INTRODUCTION

TO
SUGAR TECHNOLOGY

by
E. MOURIS

Revised edition

1984

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING AND CHEMISTRY

DElFT UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOlOGY
 INTRODUCTION

TO

SUGAR TECHNOLOGY

by

E. Mouris

revised edition
1984

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

AND CHEMISTRY

DELFT UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

 I

INTRODUCTION TO SUGAR TECHNOLOGY

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 What is sugar? 1

1.2 Properties of sugar 2
1.3 The sugar cycZe 5

2. HISTORY OF SUGAR 2.1 Sugar in the oZd 6

and new worZd

3. THE SUGAR PLANTS 3.1 Sugar Cane

9
3.2 Sugar beet
14

4. SOURCES FOR MANUFACTORING 4.1 GeneráZ methods 18

SUGAR 4.2 Sugar cane as a 18
source
4.3 Sugar beet as a 21
source

5. SUGAR PRODUCTION FROM SUGAR 5.1 GeneraZ 23

CANE 5.2 The processing of 23
sugar cane
5.3 By-products of cane 27

6. SUGAR PRODUCTION FROM SUGAR 6.1 The beet sugar 28

BEET factory
6.2 The manufactoring 28
-proces
6.3 By products of beet 50
6.4 Off-campaign 50

7. REFINING OF RAW CANE SUGAR 7.1 Sugar refineries 52

 11

8. SUGAR t.fARKETS AND CONSUMPTION 8.1 Sugar distribution 55

8.2 Consumption 56

9. NEW AND OTHER USES FOR 9.1 Sugar as energy 57

SUGAR souraes
9.2 Sugar as alternative 57
souraes for the
ahemiaal industries
 111

The great sugar house was a wilderness of tubs

and tanks and vats and filters, pumps, pipes,

and machinery. The process of making sugár is

exceedingly interesting. First, you heave your

cane into the centrifugals and grind out the juice;

then run it through the evaporating-pan to extract

the fiber; then through the bone-filter to remove

the alcohol; then through the clarifying-tanks to

discharge the molasses; then through the granulating-

pipe to condense it; then through the vacuum-pan to

extract the vacuum. It is now ready for market. I

have jotted these particulars down from memory. The

thing looks simple and easy. Do not deceive yourself.

To make sugar is really one of the most difficult .

things in the world. And to make it right is nextto

impossible. If you will examine your own supply every

now and then for a term of years, and tabulate the

result, you will find that not two men in twenty can

make sugar without getting sand into it.

Mark Twain

"Life on the Mississippi"

 1

1. INTRODUCTION

1 . 1. What is sugal'?

Crystallised sunlight.

Apart from water and the air around us, there is nothing

quite as important to human life as sugar, for it forms

the basic food for both plant and animal.

Plants manufacture sugar by the process of photosynthesis

which is not dissimilar to the principle by which electric

batteries in space vehicles are recharged by harnessing

solar energy. This process, though much studied, is not

yet completely understood, but it is known that plant

leaves, by virtue of a green pigment called chlorophyll,

use sunlight te create sugar. Recent studies have shown

that the reaction takes place in minute plant cells

called chloroplasts, which are only visible under an

electron micrescope, the chlorophyll acting as a

catalyst.

During photosynthesis carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) from the air

and water (H 2 0) from the plant are combined to form

sucrose (CI2H22011) with the release of oxygen (02) into

the air. The reaction is simply represented by the

chemical equation:

+ catalyst
chlorophyll
------.--
. C12H22011
solar energy
 2

Sucrose, the chemical name for what is usually called

sugar, is required by the plant in order to live and

grow. lt can be looked on as crystallised sunlight which

the plant supplies to man.

1.2. Praperties af sugar

Sucrose, C12H22011 is a disacharide composed of~-D­

glucose and,&~D-fructose (Fig. 1-1). lts use was at

first restricted to the wealthy, owing to its early

high price, but ancient Chinese doctors and those of

other early people described it as a medicinal.

Today our syrups, elixirs, and pills are still compounded

with sugar. Sucrose is said to be the first pure carbo-

hydrate to separate from the photosynthetic process. As

such, it is the progenitor of all plant and animal sub-

stances and the origin of coal and petroleum, our

principal sourees of heat and power.

For the purpose of establishing standards of identity

for foods, the u.S. Food and Drug Administration has

defined the term "sugar" as "refined sugar (sucrose)".

Refined sugar, whether of cane or beet origin, is the

organic substance produced in pure form in the greatest

volume, and is one of the purest of all substances pro~

duced in considerable volume. lts analysis is, approxi-

mately: sucrose, 99.90%: invert sugar, 0.01%: asb (in-

organic material), 0.03%: moisture, 0.03%: organic mate-

rial, 0.03%. There is a slight variation in the non-

sucrose components between the cane refined an beet re-

 3

1
HC - - - ( / - - 0 CH~OH
1
HCOH
I,
- j! - C - - -
I,
I 0 I
HOCH HOCI ·j
1 I
HCOH HCUr!
I I
HC- HC-
I I
CH~OH

Glucoseteil r rucrosctci I
S.lccharosc
rI.;, D -G Iucop y ra nosido-Il D- i ~u ~ to i u r:l nosid
(Schreibwcisc n:lch F1SCHER-TOLLENS)

CH,OH

H OH OH H

S:lccharosc
(Schreibwcisc nam HA WOR TH)

Fig. 1-1 Sacharosse = Sucrose = Sugar

 4

refined, but this is relatively insignificant.

It is the material of greatest food value economically,
in the sence that an acre devoted to the cultivation of
sugar, whether beet or cane, is capable of producing more
calories than any other food erop. It is the cheapest
souree of calories known. However, sugar is all energy
(Joules ) and contains no proteins, virtually no mine-
rals, and no vitamins, which must come from supplementa-
ry diet materiaIs.
 5

1.3. The s uga r c ycZe.

When man consumes sugar his body needs oxygen to convert

his basic fuel, blood sugar, into energy and in the
course of this reaction the body liberates carbon dioxide,
which is exhaled, whereas the plant inhales carbon dioxide
in order to live and grow and exhales oxygen. The process
of sugar consumption is thus the reverse of sugar forma-
tion and is represented by the equation:

C12H22011 + 12°2 ~ 11 H2 0 + 12 CO 2
(Enzyme) + (energy).

An enzyme is a natural organism which enables such changes

as digestion to take place.
Sugar thus moves in a natural cycle, beginning with its
formation in plants and completing its course with its
consumption and use for growth, the renewing of celIs,
and providing energy for all our activities.
Sugar is made by most plants but not usually in sufficient
quantities to be harvested commercially. It is obtained
from the maple tree in Canada, from sorghum, from certain
palm trees and from the carob tree, but the two principal
sources are:
a) sugar cane
b) sugar beets

The biology, history, cultivation and extraction will be

described in the following chapters.
While these plants provide sugar, their harvesting is not
as simple as th at for example of wheat, barley or fruit.
The sugar has to be extracted using technology which has
been developed over centuries.
 6

2. HISTORY OF SUGAR

2.1. Sugar in the oZd and new worZd

Sugar has been defined by chemists as a substance which

is soluble in water, has a sweet taste and is capable of

fermentation. The culture of sugar started at a very

early period, sugar was known in India and the Orient

long before the Christian era. The Greeks and Romans

knew of the existence of sugar cane and probably of

crystallized sugar, but the first positive evidence of

sugar in solid form dates from Persia about A.D. 500.

So, in Sanscrit, sugar is called sarKara and the word

candy is also derived from the Sanscrit kanda.

The practice of sweetened food also dates from an early

period in world history and antedates the knowledge of

sugar. In Northern Europe sugar came into use as an

article of food during the time of the Crusaders, but

does not appear to have been generally known prior to

the middle of the thirteenth century. In 1148 the sugar

cane, which had been brought from Asia, was exten'sively

cultivated in Cyprus. About 1505 i t was introduced from

Cyprus to the West Ind~es.

The discovery of America and the introduction of sugar

cane in the new areas resulted in the rapid deve10pment

 7

of sugar manufacture. About 1600 the production of raw

sugar in the West Indies and tropical America was said

to be the largest industry in the world of that day.

Sugar refining is said to have been invented by a

Venetian, around 1550, who probably got the idea from

China, where the art of refining sugar and making sugar

loaves had been practised for centuries. The first

Englishman who described the method of crystall~zing

and purifying sugar was called Bartholomew, but the

methods used were crude until the introduction of vacuum

boiling and decolourization by bone char around 1802.

So, many sugar refineries sprang up in the seaports of

Great Britain and Western Europe.

In 1605 the suggestion to use beets for making sugar

was made by Oliver de Serres. He wrote a book on "Art of

agriculture and management of land" in which he stated:

"The beet root when boiled yields a juice similar to

syrup of sugar, beautiful to look at because of its

vermillion colour". A German chemist, named Andrea

Marggraf, made sugar from beet roots in 1747, and some

fifty years later one of his pupils, Franz Karl Achard,

established a factory for commercial manufacture of

beet sugar.

It was not, however, until the English blockade against

cane sugar imports and the impetus given by the Emperor

Napoleon the First in 1811 tothe growth of the sugar

 8

beet and to the discovery of the best methods to obtain

the juice and to extract the sugar from it, that the
manufacture of beet sugar became a practical proposition.
Starting from 1830 the rise of beet sugar manufacturing
was so rapid that within 50 years as much beet sugar as
cane sugar was produced in the world. The overall world
sugar production was for 1982 estimated at 98,5 million
tonnesjyear, divided into:
world cane sugar production: 61.9 million tonnesjyear,
world beet sugar production: 36,6 million tonnesjyear.
Consequently the proportion nowadays is: 37.2 percent
beet- and 62.8 percent cane sugar.
("International sugar economie yearbook and directory",
Lichts, F.O., enclosure, p. 31, Verlag Dr. Albert
Bartens, Berlin (1983)).
 9

3. THE SUGAR PLANTS.

3.1. Sugar c a n e .

Sugar Formation in the Cane.

Sugar cane is like a huge grass which grows perenially
in tropical areas. It reaches a height of 4 to 5 metres.
The top of the cane is crowned by an erect tuft of short
green leaves where the process of photosynthesis takes
place and the sugar is formed in the chloroplasts from
carbon dioxide in the air and water in the plant.
The stem is divided into sections of 15 to 25 centimetres
by 'nodes' or knots from which grow buds, concealed by
long, drooping leaves. The outside of the stalk of mature
cane is hard and golden yellow in colour, with spots of
red and green, and inside it are softer fibres os vascu-
lar bundIes.
In fig. 3-1 is shown the botanical structure of the stem.
The vascular bundIes are tubatar channels(Fig. 3-2) within
the stem which allow for the passage of plant food,
dissolved in water, from the roots to the leaves, and
also the movement of the products of photosynthesis from
the leaves to the stalk for storage.
The bud, situated at the node, shows clearly. If acutting
is taken, including the bud, and planted in moist soil at
0
a temperature of 19 to 22 C three major growth processes
begin Fig. 3-3.
First, the root primordia develop short 'sett' roots,
enabling the plant to anchor itself in the ground and to
absorb water. Secondly a shoot is iniated in the bud, and
thirdly, a permanent root system emerges from the base of
the budo This development uses the stored sugar for food
and en~rgy until such time as the shoot can form leaves
and the process of photosynthesis can begin in the gro-
wing plant. When the plant is established, the 'sett'
roots become defunct and decay.
------ --- - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - -

!~ ~ I~
~
1)111' : ! 1JI \ 1\
1111 )11, ' , !I ,lil
,"'I ~ , 'I 1 1 11
1

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,~\\\llr I' ; I!, f I/~
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~l))\\ll;:: ~ \\ \\f
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e

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~i::' /1,\ \
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I
Cane cuttings or portions of the staik. As Two kinds of growth rings. Left, the growth
planting material the cuttings are usually selccted ring is bent upward at the bud side of the stalk j
from the growing-point reg ion of the cane staik. right, it is more or less horizontal and thus passes
Af ter ]. P. MARTJl"J behind the budo After ]ESWIET.

~
o
.- , '- 3· 1 Sligar cane
 11

VasculM bundies

Cor cracks

Bud furrc'N

Growth ring

Root band

Leaf scar (node)

Wax ring

Roet primordia

Bud

Corky patch

Growth crack

Fig. 3-1a Sugar cane

 ANNULAR ELEMENTS
LACUN06 I)Q, AIR TUBE..
vESSEL

J
I
,.' ',-,
- I

,I
- 1
1

SCLERENCHYMA
A cross section of a portion of an H 109 ca ne leaf. After J. P. MARTIN

PHLDEM {~:~~~D;'NI6~~fll
Magnification, X 274.
PAQENCHYMA OR STORAGE CELLS
INTERCEL LULAQ. SPACES

Diagrammatic drawing showing the structllre of

the vasclllar bllIldle anel sllrrollIlding storaJ~e
cells in three dimcnsiolls. After J. P. MARTIN

....
Fig. 3-2 Structure of sugar cane N
 __
·. . .. _- - ~ - ---_._... ~- .- - - -- _ ._ - --

.. .t fffLW'll'... PP,IMAP,Y ST .... LK

~o ~ .!',,;'! L~:a c~ '~'!F:..._ ,~!::"" ... ... J. SECONOARY ST .... lKS

TERTIARY STALKS

~ ~J(Gt- GROUND LEVEl

·~v
,~ • ~ U\I
,/ I POINT Of AnACHMEN T
TO ORIGINAl CUnlNG

\Vhen a eane eutting is planted , ncw shoots The underg round portion of a eane stool,
devclop from the lateral buds and roots develop showin g the primary staIk, seeonda ry stalks, and
from the root band. Later, staiks of thc various tertiary staIks from which staIks of thc fourth
orders and shoot roots develop from the primary anc! sueceed ing orders devclop . Af ter J. P.
shoot. After J. P. MARTIN
l MARTIN

~
w

Fig. 3-3 Suga r cane stoo l

 14

Cane does not need to be planted each year, for

af ter it is cut the roots remain, and from these
sprout fresh shoots which flourish and qrow, providinq
the text year's crop. This process is called 'ratooning'.
Cane usually contains 10-15% o~ sugar and a canefield
will yield anything from 45 to 90 tons of sugar cane/ha
wi th is equivalent 4-.5 to 12 tons of sugar per hectare

3.2. Sugar beet.

Sugar Formation in the Beet.
Sugar beet (fig. 3-4) is a biennial plant which stores sucrose
in the root during the first year of growni if allowed
to grow for a second year the plant would use some of this
sucrose in producing tall seed-bearing foliage. For sugar
manufacture, therefore, the root is harvested in the first
season. The sucrose is produced by photosynthesis in the
green portions of the leaves of the beet. Atmospheric
carbon dioxide is absorbed by the stomata (pores in the
epidermia of the leaf). The carbon dioxide diffuses to
the chloroplasts where, in the presence of adequate light
temperature, and water content, the radiant energy of the
light is absorbed to convert the carbon dioxide and water,
through a complex cycle of intermediate products, into
sucrose and other carbohydrates.
The sucrose is translocated through the conductive tissues
of the vascular system to the root, where it may either
be retrained in storage cells or conducted back to other
parts of the plant and utilised for growth. The picture
of a typical sugar beet, below, shows the small rootlets
remaining with the beet as harvested but the very fine
tap root and root hairs reach about 2 metres belo~ ground
level in suitable soils.
Below the normal leaves and sterns, part of the growing
beet protrudes above ground level and the presence of
residual leaf scars serves to differentiate the crown of
the beet from the root proper.
 15

Sugar Beet (8ela vulgaris) Centimetres

50

.,~

40

Petiole
30

Crown

Leaf scars
20

Root

\
\
\ , 10-
Rootlets 'I

\
:.
( '.
I \ o

Fig. 3-4 Suga r beet

 ________
Kopf
\ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ HaIS

Rübt-nwurulkörpPf

Schwanz

Abb. 1 Sldzzc einer ZuckeITÜbe

(Abb. entnommen: TuilIn. V., Z"ekel' ~ , .J~ 1I~:\1i1

Abh . .'i Vcrtl'itllng des Xylelllgewt·bt's in der RiitJe

Fig. 3-4a SUGAR BEET STRUCTURE.

 17

Although the crown portion of the beet does contain some

sugar, the juice from this portion is of low quality con-
taining a relatively high proportion of the reducing
sugars, glucose and fructose, which would seriously
interfere with the production of high quality crystal-
line sugar. At harvest, the beet are 'topped'to remove
the leaf and crown portion which may be fed to cattie or
ploughed in as green fertiliser. The tops from each hec-
tare of beet have a cattie feed value equivalent to about
that of 0.5 hectare of kale.
The root portion of the beet, as sent for processing,
has an average weight of some 350 g to 800 g depending
on growing conditions and soil type and contains some
50 g to 130 g of sugar, as weil as pulp. Each hectare
of beet provides some 5 tons of white sugar.
 18

4. SOURSES FOR MANUFACTURING SUGARS.

4.1. Gener aZ Meth ods

suga r.
In gene ral there are two meth ods to manu factu re
suga r
In previ ous chap ters the two prin ciple sour ees,
cane- and suga r beet , are alrea dy discu ssed .
outp uts
In Fig. 4-1, an over all schem e show the in-an d
for manu factu ring suga r from these two sour ees.

4.2. Sugar cane as a cour se.

Cane is a Trop ical Plan t
r. In
Suga r cane need s stron g sunl ight an abun dant wate
ent and
some trop ical areas natu ral rain fall is insu ffici
is nece s-
irrig ation eith er by cana ls or overh ead spray s
at times
sary. Whe re natu ral rain fall is suff icien t it is
requ ired.
too heavy and in such areas drain age syste ms are
reduc e
Trop ical hurr ican s and cyclo nes can dras tical ly
is also
the yield , drou ght can be most dama ging and cane
subje ct to inse ct pest s.
and spro uts
Af ter eropp ing the root is left in the groun d
n as
again for the follo wing year . This prac tice, know
'ratoonir~', can be conti nued for
6 or 7 years or long er
annu al
and is one of the econo mie adva ntage s of cane over
crop s.
grow ing
Plan ting is carri ed out with shor t secti ons of
11-18
cane Fig. 4-2. Plan t cane is usua lly cut af ter
from
mont hs. The yield of suga r per hect are varie s
4.5 to 12 tons depe nding on soil and clim ate.
risin g
Much of the worl d's cane is still hand cut, but
l harv es-
costs are caus ing the intro duct ion of mech anica
usua lly
ting. Just befo re erop ping , the lowe r leave s are
as close
remov ed by cont rolle d burn ing. The cane is cut
are remo -
to the soil as poss ible. The top leav es, whic h
Once
ved in the field , may be used as catti e fodd er.
and taken
cut, the cane is loade d into truck s or trail ers
direc t to the facto ry.
 19

CANE BEET

BAGASSE CATTLE FEED

FUEL
EXHAUST GASES EXHAUST GASES
FACTORY FACTORY
WATER WATER
WATER

I
I
I
I MOLASSES
I
I
I ~
I I
RAW SUGAR. RAW SUGAR
L ___ _ __ .J
REFINERY

WH I TE/SUGAR WHITE WHITE/SUGAR

SUGAR
MARKET

CONSUMER

Fig, 4-1 DIFFERENT SUGAR PROCESSES.

 20

l' L ;\ :-.; T POP l' LAT ION ST U DIE S

" Can~ s~cd rlac~d 'cnd !O end' in m>rrnal planting at Victmias \Iilling Co"
Philirrincs, !'laflling g o(" l '1u a lity sc'cd in this rnanncr \\'ith ade'lu:lt~ suil m"isture
or \I' ith \\'ater for irrigati" n rc s ults in ade4uar~ stands and in sun stanti:d sa\' ings "f
secd,

Fig. 4-2 Planting sugar cane

.",
 21

4.3. Suga r beet a s a s ouree

Sugar beet as a Temperate Zone Plant
Sugar beet is grown throughout Europe, the United States,
Canada and the U.S.S.R. For sugar production it is plan-
ted in the spring and cropped the same autumn. The seed
is planted in rows at about 60.000 plants per hectare.
Until the early 1960s each seed contained a number of
germs and produced several plants which has, af ter
sprouting, to be 'singled' down by hand to one, but since
1965 plant breeders have produced a monogerm seed which
gives single plants. Other operations such as drilling,
weeding and fertilising are carried out mechanically.
Beet is subject to attack from a number of insect pests,
of which the worst is the aphid, a carrier of a disease
called virus yellows, which seriously affects the yield
and must be controlled by spraying.
The sugar content is also improved by application of
fertilizer. It is never planted two years running in the
same field but is rotated with cereals and other crops.
Before the days of beet, cereals were rotated with
mangolds and turnips but this was expensive in labour
and the roots could only be used as cattIe feed. In the
early days farmers had to be persuaded to change to beets.
Whereas cane stores sugar in the staIk, beet stores in the
root. Harvesting normally begins in mid-September and
continues till the end of the year. Af ter this the beet
is liable to swift deterioration if a frost is followed
by a thaw, though in European countries the campaign can
continue till end of December. Harvesting is performed
entirely with machines which left the beet, top it and
feed it into trailers. The green tops are used as animal
feed.
Af ter harvesting, the beet is either sent directly to the
factory or stored in clampsunder straw at the roadside
until the factory can receive it.
 22

From small beginnings 60 years ago, sugar beet has become

a major factor in European and U.S.A. farming. It is a
welcorne cash crop and because of the nature of its
roots, with their long thread-like rootles, it irnproves
the quality of the soil. Yields od cereal per hectare
have enorrnously increased by the introduction of beet as
a rotation erop.
 23

5. SUGAR PRODUCTION FROM SUGAR CANE.

5.1. Gene r a Z

Sugar cane deteriorates quickly af ter it has been cut and

should be processed as soon as possible.
A simple methode (still in use in under-developed countries)
to manufacture sugar from cane is shown in Fig. 5-1.
Capacity 1-5 tons cane a day. The largest factories can
grind as rnuch as 20.000 tons a day. A erop lasts from
5 to 8 rnonths and is of ten called a 'campaign' .

5.2 T h e pr oce ss& ng o f s uga r ca n e

At the factory (Fig. 5-2), cane is cleaned of trasts

and other unwanted matter and passes first through
shredding knives to brak up the hard rind and expose the
inner core. It is then crushed between squeezing rollers
(see Fig. 5-3) under high pressure and sprayed with hot
water. The juice from this station is heated and lime is
added. This, af ter filtration in vacuum filters, leaves
a clarified juice which is concentrated by evaporation.
The thickened juice is boiled in steam-heated pans under
vacuum until a mix or 'massecuite' of crystals and mother
syrup is produced. The mixture is then spun in centrifugal
machines to separate the sugar crystals (raw cane sugar)
from the residual syrup (cane molasses).
Some cane sugar is consumed locally but a larger proportion
is shipped as raw cane sugar (not as cane) to rnetropolitan
areas where the main markets exist.
 24

Sugar eane

Transport

Size reduction

Pressing

Evaporation
open batch

Storage in
forms

Bourbon Callt Gur

Fig 5-1
I SIMPLE MANUFACTORING PROCESS I
 24 a
Bactas$'e Fi ! fr Q I ion Mud
.---------------------------- - -------

f 1
~cjQr t prep-aratJonHMil! station :J~~ef' Eval2.orar/on C;'ris/a/fizallón
Cone Shredder PUf! tca Ion
r--
Raw Ju/ce Tnin Jl/iC'e ,' I t
~qQr
DÎEF-usion chrisf:at ..,-
L----....-il Proce s Separa t ion
1'10!Qm?S
BQ9'-Q sse
~------

lAl I , Wa ter. Water ------~~~ Cono~nSor

vvQ rer 8!.flD c-al/on I-~----=========---- -I
1- L...-_ _ _ _.....J, ' Ref)Jse
. t

cokes:---:---f P{Qné
t
~--------------------
Lime ~ Mi/koLLime Ca (ollh
__ CO 2 gases __
-1---
--.-J
I
...

8agasse Smoke
Exhausfanc!
qj
Fuef . Power station QSES

Low Pressure sleam

FLDfVSHEET CfJNE SUGAR FflCTORY

' .' :
 11 Molassts
r--~~s'~~ .~-~---~
l!;J ÇJ i oe LJ u~
~------~;~~~:t_-~~~~~_~~~I~~:~-=-~i
GuÜ -
1

Multt:llt-elle tl ha por al or
I /' 1 I1 ~II
A
hrsl Secend
I
I
n 1II : : ~ I II
~,a y bO ~1 I I 11 1 1
I 1 11 : 1
I t :t i l
I
f j~
ti
11 ' 7 11
P
11 -, 1 1
1 :.J 1 1
1 1 1
Va cuu m / Va ~1J um : Vatuum I I
/
pan ( pan pan I
I I
1 I I I I
-1-+ _~_J ; _+_ .LJ

Syrup
I juice , 60 ?~ Sollds '5
~' .~
Scums 112-16%
~ SG i'~fl'ir'i
ff) t· • 'd11 j

L-----~r' ---- r i
.:;
:<

Pre~s juice I
L-----rA~~ Ba&asse la boders

/
//,r- ----~------------------
/,/ !,'~P:' -
-_-_-~I 1\I
r-
__

L--.::::...::::!:::-..--:~,.;,;,..,;RS"U:E':. .JJ' 'B ë;n~lugall _s~

/ / / I I
C Cenlnl ug.l,
ti
Mll ed raw JULce
11
<
L-J 'fT? ~'=1C .
I
MII11I1g plant
11: lil IV :3E1H
I I
___ J I
L ____________ J Commef(.Ial suga.
LC Su,,, m.gm.
_____ fOI seed
~-----

Frnal molasses
M,ngl"

Flow diagram of !t Tnw-sugar fadory (J> pre,:illre; Vac VaCIIIIIl1; T (empcratmc). N

lJl

Fig. 5-2 Processing of sugar cane

 FLEDING Ol' MILLS AND CONVEYING Ol' BAGASSE

~
---
\\

Co nlinuous pressure feeder (Walkers Ltd.).

Fig. 5-3 Cross section sugar cane mill

N
0'1
 27

5.3. By pr oduet s o f Ca n e

Molasses is converted into rum and baker's yeast and

into cattIe food. 'Bagasse', the residual fibre of cane,
is mainly used as fuel in the factories. Some is converted
into paper and building board. Mud from the filters is
used as fertilizer in the canefields.
 28

6. SUGAR PRODUCTION FROM SUGAR BEET

6.1. The Beet Suga r Facto ry

and a beet
There are resem blanc es betw een a cane facto ry
wher eas
facto ry. Both extr act the suga r from a plan t but
r beet
suga r cane is a tough , intra ctab le mate rial, suga
oyed by
is relat ively soft and its cells could be destr
cane .
crush ing. It has to be treat ed diffe rent ly from
ined from
There are also diffe renc es in the raw juice s obta
isely the
the two plan ts altho ugh the end prod uct is prec
same . Comp are page 24 a and page 30.

6.2. The manu factu ring proc ess.

ry does
It shou ld be emph asize d that a beet suga r facto
esize d
not reall y manu factu re suga r; the sucro se is synth
alled
by proc ess of natu re in beet roots and the so-c
ratin g
manu factu ring proc ess is esse ntial ly one of sepa
vario us
the suga r, even tuall y in a pure form , from the
root s.
mate rials with whic h it is asso ciate d in the beet
es Fig.6 -1,
The proc ess may be desc ribed by the block schem
6-2 and the flow shee t illus trate d in Fig. 6-3.
comp lex
From this flow shee t one can see that a long and
r from
proc essin g is requ ired for the prod uctio n of suga
t, from
beet s. The actu al "seas on" or "cam paign " is shor
d of
mid Septe mber unti l the end of Dece mber , a perio
usly
abou t 80 days. Beet suga r facto ries work cont inuo
and
durin g this perio d, the proc essin g going on day
nigh t.

a boil er
Altho ugh not show n in the flow shee t, there is
es.
hous e, powe r hous e and its atten dant auxi liari
and
Much stearn is used as weIl as plen ty of wate r
and
large supp lies of coal, oil or natu ral gas, coke

lime stone are also nece ssary .

 1. beet reception and storage
2. water treatment
f'-'-'-'-'-,--+---'--'-'1
- I .
3. juice extraction and
purification
8EETS 4. evaporation
5. cristallisation
L .... _ .
I
-'-l 6. sugar house
SUGAR
.
I 7. pulp drying
8. lirne kiln
FUEl FUEl FUEl 9. steamboiler and power
station.

WATER

PROCESS CONNECTION
- - - - DISCONNECTION POSSIBlE
POWER
_._. - ' - VAPOUR OR CON DENSWATER

Fig. 6-1 - . A bloek seheme of a sugar faetory. IV

'"

L--_ _ _ __
 Deunp
J
Brandstof.
Dror;1erlj DrCX)? pulp
Na/Ie
pulp
, -- SchUimaarde.
Wa'Ssen D if'fuS ie
1
Sap-
Do.rnp

• 1
-
kri~tQ.L
Bieten - en
Snijden
r-- ,oroce~
I - - Zuivering' r--- Yerdamping' ~

r-
proces
5njdseL I Dun-
Ruw- .n,-k-
sap I Sap Sap
Slib Water ~ eentriT'
+-
Su/ker
I .Dro9'en !'1efa.5se
j
Wa ter- Na./er I ........,
Co,.,densor
Na ter - beho.nol. I
I I
I -SLib
Ca.Or~O= ka.lleme!k
/(a!ksleen I
kalKollen
cokes - r----- ~
C02
------ g'as ~

Hele g'a55en
r ./'
. Sit>OrnkeleL .
Bron cis 101. - +
een/rede
~
k0
stoom
-
Fig, 6-2 FLOWSHEET BEET SUGAR FACTORY,
 31

BEET SUGAR

Beets
I
ScaJes
I
Recelving
.
statI ion
To factory
bins, or
long· term
storage
,
Stone and trash
removers
CaO WJ~her
or Sli~ers
sacchJrate I Pulp flrcss water
ca Ke Water _ _ D i f l u s e r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
J
Ddf~slon I
JUlce IW"~'" !
Screens Presses
I
First _CO.
carbonation . fvlolasses.
I
I +-conc Steffen
Clarifier L---r--~: fdtrate
I
Driers
Standard liquor I
I F irst I
I Mo lasses a I
IC.Jrbonatlon I and second
carbonat Ion i dried pulp
I Juree : press cakes
I
Second
Storage .
CO, - - carbonation
I use,
Filters sale

·To lime or
saccharate or
milk recaJcine(1
Filters

Evaporators Intermediate
and raw
Thick jUi~e sugars
filter aid
Melter
Fil:ers Cake, to .first
-"7"-.J==~- carbonatlon
~ ~____._S_lu,dge ~H~i~gh~~~----~~L~o~w~ Low
High green ~ wash green

White pans wash ·Intermediate Raw pans

I
I pans Mixers
Mixers I
I Mixers Crystai Ii zers
I
Centrtfuges·
Centrifuges Centrifuges

Drier
I
Granulators To melter To melter Storage
Condit'ioning 1
To · pressed
Scre~ning pulp,
Storaq'c bins Stetten
process
~ or sale
To spec ialty
manufJcturing,
packJgrng, or
bulk sa Je

Fig ~ 6-3 Flow sheet beet sugar factory

 32

The power absorbed varies between 140 and 180 kW per

100 tonnes of beet worked per 24 hours.
Water use averages from 800 to 1000 tonnes per 100 tonnes
of beet and 4 to 4.5 tonnes oil or 6 to 8 tonnes of coal
on the same basis.
["Notebook - sugar course 1958", Mouris, E., p.10 to
24, School voor Suikerindustrie, Amsterdam (1958).]

6.2.1. Sugar beet supplies.

Growers deliver their truck loads of beets to beetrecei-

ving stations located either at the factory or at conve-
nient rail side locations in the harvesting areas. At the
latter, the beets are transferred to railcars or transport
trucks for shipment to the factory side. On arrival at works,
beets are weighed and tipped into silos or flumes.

6.2.2. Beet preparation for diffusion.

6.2.2.1. Beet pumps pick up the beets and drop the roots
into a washer. This washer consists of an open, perforated
trough with revolving arms. Earth, small rocks, stones etc.
are removed. Af ter washing, beets are lifted by bucket
elevators to the top of the building, where they are deposi-
ted in supply hoppers over the beet-slicing mechnisms.

6.2.2.2. Beet sugar manufacture requires cutting of the

beets into slices offering a large surf ace when being in
contact with the water during extraction, conventionally
known as the diffusion process. Slices of beets are called
"cossettes", measuring 0.075 to 0.10 m in length at about
3 mm thickness.
 33

Fig. 6-4 Overall vieuw beet sugar factory

Fig. 6-5 Beet washer

6.2.3. Diffusion.

The sliced beet from the beet slicers are, af ter

they have been weighed, immediately run into a

continuous diffuser. The sliced beets are propelled

up into a diffusion tower (system BMA = Braunsch-

weigische Maschinenbau Anstalt, or Buckau =

Buckau R. Wolf) or in a long trough with perforated

plates (system DdS = De danske Sukkerfabrikker).

Hot water enters at the top or upper end, flowing

down countercurrently to the direction of the sliced

beet movement and leaving the separator or lower end

of t.he diffuser as diffusion juice or raw juice. The

sugar depleted sliced beet leaving the upper end of

the diffuser is known as pulp. During this process

water and juice are heated by heat exchangers for

better extraction. Fig. 6-6 and Fig. 6-7

6.2.4. Diffusion juice or raw juice.

The raw juice is light grey in colour, slightly

acid, containing about 12 to 15 % dry substance and

about 88 to 90 % sugar per 100 parts solid in the

juice.

6.2.5. Juice purification.

6.2.5.1. Milk of lime to neutralize juice and precipitate

some impuri ties. Jui-ce is stirred for some time

before being passed on to the next process.Fig. 6-8.

6.2.5.2. High tanks containing raw juicé through which CO 2

is pumped.

The CO combines with the lime, CaO, to form

2
Cac0 , which is 1nsoluble. The gas is allowed to
3
 Beste Frischwasserverteilung:
<;lrnmlinienlörmige Rührarme rotier!!!de .Q.~senberieselung
kein r ransport, daher Anpas-
sung an alle leistungsbereiche
Abscheidung von lult ohne Drehzahländerung
und Gasen schützt 11. -- '! F' h wasserzu fh
den Turm vor Korrosio:1
nur durch Niveaueinste"ung
L-- ....-sc '----"-- u r
. '._ - -

Schaumzerstörung
ohne Schaumöl

interz:"ular~---~
~-----
~
l' Zulührung von entgastem
PreBwasser (BW-PreBwasser-
entgasung)
~ -- -------- -- -- ------

~,"
Abgeschiedene ,
Gase verdrängen luft-
'.
sauerstoff aus den Schnitzeln ",
-~ ''''-, Beste PreBwasserverteilung
durch rotierende Rührarme

Schnitzeleinlührung
oh ne Schaumerzeugung
.. _~
""~ .~

G1eichmäBige Gegenstrom-
".
". führung von Schnitzel und Saft.
Höchste Schnitzelfü"ung
erzwingt schne"sten Saltdurchlauf
BW-AUSLAUGER
lultabschluB durch
hohen Flüssigkeitsstand Für 200 bis 5000 tato Einze"eistung
im Schnitzelschacht

---"~- "
'-"
leitflügel von absoluter
Betriebssicherheit,
'",Keine Schnitzelstauungen
Abspülung der anhal-
tenden Erdbakterien

~_ _ __ S_i_e_b.:..p_a_ra_I_lele Schnitzelaulgabe

Rohsaftabgabe Einwandfreie Siebreinigung

durch selbsttätig sich
einste"ende Siebabstreiler

Entsandung in der Gasarme Schnilzelmaschine -

Aulbereitungsanlage (/' _ lange lebensdauer
- - --.-- .. _- ._---- _. ---./' ' --- -
I I Verstoplungssichere Regelung
l!.u!~~~ftent~~ndung der Pumpenleistung
Lbei konstanter Drehzahl
_-
- --_._. _.. -_.---_ .._.- - - W
'è~\

Fig. 6-6 Diffusion process

36

Ul
)..1
Q)
~
o
+J
~
o
.~

Ul
:::l
4-1
4-1
.~

Cl
 37

•
'~/'tsleen Coke S .
~-

~ J;e6ranc/e ia/k -
-- Water
- la!kme!k

I
r _____~~c~'O~2._ :- - ~.. :. .
/"Car60na. -
-Ia.fle

-
Ala-fillra~e

Ontharde"
Fig. 6-8 JUICE PURIFICATION.
JJunsab
 38

bubble through until the lime content of the

juice is reduced to about 0.1 %.uCarbonatation~

thickens the juice and a good deal of scum is

formed by the precipitation of organic irnpurities.

Some authors use the word "carbonation" but on the

European Continent and in the United States of

America the word "carbonatation" is generally used.

Por example Oliver Lyle also used the word

"carbonatation" in his book ["Technology for sugar

refinery workers", Lyle, 0., p. 26, 58, 304,

Chapman & Hall, London (1957) J.

Also the "Glossaria interpretum" ["Glossary of

sugar technology", Müller, C.A., p. 20 to 21,

Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam (1970) J

gives the same meaning to this subject.

6.2.5.3. In order to facilitate filtration, carbonated

i
juice is heated to 95 0 C and filtered in filter

presses or in vacuum drum filters, which remove

the sludge containing caC0 and non-sugars

3
precipitated during the first carbonatation

process. The juice has a light yellow colour and

still contains a slight surplus of lime in solu-

tion. It is, therefore, subjected to a second

carbonatation process with carbon dioxide and the

precipitated CaC0 is again filtered off in

3
filter presses.
 39

6.2.5.4. 8ulfitation.

The resulting juice undergoes a treatment with

gaseous 802 (sulfitation) for additional decolour-

ization and is again filtered in filters. The

resulting light-yellow juice (thin juice) contains

approximately 15 % dry substance. This dry matter

consists bf 95 percent of pure sugar and 5 percent

of non-sugar.

6; 2.6. Evaporation station.

Triple or quadruple effect evaporators are used to

remove the excess of water in the thin juice. Fig. 6~9.

They work as follows: The first evaporator is heated

by exhaust steam from the turbo generator, which,

on giving its heat to the thin juice, condenses. The

steam produced from the juice passes over to heat

the second, the process being repeated for the third

and fourth if used. BecausBof the heat given up to

the next, the condensation of this juice steam pro-

duces a lower pressure over the juice, thus reducing

the boiling temperature of the juice.

The juice leaving the last evaporator is called

"Thick juice" and has 65 % dry substance. The dry

substance consists of 94 percent sugar and 6 ~ercent

of non-sugar.
 40

:\1,1>, -; Scht'lIla t'iner \'ierslufi~l't1 \ 'enlalllpferallla!.!t·:

"I \'orw iirJllt'r riir ,'inZlldick,'ndt' Lii"UIH(, bi KOlldl't1sat-I'\lInpt', c) Pumpt' zum Ab7.ieht'1l
dl'r ,' ill:(edit-kten Lü,ulll(
Di" ~, 'iltlfe II\ '} arl>l'itet lInler \ 'aklllllll, \ Entnollllllen: l ' lIlllanll . Etlz. d. tedm, Chl'lll .•
\liilld\l'n t1l1d Ikrlill, Bd, 1. Ul.5l, S, ,,):3S)

condensor

l -,
I
steaffi 1I
I I
I I
L----r-~ 1 I 1I
I I I
I I I I I
i I ~ L ___ ._-.-JI 1...
thin juice
.- -+- .-JL
-~
I

condensate
-'-
t
Ithick juice
__+

+
Fig. 6-9 Four effect evaporator
 41

Fig. 6-10 Juice heaters.

Fig. 6-11 Evaporator in a sugar factory.

 42

6.2.7. Crystallization.

The thick juice from the evaporating station and

melted liquor from the intermediate sugar- and low-

grade (affination) sugar melters are mixed; filter

aid is added - usually diatomaceous earth - and a

briqht filtration follows. The filtered liquor,

or standard liquor, provides the feeding material

for the vacuum pan boiling of the first or A-product.

Vacuum pans usually are vessels with conical bottoms

containing steam coils. The pans are connected to

acondenser, 50 that boiling is carried out under

vacuum. The content of a vacuum pan is called masse-

cuite and consists of a mass of crystals (50 %) and

of mother liquor. The massecuite is discharged into

a mixer tank for temporary storaqe to supply the

centrifuqes. ·' Fier. 6-12

6.2:8. Centrifuges.

Separation of suqar crystals from massecuite is

done in centrifuqe~ which are rotatïnq rapidlv

(about 1000 rpm) ~n vertical drums with perforated

side walIs. In the centrifuqes the suqar is spun

free of syrup and is then briefly washed with hot

water. This suqar, af ter dryinq and screeninq, is

the final product: white qranulated suqar.

 43
~--~ JJa.mjJ naar CondenSDr

D/~SQ.é
---~
kook.pan

~9~mollen ju/ier
of siroop

110.1Q. X eu r
( koel. trog' )

Centrifuge

sIroop

suiker

Fig, 6-12 SIMPLE BOILI~G SCHEME,

 44

6.2.9. Intermediate or B-suqar.

The syrup spun off the white or A-suqar centrifuqes

is known as "high- or A-syrup" and provides the

vacuurn-pan feed for the second or intermediate

boiling. The intermediate boiling process and con-

tents of the vacuum pans is also known as B-masse-

cuite. The centrifuqinq of the intermediate- or

B-massecuite provides B-suqar, one of the two

suqars which, af ter meltinq, is used to make .

standard liquor.Fig. 6-13

6.2.10. Low qrade- or C-suqar.

The syrup from the intermediate centrifuqes pro-

vides the feed supply for the third or C-crystal-

lization process. The massecuite from the C_vacuum

pans is held from 16 to 50 hours in crystallizers,

where the temperature is qradually lowered, allow-

inq time for the slow rates of crystallization in

this low purity material to crvstallize out all

the suqar possible. The C-suqar from the centri-

fuqes becomes the other part of the standard

liquor, while all of the syrup spun from the C-

massecuite is called molasses. The molasses con-

sists of 20 % water, while the dry substance has

60 parts of suqar and 40 parts non-suqar.

 45

Thick juice 27 t/60,5

H.A.Syrup 3t/75
Remelted sugar 15,6t/65

vapour to
condensor 1 3 , 7 t . . - - - - - Massecuite 31,9t/90

1n1i te sugar
13,1 ti 100
H.B.syrup 3,3t/75 A-syrup 17,7t/75

vapour to
condensor 3,5t
.-----
mixer
Hassecuite 17,5t/91

lvater I, 3t
- - - B-su a r 7 6t 9
5,4 t

water
r-___~~~B--~s~v~ru~n~~5t/75
6,4t/75
vapour to
condensor 1 ,55t'-- - - -
lIassecuite 6,151 3

Molasses 3,8t/84...~_ _ __
~ I----~ C-sugar 3,36t/98

syrup 2,3t/75 Aff.sugar

2,6t/98

Fig. 6-13 A three sugar boiling scherne.

 46

6.2.11. Final granulated product.

The granulated white sugar is bagged or stored in

silos for later package or bulk sale. It is also

possible to manufacture liquid sugar and powdered

sugar from the granulated product. Generally there

has been more use of large scale storage of granu-

lated sugar recently.

6.2.12. Power and steam.

6.2.12.1. Steam consumption.

Sugar factories nowadays generally are equipped

with water-tube boilers of various types. These

aresimple in comparison with boilers in large

modern steam power stations. They normally will

have superheaters and economisers and will be

fitted with furnaces for burning oil, natural

gas or coal.

Large quantities of steam are used for juice

heating, for concentration of the juice and ' for

boiling of the massecuite. For the main purposes

only low-pressure steam is used, which can be ob-

tained as exhaust steam from back pressure tur-

bines supplemented by reduced live steam, or as

vapour from the evaporators. Fig. 6-14, and Fig. 6-15.

While in old-fashioned plants of ten 60 tO 80 ton-

nes of steam per 100 tonnes of beets are required,

modern plants nowadays require only 35 to 40 ton- .

nes and even this figure keeps on falling.

 47

Simultaneously, there is an increase of power,

requirements in connection with mechanisation,

automatization andwater .purification systems.

6.2.12.2. Power consumption.

It is considered that the power required for pro-

cessing 100 tonnes of beet per 24 hours in a

modern sugar factory is: 180 kW in plants proces-

sing between 1,500 tonnes and 3,000 tonnes of

beet per 24 hours and 150 kW in plants processing

more than 3,000 tonnes of beet per 24 hours.

 I
hj
~'EA""UUILlH~ <..D:

t"'"" ""
f-'o
.
l.Q INT(RN LO !.!> fS I
I

0\
.....I
';=-

SRuBSEAWA TER TAANS PQRTATIQ N

~
C;~V(RSIO' l~
H 4fL05SES ';IL N 1___..._r. TllAt~l ~
0" ~ATlO SS( S
0>
r-'

a
M I UUlIM[
MllK OF lIME CO 2 G .~

[)(HAUS T wET PUlP

Ul GAS 'VAPOUR

.......,

l
H AT lOS SES
lAANSPQRTATION
""U
% ~ PAESS WA TEA
:u
'"~ '"~ () 0
0 0 ()
Hl z 0z z
0
..
'"
z rrl
g: '":: ~"
'" . 0
'"~ O[NSEA (f)
(f)
(!) ~

'" :=. '" ()E N S AT(

~
ffi
Pl
Hl'" losse!>
'H le K )UIC[

rt
C) Cl' .... 0 t.J
Hl ~A" OU H
r-' ~ C ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ""U
n- ~ ~

~
m I r 0 r •
• ~ ~ • - ~ m ~
0 Ilif AT IN nOCK lUIer
!o ~~ ~~ 0; ~ ~
: ~ 2
p:
D
~
~ ~
C,pNOENSE A
S:~N Of.NS AT(

~ ~ ~; a~ ~ ~ ~ rrl ~AT LOS!.ES (J1

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ :u Hf AT IN SUGAA

Ul a : ~ ~! ~
s '"
z

o.. "..
;
z
.,.
(J
c
~
'"'
~
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(f)

~
~ " '"..
" .." -i
-
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Pl ..'z" 0 TRAHSPORT.'ION I ~
WARM WATER

.."
0
Z
~f-'o
(!) ~
Ul ex>
 r -,-
19 ST 13
--- -,
I 5+9 ,·----1- .(ë1l I

~
BPn
liP Ir I
~-~J:
., P
E. houst
9 cues RJn I RJn
BPl!l

AIR
OJn RJm
1
OJ
u RJ
ru I I
1
-TJn OJm TS OJ
FuEl N ru

_ ___J ~ :
FCJ
n RJ
cr 1
SCJn
Fej::- Hl
Fe)
sCJ I
lJ., LJ
~~ I I

~:
! POWER I
- ~ STATION I
I
I
~
1
)
STEM"B OILER. GENERAT ION

r - - ~lURRY
I
I
EVAPORA TOR

WATER PURIFICA TION

I
LL ;
~"'''-''-o,:__
I
JUICE HEAliNG
1

L BOILI r~G PANS

-I
I
I

I1 I
I
r- T-
r
1 7 WET OlrFU~ION
PULP
1
8 19 P
POWER STATION

1 BEET TRANSPOR T
l
1 COKE
2 WATER TRANSPOR T
VAPOUR 1 1 SLICING , OIFFuSION

I LIME STONE
1 4
• JUICE TRAN!)PQH T
EVAPQAAt lON

I ~C02G .. S
~ BOIllP4G PANS .VACUUM
AIA 1---,.-- ---,,.--. -- OR I EO PUL P
I 6 SUGAR HOUSE
7 PULP DRY ING
I rUEl WATER
• TRANSPOR T
I 8 II ME KlU'\!
I ~--'--_ PELLETS 11 STEAM BOilERS

I I • GENERATO RS

I BURNEO
UME STONE
I
L PULP ORYING
1 LlME KILN 1 __ _ _ __ JI
*"\.0
Fig. 6-15 The divis ion of the heat sehem e.
 50

6.3. By-products of beet.

By-Products of Beet
The chief by-product is beet pulp, which is dried Fig.
6-16and mixed ' with beet molasses into pulp nuts, which
have a wide scale as animal feed.
Molasses, another important by-product, is used in many
industrial processes. The leaves and crowns of the beet,
which are cutt of during harvesting, provide valuable
animal feed for many farmers.

6.4. Off-campaign

In order to enable more beet to be processes without

additional equipment, some of the tickened juice is
stored in huge tanks and the sugar from it crystallised
af ter the campaign. White sugar is stored in 10.000 ton
silos for marketing between one campaign and the next.
During the off-campaign, people who work in the factory
undertake repairs of the equipment, which must be able
to work continuously day and night without a halt for
3~ to 4 months.
 51

Ir

Pz.rSen
Pe~JvateÎ naa.r
dif/L1S'/e t DÎen

8rano/slof - Q7en
'20.
./)rood - .lJa.rnh
LtJcl~t -- frommel
I

çc~ooicle
~

pull:>

!3raK{es
é.ersen
•

0É.slaq' ~
q'w-~e
pul;.,
~ ~

Fig, 6-16 PULP SCHEME,

 52

7. REFINING OF RAW CANE SUGAR.

7.1. Sugar Refineries

While sugar factories are located as centrally as

possible in growing areas, refineries are invariably

sited at deep water ports such as London, Liverpool and

New-York and in the past Amsterdam. This is to facilitate

the reception of imported raw sugar ih large quantities

from ocean-going bulk carrying vessels. They also take

in raw beet sugar delivered either by bulk trucks or

coasters. The material entering the refinery consists of

sugar crystals with impurities and a coating of molasses.

The outer layers are softened with warm syrup and the

mixture, cal led 'magma', is passed into centrifugal

machines, which are high speed rotating perforated drums,

and which separate the syrup from the crystals. In the

separation some sugar is taken off with the impurities

and this must be recovered. In a process known as

'recovery' this syrup undergoes successive boiling under

vacuum and centrifugal separation. The recovered sugar

is melted and goes on through the refining process,

joining the washed raw crystals.

The final syrup, from which it is no longer economie to

recover sugar, is called refinery molasses. AltholJltJh

partially clean there are still impurities within the

crystals which are now dissolved in water. The solution

is treated with lime and carbon dioxide bubbled ih. The

 53

resulting chalk precipitate traps impurities present in

the 'liquor'. The chalky filter aid and impurities are

removed in a filter press and the emerging liquor is now

a clear amber colour. Next, the non-sweetening colouring

matter and virtually all soluble impurities are removed

by passing the liquor over bone charcoal or some other

decolourising agent. The liquor is now clear and colour-

less.

The process of crystallisation and preparation for

packing in a refinery is similar to that used in white

sugar factories, i.e. boiling under a vacuum in large

enclosed pans at low temperatures to avoid colour

formation and the destruction of sugar by heat.

The recrystallisation of sugar has until recently been

entirely a matter of human skill, the pansman judging

the correct degree of supersaturation in the pan, inducing

the formation of crystals by introducing a small quantity

of 'seed' crystals and then continuing to grow the grain

so formed to the requisite size before stopping the

evaporation, breaking the vacuum and running off the

'massecuite' of crystals and syrup. Automatic recrystal-

lisation has now been developed to a degree where it may

replace manis skill.

The crystals are, as before, separated from the mother

syrup in centrifugal machines and dried in granulators.

While different sizes of crystals are normally produced

by variations in boiling technique, there is always some

variation in size and it is customary to grade the

 54

d,
crys tals by scree ning befo re pack ing as gran ulate
by
fine st gran ulate d or cast er. Icing suga r is made
by comp res-
pulv erisi ng crys tals in a mill and cube suga r
g.
sing mois t suga r crys tals in moul ds and then dryin
 55

8. SUGAR MARKETS AND CONSUMPTION

8.1. Sugar distribution

Most beet sugar is eaten where it is made, as is much

cane sugar (e.g. in India), but there is a traditional

trade in cane raws, on which many developing countries

depend for external earnings. Markets for this generally

lie far from the country of origin, and the sugar is

shipped in bulk in large single-deck ships of 12 to

25,000 tons capacity, of ten owned by the sugar refiners.

These come alongside in deep-water ports and are either

discharged direct into the refinery or, where such

facilities do not exist, taken to it by barge or truck.

One of the reasons for this is economy. Another is that

refining as near the market as possible enables control

of quantity to be properly exercised for the consumer,

and packets, which are easily burst, to be handled better.

Af ter processing the sugar is distributed, either in

special bulk lorries to manufacturers or in packets to

the grocer. Home-grown white sugar from beet is similarly

distributed.

The sugar is sold to sugar dealers, retail organisations,

and food manufacturers, a discount being given on

quantity. Dealers purchase large tonnages which they sell

to thousands of outlets throughout the country. Physical

delivery, whether of products or of bulk, is undertaken

by the refiners and the Sugar Corporations, storing in

 56

depots throughout the country and having large fleets

of specialised lorries. Certain manufacturers also

purchase liquid sugar in bulk. Some, such as the pharma-

ceutical and soft drink industries, require specialised

delivery.

8.2. Consumption

More than half the sugar eaten in the world is consumed

in the form of manufactured foods - biscuits, sweets,

jams, soft drinks.

 57

9. NEW AND OTHER US ES FOR SUGAR

9.1. Sugar as energy sourees

Although i t is natural to think of sugar as a food, and

this is its prime use, since 1960 it has been studied as

a natural source of many of mankind's modern needs. Such

products as detergents, plastics and chemicals and so

forth have until recently been based almost entirely on

crude oil, but the rise in price of oil may make it less

economically attractive as a source, and in some cases,

for example, that of detergents, the product is under

criticism from an environmental point of view.

Petro-chemical detergents are non-biodegradable, meaning

that they do not break down af ter use and, when dis-

charged into a river or into the sea, affect the natural

life in the water. A detergent manufactured from sugar

or molasses is completely biodegradable and under no such

disadvantage. The cost of the raw material is now

approaching that of oil.

9.2. Sugar as alternative sourees for the chemical

industries

The plastics industry depends largelyon phenol. Oil

prices have made this scarce and costly. Sucrose contains,

like phenol, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, though in

different proportions and may provide an alternative.

 58

Ethylene oxide, much used in the chemical industry can

be made from sucrose, and although the economics of the

process are not yet established it remains a future

possibility.

In the past decade the chemistry of the sucrose molecule

has been the subject of considerable study and many

possible uses can be foreseen.

Microbiology has been applied to sucrose and its by-

-products and wastes, and a number of new fields are

being opened up. In particular the vegetable waste,

bagasse, as weIl as molasses, can be converted by certain

micro-organisms into a protein-containing cattIe food,

which may help to increase edible protein consumption in

developing countries which are short of cattIe because

they lack the fodder.

Recent (1976) trials in feeding liquid sugar to pigs

prior to slaughter have shown considerable improvement in

the quality of the meat.

Sugar and molasses are also widely used in fermentations

to prod~ce not only alcohol, but also such chemicals as

citric acid, lactic acid and sodium glutamate. Itaconic

acid, a component of same plastics, is produced by

fermentation, while drugs such as penicillin and

cephalosporin are the metabolic by-products of micro-

-organism growing on sugar solutions. Yet others ''Convert

sugar into polysaccharides or sugar polymers. Examples

of these gums are dextran, a blood plasma substitute, and

alginate which is normally obtained from seaweed and is

 59

used in many products.

Several hundred thousand tons of sugar are used every

year in fermentations, quite apart from that used in wine

production and brewing. Sugar in all its forms is there-

fore a very versatile and important raw rnaterial.