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Generandi: A Male Infertility

(AbstractView.aspx?PID=2016-8-2-8)
Author(s):
Sanjay C. Parmar (search.aspx?key=Sanjay C. Parmar)

Email(s):
dr.sanjayparmar@yahoo.in (mailto:dr.sanjayparmar@yahoo.in)

DOI:
10.5958/2349-2988.2016.00015.2 (https://doi.org/10.5958/2349-2988.2016.00015.2)

Address:
Sanjay C. Parmar

Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat – 388 001, India

*Corresponding Author

Published In:
 
Volume - 8,     
Issue - 2,    
Year - 2016
(Issues.aspx?VID=8&IID=2)

Keywords: Male infertility () Impotentia coeundi () Impotentia generandi ()

Cite this article:

Sanjay C. Parmar. Impotentia Coeundi and Impotentia Generandi: A Male Infertility.

Research J. Science and Tech. 2016; 8(2):113-121. doi: 10.5958/2349-
2988.2016.00015.2

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9/6/2021 Research Journal of Science and Technology

Impotentia Coeundi and Impotentia Generandi:

A Male Infertility
 
Sanjay
C. Parmar
Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat – 388 001, India
*Corresponding Author E-mail: dr.sanjayparmar@yahoo.in
 
ABSTRACT:
The
fertility of a male is related to several phenomenon includes sperm production,
viability and fertilizing capacity of the
ejaculated sperm, sexual desire and the
ability to copulate. Reproductive problems causing absolute or relative
infertility in
male animals mainly includes reduced to complete lack of sexual
desire or libido, failure of normal service and failure of
conception after
normal service. The sterile males are readily identified, but the males with
reduced fertility poses serious
problems and causes economic losses to breeders
and AI industry.
 
KEY
WORDS: Male infertility, Impotentia
coeundi, Impotentia
generandi
 

INTRODUCTION:
Reduced
infertility in male may be due to hereditary or may originate from psychic
disturbances, hormonal imbalances,
nutritional deficiencies or environmental
factors. Even though semen characteristics may be satisfactory, fertility may
be
adversely affected as a result of poor libido. Nutritional deficiencies denotes delay
onset of puberty and depress production and
characteristics of semen. Ration
deficient in vitamin A, proteins and minerals may reduce sex drive. Young bulls
are mostly
affected by protein deficiency. Dietary vitamin A deficiency leads
to testicular degeneration in all farm male animals. Iodine
deficiency also
leads to poor libido. Plant estrogens exert adverse effect on male accessory
organs. Overfeeding and obesity
reduce libido and sexual activity in male animals. A management and psychic factors also affects the libido like young males
may be slow at service due to inexperience while lack of
exercise and proper training also leads to poor sex drive.
 
Psychic
factors play an important role in altering the sex drive of males of low
genetic makeup. Injuries during semen
collection are usually remembered by the
bulls and may inhibit the sex drive and abusive handling of bull during semen
collection. Size and colour of dummy also affect the
libido of male animals. A
chronic and acute debilitating disease like
tuberculosis, john’s disease,
pneumonia, severe mange, actinomycosis etc seriously
affects the libido. Climatic factors
like high
temperature especially during summer reduces libido. Hormones
like thyroxine, testosterone and gonadotrophins
deficiency
reduced sexual desire.
 
Impotentia Coeundi:
Bull
may have normal or slightly decreased libido but is unable to copulate.
Inability to copulate may be due to following
conditions like joint, muscle,
nerve, bone and tendon injuries.
 
Gonitis:
Gonitis is common in bulls,
characterized by a short, stiff gait and distention and enlargement of the
capsule of the stiffle joint.
Rupture of anterior cruciate ligament of stiffle
occurs commonly in smaller breeds of dogs.
 
Coxitis:
Coxitis is common in dogs and
boars, characterized by a short stride and adduction of the limb. Rupture of
round ligament may
be observed in bulls with degenerative coxitis. Other
conditions like overgrown claws or hooves, suppurative
pododermitis,
interdigital granuloma tendonitis, suppurative
arthritis of coffin joint, myositis or rupturing of
muscles like gastrocnemius or
large gluteal and also hip dislocation are responsible for the
reduce libido. In spastic syndrome, crampiness or
stretches in bulls,
severe acute attacks may interfere with or prevent
copulation due to prolonged spasms of the skeletal muscles of the rear limbs
and back. It is observed most commonly in HF and Guernsey breeds.
 
Affections of penis and prepuce:
Short
penis:
This
is a heritable and can cause infertility because of the difficulty in the
copulation.
 
Short
retractor penis:
The
short retractor penis prevents penile extension. Diagnosis is by feeling a
tight band at erection where the retractor penis
muscle is situated. A short
unilateral retractor penis results in a bulge unilaterally by the scrotum on
erection.
 
Balanoposthitis:
Balanitis is an inflammation of glans penis and posthitis is an inflammation of prepuce. When
inflammation of penis and
prepuce are involved together, it is called balanoposthitis. Balanoposthitis is a relatively common condition of the
male sheep,
in which it is colloquially known as pizzle-rot.
The condition may be due to infectious or
non-infectious causes. Infections of
the penis and prepuce are common in the
dog, bull and ram, occasional in the stallion, and rare in the boar and cat.
Severe
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balanoposthitis can cause pain, unwillingness
to mate, preputial stenosis,
adhesions between penis and prepuce, and peripenile
adhesions. Occasionally, a canine herpesvirus causes
a more severe balanoposthitis which is characterised by ulceration of the
penis and unwillingness
to copulate1. Bulls are also susceptible to granulomatous
formation on the penis, which is a non-
transmissible and usually asymptomatic
condition2. Tuberculous balanoposthitis has been described in areas where the
disease
is epizootic3. The most serious cause of balanoposthitis
in the stallion is the notifiable disease of dourine4,5.
Prognosis is
depending upon severity of trauma or infection. Prognosis is good
in mild cases and guarded in chronic cases with severe
adhesions in between
penis and prepuce. In mild cases, douching the prepuce can be done with
antiseptics (1:2000 acriflavin or
potassium
permanganate solution, 1% H2O2 solution) or antibiotics.
Application of oily preparation of antiseptics and
antibiotics are also
helpful. Systemic antibiotics given in severe cases and sexual rest require
during treatment.
 
Phimosis:
Phimosis or stenosis
of the prepucial orifice leads to prevention of
normal protrusion of penis and thus male is unable to
perform coitus. The main causes are congenital (especially in
dog, cat and horse) and acquired due to injuries, wounds and
infections. In
dogs, particularly in the German shepherd and Golden retriever breeds are
suspected. Prognosis is guarded and
depends upon extent of trauma, necrosis and
promptness to handling of case. Phimosis of
congenital origin may be corrected by
surgical operation. Severely congenitally affected puppies may
be unable to urinate adequately, with the consequential
balanoposthitis
leading to septicaemia and death6. In
stallions, prolapse of the penis is the sequel to
many conditions. For
example, it generally occurs transiently after the
administration of phenothiazide tranquillisers7,8.
 
Paraphimosis:
Inability
of penis to retracted back into prepuce after protrusion resulting into
swelling, oedema and balanoposthitis.
Inability to
withdraw the penis into the prepuce results from congenital or
acquired structures of the prepuce, paralysis of the penis due to
spinal
diseases. The condition is most common in the dog and stallion. Paraphimosis following copulation or spontaneous
erection
is relatively common in the dog.  It may
also occur when the preputial opening becomes
constricted by a band of hair,
thereby preventing return of the penis to the
prepuce. Prognosis is guarded and depends upon degree of trauma, degree
of
necrosis and promptness of treatment. Removal of necrotic tissue and over it
uses of broad spectrum antibiotic ointments. Cold
pack may help reduce swelling.
Sometime, surgically enlarge the prepucial opening in
order to replace the penis. Penis should
be wrapped with gauze and penis with
its gauze dressing should be replaced inside sheath. Support of prolapsed penis
and
sheath using tight suspensory bandage would help
minimize the oedema. In severe case, amputation of
penis is recommended.
 
Priapism:
Persistent erection in absence of sexual
stimulation occurs most often in dogs. Consequences are
generally similar to those of
paraphimosis and as
irreversible damage to the penis may rapidly occur. Penile amputation is
only feasible treatment.
 
Phallocampsis or Deviations of the
penis:
Ventral or Rainbow deviation:
It is less common. Ventral
deviation prevents intromission and occurs when the dorsal ligament is thin and
stretched to the point
that it is incapable of holding up the distal portion of
the penis during erection.
 
Lateral deviation:
It may occur due to
secondary to trauma of the penis or prepuce. Scars or adhesions of the elastic
tissue pull the penis to one
side or the other.
 
Spiral or corkscrew type:
The
most common deviation observed in bulls between 2 ½ and 5 years of age. Spiral
deviation occurs at the peak of erection.
The spiral configuration is caused by
the dorsal apical ligament slipping off to the left hand side of the penis
resulting in a
counter clockwise spiral as viewed from the rear. Up to 50 per
cent of normal bulls have been shown to develop spiral deviation
during
copulation. The condition is often noticed in normal bulls during masturbation,
following intromission and when
erection is produced by an electro ejaculator.
Spiral deviation may be due to deficiency of the dorsal apical ligament of the
penis9. Spiraling
of the tip of the penis is a normal part of the process of ejaculation in the
bull, occurring after intromission,
during the ejaculatory thrust10-14.
The onset of the condition may be at any age, although it is least common in
yearlings and
most common in animals in their second or third season of use15.
It is not considered pathologic until its occurrence
is observed
on repeated natural breeding trials in which it occurs prior to
entrance into the vulva and thereby prevents intromission.
 
S-shaped deviation:
It is relatively rare deviation and usually occurs in
older bulls with an excessively long penis. The apical ligament is sufficient
in strength but insufficient in length and the S-shape results during erection.
 
Persistent penile frenulum:
This condition is characterized by a fibrous band
attaching the prepuce to the free portion of the penis along the median raphe
immediately caudal to the glans. It manifests as a
marked ventral deviation of the bull's penis during attempts at coitus. It is
noted chiefly in Angus and Shorthorn bulls (also reported in Brangus, Santa Gertrudis, Beef
Master and Hereford). The
anomaly is congenital and suspected to be a heritable
condition. Persistence
of the penile frenulum is most frequently
encountered
in young bulls, in which it either limits the amount of penis that can be protruded
or causes the protruded penis to
be deviated ventrally16,17.
Transecting the frenulum after ligating
the frenular blood vessels (if they are sufficiently
prominent)
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y g g g ( y yp )
18
gives a good prognosis for the recovery of breeding ability .
Persistence of the penile frenulum has also been
occasionally
reported in boars and dogs19. This condition prevents intromission in Bos taurus breeds
but may not interfere with breeding in
Bos indicus bulls due to the length of the prepuce. The
epithelial surfaces of the penis and prepuce of bulls are fused at birth. At
approximately 4 months, the penis and prepuce begin to separate under the
influence of  male hormones. Separation
should be
complete by 8 to 11 months of age. The frenulum
normally ruptures during separation of the penis from the prepuce. If such
failure of growth is confined to the sigmoid flexure, it may be impossible to
exteriorise the penis1. Although treatable by
myectomy,
this condition like so many others affecting the bovine penis is probably
inherited20.
 
Ruptured or broken penis:
Ruptured
or broken penis with secondary hematoma is most commonly observed in young
bulls. It also occurs sporadically in
boars and rams. The condition has many
names likes rupture of the CCP (Corpus Cavernosum Penis), ruptured penis, fractured
penis or
broken penis. Rupture occurs most commonly either in the region of the
insertion of the retractor penis muscle, or on
the dorsal aspect of the distal
sigmoid flexure where the trabeculae of the CCP are
relatively weak. Rupture of the
tunica
albuginea occurs spontaneously if pressures
within the CCP rise substantially above the pressures achieved during normal
copulation21,22. The injury usually
occurs at the time of coitus when cow suddenly goes down or suddenly falls
under the
weight of bull or the erected penis is bended due to strike on
abnormal site on cow at the movement of bull thrust. The site of
rupture of
penis is generally behind the attachment of retractor penis muscle.
 
Hematoma of the penis:
Hematoma
of the penis occurs during coitus when the cow slips or goes down under the
weight of the bull or when the penis is
thrust against the escutcheon of the
cow during breeding attempts. Penile hematoma results from a tear of the tunica
albuginea
into the CCP. The tear usually occurs on
the dorsum of the penis at the distal sigmoid flexure opposite the insertion of
the
retractor penis muscles; the tunica albuginea is
thinner in this area. The swelling due to hematoma is a result of blood from
the
CCP being forced into the peripenile tissues.
 
Adhesions of the penis and prepuce:
Adhesion
in the region of sigmoid flexure may be due to horn injuries in bull and ram.
Due to these adhesions normal penile
protrusion is prevented. Vigorous thrust
during semen collection with artificial vagina may produce injury or even tear
the
prepuce or injure the circumference of the penis. Subsequent infections may
produce abscesses and may even produce
adhesion. Surgical treatment of the
adhesion leads to more severe form of adhesion. Treatment with antibiotics both
locally in
oily base as well as by parenteral route
along with complete sexual rest is given.
 
Preputial trauma or Laceration
or Prolapse:
Habitual
prolapse of the prepuce is common especially in the
breeds like Brahman, Angus and Polled Hereford. The
predisposition to preputial prolapse probably
involves four anatomic features; pendulousness of the sheath (prepuce below the
carpus, low preputial
angle), length of the prepuce, size of the preputial
orifice and presence of retractor prepuce muscles
(frequently absent in polled
breeds - 1/3 of all polled bulls lack these small paired muscles). The sheath
and prepuce of bos
indicus
bulls are more pendulous averaging 5.5 cm longer than bos
taurus breeds. In cattle, intermittent protrusion of varying
lengths
of preputial mucosa is a normal occurrence, which
normally coincides with non-erectile movement of the penis within
the sheath23-25.
It is most commonly observed in naturally polled members of breeds with a
pendulous prepuce26-28. Preputial
prolapse and trauma often occurs one of two
ways. First, Bulls which frequently have some prepuce exposed may develop
abrasions and lacerations of the prepuce from exposure to environmental factors
(including frostbite). This may lead to oedema,
further prolapse, more trauma, abscess and eventually
fibrosis of the preputial tissue. Second, laceration
of the prepuce during
breeding may occur which usually leads to preputial prolapse. Lacerations
of this type occur when there is a bunching of excess
preputial
tissue immediately prior to the breeding. Because of the elastic layers and
retraction of the penis there is a marked
tendency for healing to occur in a
transverse manner which shortens the effective length of the prepuce as it
heals. The
traumatic injury results in edema formation and preputial
prolapse.
 
Preputial avulsion:
Preputial avulsion usually
occurs during semen collection with an artificial vagina. If the artificial
vagina is too tight, a
transverse or oblique laceration may occur at the dorsum
of the preputial ring or fornix. These injuries
should be sutured
immediately using 2-0 vicryl in an
interrupted pattern. Allow 60 to 90 days of sexual rest.
Retropreputial abscess:
Retropreputial abscess is frequent sequelae to preputial laceration
in Bos taurus bulls. The
bull retracts the prepuce into the
preputial cavity
after injury. Drainage is impaired causing abscess formation and the abscess
dissects into the elastic layers.
Prognosis is guarded; there is less than 30
per cent chance of return to service. Conservative approaches include 6 months
pasture rest and re-examination; abscesses will occasionally effectively heal
on their own. More aggressive treatment is
drainage of the abscess into the preputial cavity followed by antiseptic flushes. If the
abscess is drained through the skin,
adhesions almost always develop which will
eventually prevent penile extension. Actinomyces pyogenes is most frequently
isolated from such
abscesses; therefore, penicillin is the antibiotic of choice. Regardless of the
method of treatment, possible
complications include stricture formation and
adhesion formation resulting in a useless breeding animal.
 
Penile neoplasia:
Fibropapilloma of the penis is common and is caused by the Bovine
papilloma virus. The
penile integument, particularly its
terminal 5 cm, is a common site for such
tumors, which may be single or multiple. Tumors can be found in intact and
castrated
i l b t l i tb d3 f Th diti lt f h lt d i f b ll (1
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animals, but rarely persist beyond 3 years of age. The condition occurs as a result of homosexual
tendencies of young bulls (1
to 3 years) housed together. The virus gains
entrance into the skin through wounds and causes neoplastic
growth of fibroblasts.
There is no associated metastasis or local invasion. The
warts may be single or multiple and usually occur on the glans
and free
portion of the penis. Penile
papillomata also occur in the dog but, unlike those
of the bull, are generally ulcerative, locally
keratinized and poorly
circumscribed29. The tumor develops in response to the carcinogenic
properties of the smegma that
accumulates around the
penis of geldings30. A fetid, bloody preputial
discharge may be present and, on exteriorisation of
the
penis, characteristic fleshy, greyish red,
nodular masses are observed31. Clinical
effects vary according to the size and the
morphology of the lesions.
Hemorrhage and ulceration are the most common sequelae,
the pain caused by the ulceration
sometimes being sufficiently severe to impair
libido. Large tumors can lead to either paraphimosis
or phimosis. The papillomas
are removed by dissecting through the epithelium at the base of the growth. Penile carcinomata
are best treated by radical
amputation of the penis, with an urethrostomy on the penile stump within the sheath or
directly to the preputial skin32.
Administration of an autogenous tissue vaccine
markedly reduces the incidence of recurrences33. Sexual rest is provided for 2
to 4 weeks after
surgery. Recurrence is common if the bull is in an active stage of the disease.
Administration of a wart vaccine
(commercial or autogenous)
may reduce recurrence.
 
Impotentia Generandi:
It
is characterized by normal sexual desire and normal ability to copulate but the
fertility is either subnormal or absent.
Impotentia generandi may be of following types; a) Impotentia
generandi associated with production of apparently
normal
semen. It may be due to either infectious diseases or inherited sperm defects,
and b) Impotentia generandi
associated with
production of semen, which is abnormal in morphology,
concentration, motility and other qualities.
 
A) Impotentia generandi associated with production of apparently normal
semen:
Infectious diseases:
The
sperm ejaculate of bulls infected with brucellosis, campylobacteriosis,
trichomoniasis and IBR-IPV etc. may be normal in
motility, concentration, and morphology but such samples result in
embryonic/fetal death, abortion and signs of infertility.
 
Inherited sperm defects:
Diadem
defect:
It
is eversion of galea capitis and crater shaped depressions in the nucleus or
nucleus pouch formation defect. The bulls are
infertile or nearly sterile
through the semen has normal motility and concentration of spermatozoa. This
defect is sign of the
severe disturbance in spermatogenesis. Feulgen stain and phase contrast microscopy are helpful in
revealing this defect.
 
Knobbed
spermatozoa:
This
is an acrosomal defect and there is accentrically placed thickening of the acrosome.
It is an inherited autosomal recessive,
sex linked
defect related to defective spermiogenesis involving golgi apparatus. This defect has been noted in bulls, boars
and
dog. The semen samples have normal spermatozoa motility and concentration
but are associated with infertility. The defect can
be seen after staining with
Eosin-B, Fast green or with phase contrast microscopy.
 
Gene
or chromosomal defects:
Gene
or chromosomal defects may occur at the time of meiosis resulting in
infertility with semen appearing good to excellent.
The decline in fertility is
due to intrachromosomal aberrations. Greater the
number of genes involved in translocation and
inversion, greater are the
chances of infertility or sterility.
 
 
Inherited
enzymatic disturbances:
That
may cause early death of the spermatozoa in the female genital organs.
 
Atypical
basic nuclear proteins:
It
may be formed due to defect in sperm cell chromatin which occurs during spermiogenesis. The semen picture is revealed as
normal.
The atypical basic nuclear proteins possibly interfere with activation of ova
and/or penetration of sperm into ova.
 
B) Impotentia generandi associated with production of apparently abnormal
semen:
This
type of infertility may be associated with pathology of testes, epididymis, vas deferens and accessory sex glands or may be
associated with abnormal semen production due to congenital or hereditary
causes or due to acquired causes.
 
Affections of testis
Cryptorchidism:
Cryptorchidism occurs when the normal
process of testicular descent is impaired, such that one or both testes fail to
complete
their descent into the scrotum. Spermatogenesis is generally markedly
impaired or absent in testes that are not scrotal, due to
high intratesticular temperature. Cryptorchidism
occurs most commonly in the stallion34, the boar35 and in
some breeds of
dog36. Animals that have a single cryptorchid
testis are usually fertile, although the inhibition of spermatogenesis in
retained
testes means that the sperm density is often below expectation for the
species. Where both testes are cryptorchid, the
ejaculate
is either aspermic or very severely oligospermic. Testosterone secretion is unaffected by a cryptorchid position, so the libido of
affected animals is
normal.
 
Testicular hypoplasia:
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Testicular hypoplasia:
Testicular
hypoplasia is unilateral or bilateral condition noted
at the time of puberty or later. The condition is commonly noted
in bulls, rams,
boars and stallions. In bull, the incidence is up to 23 per cent of the
testicular pathology cases. Testicular
hypoplasia is
a congenital and hereditary condition caused by single recessive autosomal gene with incomplete penetration. The
condition
is due to lack of marked reduction in spermatogonia
in the gonad during the fetal life. There may be failure of germ
cells to
develop in the yolk sac, failure of germ cell to migrate to the gonad, failure
of the germ cell to multiply in the gonad,
and extensive degeneration of the
germ cells after they reached the gonads. Left side testicular hypoplasia is more common
(66.70%) compared to right side
testicular hypoplasia.  Klinefelter’s syndrome (karyotype XXY) is
a sporadic cause of
testicular hypoplasia in bulls37
and has been reported in rams, boars and dogs38-40. Symptoms are varying
greatly depending
upon degree of testicular hypoplasia.
Lowered conception rate are associated with bilateral testicular hypoplasia. Only in
bilateral complete testicular hypoplasia, animal is sterile. The affected testes are
reduced in size and usually firmer. The affected
bulls have small and firm epididymis indicating reduction in spermatogenesis as well
as gonadal sperm reserves. Semen
evaluation of affected animals resulted in to
low concentration of spermatozoa, low motility, high
incidence of proximal
protoplasmic droplets and abnormal spermatozoa. In
bilateral cases, the semen is usually clear and watery with only few or no
spermatozoa. Giant cells and medusa cells from efferent tubules may be observed
in ejaculate. Histologically the seminiferous
tubules are very much underdeveloped with only the basal layer of the cells
being present. Diagnosis of
testicular hypoplasia
should not be done before 2
years of age in bulls and horses and before 1 year of age in boar, ram, dog and
cat, unless male is
well grown. Prognosis
in testicular hypoplasia is poor since the
condition is hereditary. The affected animal should not be used
for breeding
purpose. Treatment of testicular
hypoplasia is not successful and the animals should
be culled.
 
Testicular degeneration:
It
is estimated that 75 to 80 per cent of testicular pathology is related to
testicular degeneration. Generalized disease processes
bring about bilateral
testicular degeneration and local testicular lesions bring about unilateral
testicular degeneration. Testicular
degeneration is very rapid (may be within
hours or days) but testicular regeneration process is very slow and it may take
several
weeks to several months for recovery. Epithelium of testis is most
sensitive to any adverse influence.
 
Thermal influence:
Prolonged
elevated body temperature as in certain infectious diseases, prolonged high
environmental temperature, direct
heating of scrotum, and increase in scrotal
temperature due to any other cause e.g. irritants, dermatitis, cryptorchidism. Summer
infertility in exotic bulls and rams
is common phenomenon.
 
Vascular lesions of the
testes:
Torsion of testes leads to impaired circulation in
testis. Presence of strongyle larvae in testicular
artery of horse and varicoceles
of spermatic vein may
cause infarction.
 
Irradiation:
Spermatocytes are the most sensitive and leyding
cells and sertoli cells are quite resistant to
radiation. Increase in number of
abnormal spermatozoa and decrease in
concentration of spermatozoa.
 
Hormonal causes:
Tumors of anterior pituitary gland or hypothalamus interfere
with production of gonadotrophic hormones. This is
seen most
commonly in dog. In dog, this tumor is also
associated with testicular atrophy and degeneration and with obesity and is
referred
to as dystrophia adiposogenatilis. Leyding
cell tumors produce excessive amount of testosterone
and estrogen. Excessive
steroids suppress production
of FSH.
 
Age effects:
Generally old age e.g. dogs over 10 years of age, cat
over 12 years of age and bulls over 8 to 10 years of age affected the most.
 
Trauma, Stress or Diseases:
Severe fatigue, traumatic gastritis, internal
abscesses, severe arthritis, laminitis, foot rot and traumatic lesions of testis
and
scrotum are also responsible causes.
 
Localized or systemic
infectious diseases:
Infection causing orchitis
or epididymitis by Brucella
abortus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Corynebacterium pyogenes,
Actinomyces bovis,
IBR-IPV virus, Epivag virus, Canine
distemper virus etc. Inflammatory process produces heat, oedema and
congestion leads to alteration in physiological environment of testis and epididymis.
 
Nutrition:
Underfeeding and malnutrition producing debility and
loss of body weight suppress the release of gonadotrophic
hormone from
anterior pituitary gland. Severe vitamin A deficiencies produce
testicular degeneration. High feeding levels and obesity
generally do not
affect semen quality in males but it does affect willingness to mount.
 
Poisons:
Dipping of rams in arsenic solutions cause
degeneration of seminiferous tubules. Antimony
compounds (for treating heart
worms) in dog causes temporary infertility.
Chlorinated naphthalene produces testicular degeneration in bulls and rams.
Testicular degeneration occurs in response
to raised intratesticular temperature, toxins,
endocrine disturbances and
infection41,42. In rams, raised scrotal temperature can result from excessive amounts of wool over the scrotum, or from leaving
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9/6/2021 Research Journal of Science and Technology
infection . In rams, raised scrotal
temperature can result from excessive amounts of wool over the scrotum, or from
leaving
animals unshorn during the summer43. Excessive deposition of
fat in the scrotum, such as occurs in rapidly grown bulls and
rams, can prevent
heat loss from the scrotum and result in infertility44. Conversely,
scrotal frostbite can also result in testicular
degeneration45.  Testicular size is usually reduced because of
atrophy of seminiferous tubules. Consistency of
testes is generally
soft. In acute cases, there is tense swelling and
enlargement with pain and heat. In chronic cases may show fibrosis and
calcification. Sex drive is usually not affected except in painful conditions
or in severe debilitating conditions. Semen may be
watery and translucent with azoospermia and oligozoospermia.
Sperm motility is reduced because of increased percentage of
abnormal cells,
dead cells and poorly viable cells. There is an increase in abnormal heads,
middle piece and tails abnormalities.
The occurrences of large number of
primary abnormalities are more indicative of testicular degeneration. Giant or
multinucleated cells are increased. Fertility may vary from only slight
reduction in conception rate to severe infertility.
 
Prognosis is variable depending upon the causative factor,
duration, degree of degeneration and age of animal. In young animal,
in slight
and mild cases and correctable causes, the prognosis is fair to good. Prognosis
is poor in chronic cases. Severe
testicular degeneration leads to fibrosis and
calcification and recovery is never possible. Correction of causative factors
and
gives sexual rest. Balanced diet supplemented with vitamin A and quality
proteins. Exercise require in some cases. Air
conditioning and cooling may
recommended for exotic bulls and rams in tropical climate. Use of hormones has
not been found
satisfactory. Testosterone, FSH preparation and thyroxin have
not been found to be of therapeutic value in cases of testicular
degeneration.
Cold packs may be applied. In case of acute orchitis,
sexual rest and broad range antibiotics together with
glucocorticoids may used.
If orchitis is unilateral, affected testes may be
removed to hasten recovery and to save breeding life
of valuable animals.
 
Orchitis:
Inflammation of testis caused mostly by bacterial
infections (e.g. Brucella abortus) and some viral agents (e.g. Epivag virus).
Orchitis can arise from a
primary infection or by haematogenous spread of
bacteria into the testis superinfecting pre-existing
traumatic viral or parasitic damage. Orchitis is more
commonly unilateral than bilateral and may involve the epididymis.
In
acute cases, scrotum
becomes hot, painful and oedematous. Brucella species cause orchitis in many domestic animals like
Brucella
abortus, Brucella canis, brucella melatensis and Brucella suis affecting bulls, dogs, goats and boars,
respectively.
However, the majorities of isolates from cases of orchitis are both non-specific bacteria and mycoplasma, or are the particular
pyogenic
organism for the animal species (e.g. Actinomyces
pyogenes in cattle). Ascending infection from the
urinary tract is
postulated, but haematogenous spread
seems more probable. Treatment includes
dressing with antiseptics and application of ice
packs. Sexual rest is given to
affected animals. Broad range antibiotics with glucocorticoids may give through
parenteral routes.
Brucella
infected bulls should never be used on Brucella free
herds either naturally or through artificial insemination.
 
Testicular fibrosis:
Testicular fibrosis is usually the end result of
testicular inflammation and testicular degeneration. In testicular fibrosis,
the
leyding cells and seminiferous
tubules are replaced by fibrous tissue. Areas of necrosis, calcification and
lymphocytic
infiltration observed. The ejaculates are watery and contain few or
no sperms.
 
Testicular tumors
or Testicular
neoplasia:
It
is rare in the bull, ram and boar, although common in dogs. Usually tumors are
observed in older age. The large tumors may
cause
testicular degeneration either due to their compressing effect or due to excess
of steroids produced by interstitial or sertoli
cell tumors. Testicular tumors may
originate from interstitial cells, sertoli cells and
from germinal epithelium. Interstitial cell
tumors are the most common tumor of the dog, and are recorded occasionally as
incidental findings in aged bulls. They are very
rare in stallions. Seminomas, the next most common canine testicular tumor,
are also occasionally found in bulls (and stallions),
while Sertoli
cell tumors rarely occur in species other than the dog.
 
Interstitial cell tumor:
It seen mainly in dogs and bulls. It may or may not
produce androgens or estrogens. It looks tan yellow, soft and nodular and
prone
to haemorrhage and necrosis. Polygonal cells with eosinophilic
vacuolated cytoplasm like leyding cells.
 
Sertoli
cell tumor:
It is usually benign, rarely malignant, but often
produces estrogen and feminizing effects. Prostate
may also be enlarged. It
appears firm to hard, white and lobulated
mass. Cells form tubular structures surrounded by abundant connective tissue.
 
Seminoma:
It seen mainly in dogs and horses and prevalent in cryptorchid testis. It is a firm and white mass like
lymphoid tissue. Cells are
large, polyhedral and in sheets with little or no stroma. Giant cells and mitotic figures are common, but tumor is benign in dogs
and produces no hormones. In case
of horses, it is often malignant.
 
Lesions of epididymis and mesonephric duct Epididymitis:
Inflammation of epididymis
usually occur secondary to orchitis. It can also occur as a primary infection or by spread from an
infected
testis. Orchitis in the associated testis can also
occur following a primary epididymitis. The general
signs of
epididymitis are similar to those of orchitis, like heat, swelling and pain of the affected
organ. Any inflammation of the
epididymis causes
obstruction of the single, highly convoluted tube of which the organ is
composed, so a loss of function takes
place. Unilateral epididymitis
results in reduced fertility, whereas bilateral obstruction results in
sterility. Epididymitis can also
occur as a primary infection or
by spread from an infected testis41. Furthermore
with orchitis, unilateral epididymitis
causes
temperature induced degeneration in the contralateral testis so early removal of the affected epididymis and its associated testis
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9/6/2021 Research Journal of Science and Technology
temperature induced degeneration in the contralateral
testis, so early removal of the affected epididymis
and its associated testis
should be recommended.
 
Spermiostasis:
Spermiostasis caused by blind rudimentary mesonephric
tubules. These defective tubules are attached to rete
testis or
epididymis and produce lesions mainly in
head of epididymis. The condition is common in bucks
and rams, less common in
bulls and rare in other domestic animals. The condition
is probably genetic in origin. No treatment for this condition and
because of
hereditary nature of this condition, the affected animals should be culled.
 
Aplasia of the mesonephric ducts:
Segmental
aplasia of the mesonephric
ducts are most commonly manifested as an absence of parts of the epididymis. In the
bull, the condition is probably
inherited. The body and tail or
all the epididymis and even part of the vas deferens
may be
missing. In majority cases, the condition is unilateral and the bull is
fertile. The bilateral cases are sterile and semen is watery
with no sperm. Absence of the head or tail of epididymis can
be determined relatively easily by careful palpation of the
scrotum, but the
medially sited epididymal body is rarely palpable. There is no treatment and the affected animals
should not be
used in breeding programmes as the condition is hereditary.
 
Spermatocele:
It
is an obstruction of epididymis after infection and
inflammatory changes in epididymis, will lead to
obstruction and
enlargement of epididymis. It is
common in ram, boars and male goats, but infrequent in others. The condition
may be
unilateral or bilateral. On cross section of affected part, cavities up
to 1 cm in diameter containing thick suspension of
spermatozoa and cellular
debris are found.
 
Lesions of the accessory glands Seminal vesiculitis:
Inflammation of vesicular glands may caused by variety
of organisms including specific pathogens (like Brucella,
Chlamydia,
Mycoplasma, Mycobacterium bovis,
Mycobacterium paratuberculosis, Epivag
and IBR-IPV virus) and nonspecific
opportunistic pathogens (like Streptococci, Staphylococci, Actinobacilli,
Corynebacterium etc.) Seminal
vesiculitis occurs most
commonly in young bulls of
less than 2 years old and in aged bulls. Seminal vesiculitis may be
acute or chronic. In acute
seminal vesiculitis, affected glands may
enlarged and firm and pain on palpation. Purulent exudate
is present in semen
consistency. In chronic cases, enlargement,
fibrosis and loss of lobulations from the gland may
found. Pain on palpation is
usually absent. The
main consequence of infection of the vesicular gland is a decline in semen
quality, decrease in motility,
elevated pH, low fructose concentrations and
presence of polymorphonuclear leucocytes. In moderate
or severe cases, the
semen may appear overtly purulent and may be tinged
brownish, due to the presence of degenerating blood from the damaged
gland. Prognosis in seminal vesiculitis
may be fair to poor depending upon duration and severity of infection. Broad
range
antibiotics may give for 2 to 3 weeks. Massage of gland may helpful. In
chronic cases, affected gland may be removed
surgically.
 
Prostatitis:
Prostatitis is uncommon in animals except in dogs. Prostatitis in dog above 5 years of age is common and often
associated with
hyperplasia of the gland. It may occur as ascending or
descending infections or from haematogenous infections. Organisms
responsible
for this condition are Brucella canis,
E. coli, Streptococci and Proteus species. Leucocytes are frequently found in
urine. Condition may be characterized by stiff gait in rear limbs, elevated
temperature and pulse rate, constipation, anorexia and
vomiting. Prostatitis frequently respond to broad range antibiotics
for prolong period. Prostatitis due to Brucella canis does not
respond
to treatment.
 
Prostatic hyperplasia:
Prostatic hyperplasia is reported in dogs above 5
years of age that have not been castrated. The condition is probably due to an
altered androgen-estrogen ratio with an excess of testosterone
secreted causing hyperplasia of the prostate gland. The enlarged
gland may
contain small cysts and cyst may be calcified. Dogs with prostatic hyperplasia
are usually constipated. Diagnosis can
be done by per rectal examination and by abdominal palpation of prostate gland. The
size, location and contour of prostate can
also be evaluated by caudal
abdominal radiography. The most effective treatment for prostatic enlargement
is castration. In
hormonal treatments, diethylstilbestrol may give orally as
dose of 1 mg per day for 5 days or estradiol cypionate as 0.1 mg per
kg with maximum dose of 2 mg may be
given intramuscularly.
 
Future prospect and conclusions:
Fertility is a fragile parameter that may vary
temporarily or be permanently depressed. The ability to maintain body condition
and the existence of conformational abnormalities may alter fertility.
Abnormalities of the external genitalia may directly affect
the ability to
copulate or may alter the quality of semen. Testicular disease alters semen quality,
sometimes transiently and other
times permanently. The fertility prognosis for
testicular problems can be judged on the basis of repeated examinations.
 
REFERENCES:
1.    
Roberts SJ, Veterinary Obstetrics and Genital
Diseases, 3rd edition, Ithaca, New York, 1986.
2.    
Cox JE, Surgery of the Reproductive Tract in Large
Animals. Liverpool University Press, 1982.
3.    
Williams WL, Diseases of the Genital Organs of
Domestic Animals, 3rd edition, Ithaca, New York, 1943.
4.    
Bowen JM, Current Therapy in Equine Medicine, 2nd
edition, W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pp. 567-570, 1987.
5.    
DeVries PJ, Equine
Reproduction, edition A.O. McKinnon and J.L. Voss, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, Pp. 878–884, 1993.
6. Johnston SD, Current Therapy in Theriogenology, 2nd edition, W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pp. 549–551, 1986.

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Impotentia Coeundi and Impotentia Generandi: A Male Infertility

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pharmaceutical (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-10) pharmaceuticals (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-10)

Spectrophotometric (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-10) Chromatographic (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-10)

pharmaceutical (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-10) Empagliflozine (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-10)

Linagliptin (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-10) anti-diabetic (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-10)

Analytical method (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-10) Quality by design. (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-10)

administration (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-11) Mucoadhesion (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-11)

Bioadhesion (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-11) Mucoadhesion Theories (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-11)

Mucoadhesive Polymer (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-11)

Mucoadhesive Strength. (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-11) anti-inflammatory (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-12)

phosphodiesterase-4 (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-12) physico-chemical (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-12)

Pharmaceuticals (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-12) Apremilast (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-12)

HPLC (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-12) PDE-4 (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-12)

LC-MS etc. (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-12) Adaptogenic Activity (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-13)

Swimming Endurance Test (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-13) Chronic Stress Test. (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-13)

annual/Perennial (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-14) phytoconstituents (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-14)

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9/6/2021 Research Journal of Science and Technology

allo-hydroxycitric (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-14) non-pharmacological (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-14)

cardiovascular (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-14) anti-inflammatory (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-14)

anti-bacterial (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-14) Hibiscus sinensis (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-14)

Malvaceae (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-14) hypotensive. (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-14)

l-[n-(3-hydroxy-1-adamantyl) (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-15) pyrrolidine-2- (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-15)

antihyperglycaemic (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-15) (anti-diabetic (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-15)

pharmaceutical (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-15) classification (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-15)

Pharmaceutical (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-15) pharmaceutical (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-15)

pharmaceutical (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-15) pharmaceutical (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-15)

Introduction of Vildagliptin (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-15) Pharmacology (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-15)

Pharmacokinetics (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-15) Analytical Methods. (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-15)

Groundwater (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-2) heavy metal (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-2)

WHO standard values. (AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-13-2-2)

ABOUT JOURNAL
Research Journal of Science and Technology (RJST) is an international, peer-reviewed journal, devoted to science
and technology. The aim of RJST is to increase the impact of technological research both in academia and industry,
with strong emphasis on quality and originality. RJST publishes Original Research Articles, Short Communications,
Review Articles in all areas of Science and Technology.

Research Journal of Science and Technology (RJST) is published every year in last week of February, April, June,
August, October and December from Raipur. From January 2013, is Quarterly and shall be published every year in
last week of March, June, September and December.    

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