2

Atomic Structure

2–6(a) Aluminum foil used for storing food weighs about 0.3 g per square inch. How
many atoms of aluminum are contained in this sample of foil?
Solution: In a one square inch sample:
(0.3 g)(6.02 × 1023 atoms/mol)
number = = 6.69 × 1021 atoms
26.981 g/mol

2–6(b) Using the densities and atomic weights given in Appendix A, calculate and com-
pare the number of atoms per cubic centimeter in (a) lead and (b) lithium.
Solution: (a) In lead:
(11.36 g/cm3)(1 cm3)(6.02 × 1023 atoms/mol)
= 3.3 × 1022 atoms/cm3
207.19 g/mol

(b) In lithium:
(0.534 g/cm3)(1 cm3)(6.02 × 1023 atoms/mol)
= 4.63 × 1022 atoms/cm3
6.94 g/mol

2–7(a) Using data in Appendix A, calculate the number of iron atoms in one ton (2000
pounds).
Solution: (2000 lb)(454 g/lb)(6.02 × 1023 atoms/mol)
= 9.79 × 1027 atoms/ton
55.847 g/mol

2–7(b) Using data in Appendix A, calculate the volume in cubic centimeters occupied by
one mole of boron.
Solution: (1 mol)(10.81 g/mol)
= 4.7 cm3
2.3 g/cm3

7
8 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

2–8 In order to plate a steel part having a surface area of 200 in.2 with a 0.002 in. thick
layer of nickel, (a) how many atoms of nickel are required and (b) how many moles
of nickel are required?
Solution: Volume = (200 in.2)(0.002 in.)(2.54 cm/in.)3 = 6.555 cm3
(a) (6.555 cm3)(8.902 g/cm3)(6.02 × 1023 atoms/mol)
= 5.98 × 1023 atoms
58.71 g/mol
(b) (6.555 cm3)(8.902 g/cm3)
= 0.994 mol Ni required
58.71 g/mol

0.002 in

200 in2

2–9 Suppose an element has a valence of 2 and an atomic number of 27. Based only on
the quantum numbers, how many electrons must be present in the 3d energy level?
Solution: We can let x be the number of electrons in the 3d energy level. Then:
1s2 2s22p63s23p63dx4s2 (must be 2 electrons in 4s for valence = 2)
Since 27−(2+2+6+2+6+2) = 7 = x
there must be 7 electrons in the 3d level.

2–10 Indium, which has an atomic number of 49, contains no electrons in its 4f energy
level. Based only on this information, what must be the valence of indium?
Solution: We can let x be the number of electrons in the outer sp energy level.
Then:
1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d104f 05(sp)x
49−(2+2+6+2+6+10+2+6+10+0) = 3
Therefore the outer 5sp level must be:
5s25p1 or valence = 3

2–11 Without consulting Appendix C, describe the quantum numbers for each of the 18
electrons in the M shell of copper, using a format similar to that in Figure 2–9.
Solution: For the M shell: n = 3; l = 0,1,2; ml = 2l + 1
ms = + 1⁄22  2
n =3 l = 0 ml = 0  3s
ms = − 11⁄22 

ms = + 11
⁄22 
l =1 ml = −1 
ms = − 11
⁄22 
ms = + 11 
⁄22 3 p 6
ml = 0 ms = − 11 
⁄22 
ms = + 11
⁄22 
ml = +1 ms = − 11 
⁄22 
 CHAPTER 2 Atomic Structure 9

ms = + 11
⁄22 

l = 2 ml = −2 ms = − 11
⁄22 
ms = + 11 
⁄22
ms = − 11 
⁄22

ml = −1 ms = + 11
⁄22  10
3d
ms = − 11 
ml = 0 ⁄22
ms = + 11 
⁄22 
ml = +1 ms = − 11
⁄22 
ms = + 11 
⁄22
ml = +2 
ms = − 11
⁄22 

2–12 Electrical charge is transferred in metals by movement of valence electrons. How

many potential charge carriers are there in an aluminum wire 1 mm in diameter and
100 m in length?
Solution: Aluminum has 3 valence electrons per atom; the volume of the wire is:
Volume = (π/4)d2l = (π/4)(0.1 cm)2(10,000 cm) = 78.54 cm3
(78.54 cm3)(2.699 g/cm3)(6.02 × 1023 atoms/mol)(3 electrons/atom)
n=
26.981 g/mol
n = 1.42 × 10 carriers
25

2–14 Bonding in the intermetallic compound Ni3Al is predominantly metallic. Explain

why there will be little, if any, ionic bonding component. The electronegativity of
nickel is about 1.8.
Solution: The electronegativity of Al is 1.5, while that of Ni is 1.8. These values are
relatively close, so we wouldn’t expect much ionic bonding. Also, both
are metals and prefer to give up their electrons rather than share or donate
them.

2–15 Plot the melting temperatures of elements in the 4A to 8–10 columns of the periodic
table versus atomic number (i.e., plot melting temperatures of Ti through Ni, Zr
through Pd, and Hf through Pt). Discuss these relationships, based on atomic bonding
and binding energy, (a) as the atomic number increases in each row of the periodic
table and (b) as the atomic number increases in each column of the periodic table.
Solution: Ti –1668 Zr –1852 Hf–2227
V –1900 Nb –2468 Ta –2996
Cr –1875 Mo–2610 W –3410
Mn –1244 Tc –2200 Re–3180
Fe –1538 Ru –2310 Os–2700
Co –1495 Rh –1963 Ir –2447
Ni –1453 Pd –1552 Pt –1769
10 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

3500

Melting Temperature (Celcius)

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000
Atomic Number
Ti – Ni Zr – Pd Hf – Pt

For each row, the melting temperature is highest when the outer “d” energy level is
partly full. In Cr, there are 5 electrons in the 3d shell; in Mo, there are 5 electrons in
the 4d shell; in W there are 4 electrons in the 5d shell. In each column, the melting
temperature increases as the atomic number increases—the atom cores contain a
larger number of tightly held electrons, making the metals more stable.

2–16 Plot the melting temperature of the elements in the 1A column of the periodic table
versus atomic number (i.e., plot melting temperatures of Li through Cs). Discuss
this relationship, based on atomic bonding and binding energy.
Solution: T(oC)
Li –180.7
Na– 97.8
K – 63.2
Rb– 38.9
Cs – 28.6
200
180 Li
Melting Temperature (Celcius)

160
140
120
Na
100
80
K
60
Rb
40
Cs
20
Atomic Number

As the atomic number increases, the melting temperature decreases, opposite that
found in Problem 2–15.

2–17 Increasing the temperature of a semiconductor breaks covalent bonds. For each
broken bond, two electrons become free to move and transfer electrical charge.
(a) What fraction of valence electrons are free to move and (b) what fraction of the
 CHAPTER 2 Atomic Structure 11

covalent bonds must be broken in order that 5 × 1015 electrons conduct electrical
charge in 50 g of silicon? (c) What fraction of the total silicon atoms must be
replaced by arsenic atoms to obtain one million electrons that are free to move in
one pound of silicon?
Solution: (a) (50 g)(6.02 × 1023 atoms/mol)
= 1.072 × 1024 atoms of Si
28.08 g/mol
Total valence electrons = (4 electrons/atom)(1.072 × 1024 atoms)
= 4.288 × 1024 electrons
Fraction free electrons = 5 × 1015/4.288 × 1024 = 1.17 × 10−9
(b) On average, there is one covalent bond per Si atom (each Si atom is
bonded to four others). Thus, there are a total of 1.072 × 1024 bonds.
Each bond has 2 electrons, so the number of broken bonds needed to
give 5 × 1015 electrons is 2.5 × 1015. The fraction of broken bonds is:
2.5 × 1015
f= = 2.33 × 10−9
1.072 × 1024
(c) (1 lb Si)(454 g/lb)(6.02 × 1023 atoms/mol)
= 9.733 × 1024 Si atoms/lb
28.08 g/mol
As has a valence of 5; therefore, to get 106 electrons, we need to replace
106 Si atoms. In one pound of Si, the fraction of As must be:
1 × 106 replaced atoms
f= = 1.03 × 10−19
9.733 × 1024 total Si atoms

2–18 Methane (CH4) has a tetrahedral structure similar to that of SiO2 (Figure 2–16), with
a carbon atom of radius 0.77 × 10−8 cm at the center and hydrogen atoms of radius
0.46 × 10−8 cm at four of the eight corners. Calculate the size of the tetrahedral cube
for methane.

Solution: 3a = rC + rH
3a = 0.77 × 10 −8 + 0.46 × 10 −8
(1⁄2) a = 1.42 × 10 −8 cm
(1⁄2)
H

C
1
2 3a
C
H

2–19 The compound aluminum phosphide (AlP) is a compound semiconductor material

having mixed ionic and covalent bonding. Estimate the fraction of the bonding that
is ionic.
Solution: EAl = 1.5 Ep = 2.1
fcovalent = exp(−0.25 ∆E2)
fcovalent = exp[(−0.25)(2.1 − 1.5)2] = exp[−0.09] = 0.914
fionic = 1 − 0.914 = 0.086 ∴ bonding is mostly covalent
12 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

2–20 Calculate the fraction of bonding of MgO that is ionic.

Solution: EMg = 1.2 EO = 3.5
fcovalent = exp[(−0.25)(3.5 − 1.2)2] = exp(−1.3225) = 0.266
fionic = 1 − 0.266 = 0.734 ∴ bonding is mostly ionic

2–29 Beryllium and magnesium, both in the 2A column of the periodic table, are light-
weight metals. Which would you expect to have the higher modulus of elasticity?
Explain, considering binding energy and atom radii and using appropriate sketches
of force versus interatomic spacing.
Solution: 4 Be 1s22s2 E = 42 × 106 psi rBe = 1.143 Å
12 Mg 1s22s22p63s2 E = 6 × 106 psi rMg = 1.604 Å

Be

Mg
EBe ~ ∆f /∆a

EMg ~ ∆f /∆a
Force

2rBe distance “a”

2rmg

The smaller Be electrons are held closer to the core ∴ held more tightly,
giving a higher binding energy.

2–30 Boron has a much lower coefficient of thermal expansion than aluminum, even
though both are in the 3B column of the periodic table. Explain, based on binding
energy, atomic size, and the energy well, why this difference is expected.
Solution: 5B 1s22s22p1 rB = 0.46 Å
13 Al s22s22p63s23p1 rAl = 1.432 Å

B Al
Energy

distance “a”

∆a
∆E
∆a

∆E

Electrons in Al are not as tightly bonded as those in B due to the smaller

size of the boron atom and the lower binding energy associated with
its size.
 CHAPTER 2 Atomic Structure 13

2–31 Would you expect MgO or magnesium to have the higher modulus of elasticity?
Explain.
Solution: MgO has ionic bonds, which are strong compared to the metallic bonds
in Mg. A higher force will be required to cause the same separation
between the ions in MgO compared to the atoms in Mg. Therefore, MgO
should have the higher modulus of elasticity. In Mg, E ≈ 6 × 106 psi; in
MgO, E = 30 × 106 psi.

2–32 Would you expect Al2O3 or aluminum to have the higher coefficient of thermal
expansion? Explain.
Solution: Al2O3 has stronger bonds than Al; therefore, Al2O3 should have a lower
thermal expansion coefficient than Al. In Al, a = 25 × 10−6 cm/cmoC; in
Al2O3, a = 6.7 × 10−6 cm/cmoC.

2–33 Aluminum and silicon are side by side in the periodic table. Which would you
expect to have the higher modulus of elasticity (E)? Explain.
Solution: Silicon has covalent bonds; aluminum has metallic bonds. Therefore,
Si should have a higher modulus of elasticity.

2–34 Explain why the modulus of elasticity of simple thermoplastic polymers, such as
polyethylene and polystyrene, is expected to be very low compared with that of
metals and ceramics.
Solution: The chains in polymers are held to other chains by Van der Waals bonds,
which are much weaker than metallic, ionic, and covalent bonds. For
this reason, much less force is required to shear these weak bonds and
to unkink and straighten the chains.

2–35 Steel is coated with a thin layer of ceramic to help protect against corrosion. What
do you expect to happen to the coating when the temperature of the steel is
increased significantly? Explain.
Solution: Ceramics are expected to have a low coefficient of thermal expansion
due to strong ionic/covalent bonds; steel has a high thermal expansion
coefficient. When the structure heats, steel expands more than the coat-
ing, which may crack and expose the underlying steel to corrosion.