or holder Ab = 2Ia / Aδb in mm2. The
current density in the brushes δb lies between 5.5 and 6.5 A / mm2 for carbon brushes.
6) Maximum thickness of the brush tb max = 4 τC for machines greater than 50 kW; = 5 τC for
machines less than 50 kW.
7) With standard brush width Wb assumed, the number of brushes / spindle nb = Ab / Wb tb.
8) Total commutator losses = Brush contact loss + Brush frictional loss
= voltage drop / brush set × Ia + 9.81 µPbAbvC
where
voltage drop / set = 2.0 V for carbon brushes
µ = coefficient of friction and lies between 0.22 to 0.27 for carbon brushes
Pb = Brush pressure and lies between 1000 and 1500 kg / m2.
9) Temperature rise of the commutator θ = Cooling coefficient x watt loss / dissipating surface
= (120 / 1 + 0.2 Vc) * watt loss / cm2 of dissipating surface π DC LC
10) Temperature rise should be less than about 55 °C.