EDT-11804 Critical Thinking & Reflective Practices

Prepared by: ZEENAT NAZ – M.Phil Eng, M.
Ed (Special Edu) Editing & Composed By: ZAFAR ABBAS-03458719423
Book.No.4
EDT-11804
Critical Thinking &
Reflective Practices
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Prepared by: ZEENAT NAZ – M.Phil Eng, M.Ed (Special Edu) Editing & Composed By: ZAFAR ABBAS-03458719423
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Sample
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan

Department of Education
Class: B.Ed (1stSemester) Mid Term Session: 2016-18

Subject: Critical Thinking & Reflective Practices Code: EDT-11804
Time: 60 Minutes Total Marks: 20
Name:________________________________ Roll. No. ________
Q 1: Choose the Correct Answer. (5)

1. Critical thinking is mode of
(a) Thinking(b) Observing (c) Evaluating (d) Analyzing
2. In Critical thinking the thinker improves the quality of
(a) Evaluating (b)Walking (c) Sleeping (d) Thinking
3. Critical thinking steps
(a) 1 (b)2 (c) 3 (d) 6
4. Theory thinking means
(a) Define (b) Experiments (c) Evaluating (d) Specifying Relationship among the concepts
5. Thinking empirically means
(a) Define (b) Experiments (c) Relationship among the concepts (d) None of them
6. Brain Storming is
(a) Invent and Discovery ideas (b) Explantion (c) Inventing (d) Clearity
7. Venn Diagram represents
(a) Circles (b) Maps (c) Pie Diagram (d) Graphics
8. Logical Reasoning is always
(a) False (b) True (c) True and False (d) None of these
9. Generalization belonging to
(a) The parts of whole (b) Parts and whole (c) Whole (d) Common
10. In Critical thinking the thinker improves quality of
(a) His (b) Others (c) People (d) Students
Q 2. Answer the following short question. ` (8)
1. What is Critical Thinking?
2. Definition of Venn Diagram.
3. Difference between Thinking Theoritically and Thinking Empirically.
4. Definition of Logical Reasoning.
Q 3. What is definition of Critical Thinking and define the fundamentals of Critical Thinking. (7)
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Sample

Bahawalpur
Class: B.Ed (1st Semester Final term) Session: 2016-18
Subject: Critical Thinking and Reflective Practices Code: EDT-11804
Name:________________________________ Roll. No. ________
Part-I
Q .No.1: Choose the Correct Answer. (20)
1. Critical thinking is mode of
(a) Thinking (b) Observing (c) Evaluating (d) Analyzing
2. In Critical thinking the thinker improves the quality of
(a) Evaluating (b)Walking (c) Sleeping (d) Thinking
3. Critical thinking steps
(a) 1 (b)2 (c) 3 (d) 6
4. Theory thinking means
(a) Define (b) Experiments (c) Evaluating (d) Specifying Relationship among the concepts
5. Thinking empirically means
(a) Define (b) Experiments (c) Relationship among the concepts (d) None of them
6. Brain Storming is
(a) Invent and Discovery ideas (b) Explanation (c) Inventing (d) Clarity
7. Venn Diagram represents
(a) Circles (b) Maps (c) Pie Diagram (d) Graphics
8. Logical Reasoning is always
(a) False (b) True (c) True and False (d) None of these
9. Generalization belonging to
(a) The parts of whole (b) Parts and whole (c) Whole (d) Common
10.In Critical thinking the thinker improves quality of
(a) His (b) Others (c) People (d) Students
11.Theory Thinking means
(b) Define (b) Evaluating (c) Experiments (d) Specifying relationships among the concepts
12.Think Empirically means
(b) Define (b) Experiments (c) Ideas (d) Concepts
13. Brainstorming is
(b) Invent and Discovering ideas (b) Explanation (c) Invent (d) Clearity
14. Logical Reasoning is forever
(b) False (b) True (c) False and True (d) None of these
15.Generalization belongs to
(b) The Parts of Whole (b) Whole (c) Parts and whole (d) Common
16.In Critical Thinking the thinker improves quality
(b) His (b) Parents (c) Brothers (d) People
17.Critical Thinking steps
(b) 1 (b) 3 (c) 5 (d) 6
18.Critical Thinking is mode of
(b) Thinking (b) Observing (c) Application (d) Evaluating
19.Theory Generates
(b) Hypothesis (b) Application (c) Knowledge (d) All
20.Generalization identifying
(b) The parts of a whole (b) Parts (c) Whole (d) All
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Bahawalpur
Class: B.Ed (1st Semester Final term) Session: 2016-18

Subject: Critical Thinking and Reflective Practices Code: EDT-11804
Name:________________________________ Roll. No. ________
Part-2
Q.No.2. Answer the following short question. (20)

5. What are primary sources?
6. Definition of evidence.
7. Definition of secondary sources
8. What is Process of reflection?
9. Write the definition of systematize reflection.
10. What is interrogating the text?
11. Write down the headings of characteristics of academic text.
12. Definition of status of the author.
13. Define the systematic reflection throughout the course work?
14. What are shills for reflection?
Part-3
Note: Answer Only Two questions in this portion
Q.No.1. What are the significance of reflection for teacher? (10)
Q.No.2. What is open and close ended Questions. Discuss? (10)
Q.No.3. Define shills for reflection briefly? (10)
*********************
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Critical Thinking is the ability to analyze the way you think and present evidence for your ideas,
rather than simply accepting your personal reasoning as sufficient proof. You can gain numerous
benefits from mastering critical thinking skills, such as better control of your own learning and
empathy for other points of view.
Critical Thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective
thinking. It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their
use. It entails effective communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to
overcome our native egocentrism and sociocentrism.
 Critical Thinking skills teach a variety of skills that can be applied to any situation in life that
calls for reflection, analysis and planning.
 Critical Thinking is a domain-general thinking skill. The ability to think clearly and rationally is
important whatever we choose to do. If you work in education, research, finance,
management or the legal profession, then critical thinking is obviously important. But critical
thinking skills are not restricted to a particular subject area. Being able to think well and
solve problems systematically is an asset for any career.
 Critical Thinking is very important in the new knowledge economy. The global knowledge
economy is driven by information and technology. One has to be able to deal with changes
quickly and effectively. The new economy places increasing demands on flexible intellectual
skills, and the ability to analyse information and integrate diverse sources of knowledge in
solving problems. Good critical thinking promotes such thinking skills, and is very important
in the fast-changing workplace.
 Critical Thinkingenhances language and presentation skills. Thinking clearly and

systematically can improve the way we express our ideas. In learning how to analyse the
logical structure of texts, critical thinking also improves comprehension abilities.
 Critical Thinking promotes creativity. To come up with a creative solution to a problem

involves not just having new ideas. It must also be the case that the new ideas being
generated are useful and relevant to the task at hand. Critical thinking plays a crucial role in
evaluating new ideas, selecting the best ones and modifying them if necessary
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 Critical Thinking is crucial for self-reflection. In order to live a meaningful life and to structure
our lives accordingly, we need to justify and reflect on our values and decisions. Critical
thinking provides the tools for this process of self-evaluation.
 Good Critical Thinking is the foundation of science and a liberal democratic society. Science
requires the critical use of reason in experimentation and theory confirmation. The proper
functioning of a liberal democracy requires citizens who can think critically about social
issues to inform their judgments about proper governance and to overcome biases and
prejudice.

 Why critical thinking matters

Here are three reasons why critical thinking matters:
1. It exposes everyday fallacies
A fallacy is, simply put, a statement or argument that appears to be true at first glance, but turns
out to be false upon scrutiny.
Have you ever been in a sociology tutorial where fellow students on one side of the classroom
debate are telling you that there is no moral absolutism because different cultures have different
values? Despite the surface differences, every culture agrees on at least a few core moral rules,
such as ensuring the survival of offspring. Common abidance with this set of rules indicates that
absolute moral rules do exist.
Maybe you have also been in a film studies class, and heard about how the camera apparently
never lies because it shows you reality as it is.
While it is true that the camera produces images of real objects, this fact alone does not mean that
the camera shows reality as it is. The framing of a photograph is always subjective; when you
include something within the frame, you also necessarily exclude other things from it. So ironically,
the camera does not show the whole picture!
2. It helps you act responsibly
Many inhumane historical events can be attributed to moral groupthink. When a powerful group of
people propagates immoral beliefs (e.g. the Nazis’ Aryanism), and the masses accept them
uncritically, you potentially have a tragedy in the making.
To avoid the bad consequences of moral groupthink, one has to assess moral beliefs critically and
independently. If the beliefs turn out to be grounded in unsound arguments after examination,
don’t act on them. But do not be quick to discard these mistaken beliefs. It is still important to keep
them at the back of your mind, just in case someone else conceives a new angle of arguing for those
beliefs.
As an NTU student, you will have many opportunities to argue about the merits of every
perspective on a contentious issue (e.g. freedom of speech) during your humanities classes.
Eventually, you will realise that under the merciless scalpel of critical thinking, no opinion or
argument is eternally safe from dissection.
3. It results in work you can be proud of
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If you have been in NTU for some time now, you are probably used to receiving frequent reminders
not to commit plagiarism when doing assignments. Copyright infringement aside,
plagiarism also shows the unoriginality of the plagiarising student. Why does anti-plagiarism
enshrine originality?
When critically thinking students go off the beaten path, they have no precedent with which to
judge the merit of their ideas. By not comparing themselves to others, they learn to have a stake in
their own ideas. They learn to have pride in their own work. And possessing such self-confidence is
important because it contributes to their motivation to work.
But while criticism is needed to ensure that we are producing quality work, accepting unsound
criticism can deflate our morale unnecessarily. So be alert when receiving criticism from anyone.
Remember to critique that criticism and assess for yourself.
Critical thinking and process of analyses
It entails the examination of those structures or elements of thought implicit in all reasoning:
purpose, problem, or question-at-issue; assumptions; concepts; empirical grounding; reasoning
leading to conclusions; implications and consequences; objections from alternative viewpoints; and
frame of reference. Critical thinking — in being responsive to variable subject matter, issues, and
purposes — is incorporated in a family of interwoven modes of thinking, among them: scientific
thinking, mathematical thinking, historical thinking, anthropological thinking, economic thinking,
moral thinking, and philosophical thinking.
Critical thinking can be seen as having two components: 1) a set of information and belief
generating and processing skills, and 2) the habit, based on intellectual commitment, of using those
skills to guide behavior. It is thus to be contrasted with: 1) the mere acquisition and retention of
information alone, because it involves a particular way in which information is sought and treated;
2) the mere possession of a set of skills, because it involves the continual use of them; and 3) the
mere use of those skills ("as an exercise") without acceptance of their results.
Critical thinking varies according to the motivation underlying it. When grounded in selfish motives,
it is often manifested in the skillful manipulation of ideas in service of one’s own, or one's
groups’, vested interest. As such it is typically intellectually flawed, however pragmatically

successful it might be. When grounded in fair-mindedness and intellectual integrity, it is typically of
a higher order intellectually, though subject to the charge of "idealism" by those habituated to its
selfish use.
Critical thinking of any kind is never universal in any individual; everyone is subject to episodes of
undisciplined or irrational thought. Its quality is therefore typically a matter of degree and
dependent on, among other things, the quality and depth of experience in a given domain of
thinking or with respect to a particular class of questions. No one is a critical thinker through-and-
through, but only to such-and-such a degree, with such-and-such insights and blind spots, subject to
such-and-such tendencies towards self-delusion. For this reason, the development of critical
thinking skills and dispositions is a life-long endeavor.
Another Brief Conceptualization of Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at the highest
level of quality in a fair-minded way. People who think critically consistently attempt to live
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rationally, reasonably, empathically. They are keenly aware of the inherently flawed nature of
human thinking when left unchecked. They strive to diminish the power of their egocentric and
sociocentric tendencies. They use the intellectual tools that critical thinking offers – concepts and
principles that enable them to analyze, assess, and improve thinking. They work diligently to
develop the intellectual virtues of intellectual integrity, intellectual humility, intellectual civility,
intellectual empathy, intellectual sense of justice and confidence in reason. They realize that no
matter how skilled they are as thinkers, they can always improve their reasoning abilities and they
will at times fall prey to mistakes in reasoning, human irrationality, prejudices, biases, distortions,
uncritically accepted social rules and taboos, self-interest, and vested interest. They strive to
improve the world in whatever ways they can and contribute to a more rational, civilized
society. At the same time, they recognize the complexities often inherent in doing so. They avoid
thinking simplistically about complicated issues and strive to appropriately consider the rights and
needs of relevant others. They recognize the complexities in developing as thinkers, and commit
themselves to life-long practice toward self-improvement. They embody the Socratic
principle: The unexamined life is not worth living , because they realize that many unexamined
lives together result in an uncritical, unjust, dangerous world. ~ Linda Elder, September,
2007
Why Critical Thinking?
The Problem
Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased,
distorted, partial, uninformed or down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of our life and that of what
we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy thinking is
costly, both in money and in quality of life. Excellence in thought, however, must be systematically
cultivated.
A Definition
Critical thinking is that mode of thinking - about any subject, content, or problem - in which the
thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures
inherent in thinking and
imposing intellectual standards upon them.
The Result
A well cultivated critical thinker:
 raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely;
 gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively
comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and
standards;
 thinks openmindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as
need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and
 communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.
Critical thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective

thinking. It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their
use. It entails effective communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to
overcome our native egocentrism and sociocentrism.
(Taken from Richard Paul and Linda Elder, The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and
Tools, Foundation for Critical Thinking Press, 2008)
Critical Thinking Defined by Edward Glaser

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In a seminal study on critical thinking and education in 1941, Edward Glaser defines critical thinking
as follows “The ability to think critically, as conceived in this volume, involves three things: ( 1 ) an
attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come
within the range of one's experiences, (2) knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and
reasoning, and (3) some skill in applying those methods. Critical thinking calls for a persistent effort
to examine any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the evidence that supports it
and the further conclusions to which it tends. It also generally requires ability to recognize
problems, to find workable means for meeting those problems, to gather and marshal pertinent
information, to recognize unstated assumptions and values, to comprehend and use language with
accuracy, clarity, and discrimination, to interpret data, to appraise evidence and evaluate
arguments, to recognize the existence (or non-existence) of logical relationships between
propositions, to draw warranted conclusions and generalizations, to put to test the conclusions and
generalizations at which one arrives, to reconstruct one's patterns of beliefs on the basis of wider
experience, and to render accurate judgments about specific things and qualities in everyday life.
(Edward M. Glaser, An Experiment in the Development of Critical Thinking,
The Critical Thinking Process

AFFECTIVE Components – The emotional foundation that either enables or limits critical thinking
. Valuing truth above self-interest. Critical thinkers hold themselves and those they agree with to the same
intellectual standards to which they hold their opponents.
Accepting change. Critical thinkers remain open to the need for adjustment and adaptation throughout the life cycle.
Because critical thinkers fully trust the processes of reasoned inquiry, they are willing to use these skills to examine
even their most deeply held values and beliefs, and to modify these beliefs when evidence and experience contradict
them
Empathizing. Critical thinkers appreciate and try to understand others’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Noncritical
thinkers view everything and everyone in relation to the self
. Welcoming divergent views. Critical thinkers value examining issues from every angle and know that it is especially
important to explore and understand positions with which they disagree
Tolerating ambiguity. Although formal education often trains us to look for a single “right” answer, critical thinkers
recognize that many issues are complex and subtle, and that complex issues may not have a “right” answer. They
recognize and value qualifiers such as “probably, highly likely, and not very likely”.
Recognizing personal biases. Critical thinks use their highest intellectual skills to detect personal biases and self-
deceptive reasoning so they can design realistic plans for self-correction.
COGNITIVE Components – the thought processes actually involved in critical thinking.
Thinking independently. Critical thinking is independent thinking. Critical thinks do not passively accept the beliefs of
others and are not easily manipulated
Defining problems accurately. A critical thinker identifies the issues in clear and concrete terms, to prevent confusion
and lay the foundation for gathering relevant information.
Analyzing data for value and content. By carefully evaluating the nature of evidence and the credibility of the source,
critical thinkers recognize illegitimate appeals to emotion, unsupported assumptions, and faulty logic. This enables
them to discount sources of information that lack a record of honesty, contradict themselves on key questions, or
have a vested interest in selling a product or idea.
Employing a variety of thinking processes in problem solving. Among these thinking processes are inductive logic-
reasoning that moves the specific to the general; deductive logic-reasoning that moves from the general to the
specific; dialogical thinking- thinking that involves an extended verbal exchange between differing points of view or
frames of reference; and dialectical thinking – thinking that tests the strengths and weaknesses of opposing points of
view.
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Synthesizing. Critical thinkers recognize that comprehensive and understanding result from combining various
elements into meaningful patterns
. Resisting overgeneralizations. Overgeneralization is the temptation to apply a fact or experience to situations that
are only superficially similar
Employing metacognition. Metacognition, also known as reflective or recursive thinking, involves reviewing and
analyzing your own mental processes – thinking about your own thinking.
Behavioral components – the actions necessary for critical thinking.
Delaying judgment until adequate data is available. A critical thinker does not make snap judgments. Employing
precise terms. Precise terns help critical thinkers identify issues clearly and concretely so they can be objectively
defined and empirically tested.
Gathering data. Collecting up to date, relevant information on all sides of an issue is a priority before making
decisions
. Distinguishing fact from opinion. Facts are statements that can be proven true. Opinions are statements that
express how a person feels about an issue or what someone thinks is true
Encouraging critical dialogue. Critical thinkers are active questioners who challenge existing facts and opinions and
welcome questions in return. Socratic questioning is an important type of critical dialogue in which the questioner
deeply probes the meaning, justification, or logical strength of a claim, position, or line of reasoning.
Listening actively. Critical thinkers fully engage their thinking skills when listening to another.
Modifying judgments in light of new information. Critical thinkers are willing to abandon or modify their judgments
if later evidence or experience contradicts them.
Applying knowledge to new situations. When critical thinkers master a new skill or experience an insight, they
transfer this information to new contexts. Noncritical thinkers can often provide correct answers, repeat definitions,
and carry out calculations, yet be unable to transfer their knowledge to new situations because of a basic lack of
understanding.
Critical thinking process

Six Steps of Critical Thinking
Critical thinking involves the use of a group of interconnected skills to analyze, creatively integrate, and
evaluate what you read and hear. To become a critical thinker you must be able to decide whether an
author’s opinions are true or false, whether he or she has adequately defended those ideas, whether
certain recommendations are practical, as well as whether particular solutions will be effective.
I. Critical Thinking Dispositions
Critical thinking involves certain dispositions. A disposition is a tendency to act or think in a certain
way. Review the list of dispositions that are characteristic of critical thinkers.
II.Critical Thinking Skills
To learn how to think critically, one must learn skills that build upon each other. Only by
concentrating on and practicing these basic skills can mastery of critical thinking be achieved. The
author lists three basic characteristics of the skills required to think critically: they are
interconnected (review a sample list of these skills), they build on each other, and they are goal-
oriented in that we can constantly apply them to situations in everyday life.
III.Characteristics of Critical Thinking
Critical thinking involves the use of a kind of thinking called reasoning, in which we construct and/or
evaluate reasons to support beliefs. Critical thinking also involves reflection — the examination and
evaluation of our own and others’ thoughts and ideas. Finally critical thinking is practical. Actions are
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more rational if they are based on beliefs that we take to be justified. Critical thinking then, is the
careful, deliberate determination of whether we should accept, reject or suspend judgement about
the truth of a claim or a recommendation to act in a certain way.
Review what the guiding model of the text. This model is discussed in steps or stages. For each step
note the specific headings to help you identify the level d
IV. Step 1: Knowledge
In terms of critical thinking, the basic level of acquisition of knowledge requires that you be able to
identify what is being said: the topic, the issue, the thesis, and the main points. See Chapter Three.
V. Step 2: Comprehension
Comprehension means understanding the material read, heard or seen. In comprehending, you
make the new knowledge that you have acquired your own by relating it to what you already know.
The better you are involved with the information, the better you will comprehend it. As always, the
primary test of whether you have comprehended something is whether you can put what you have
read or heard into your own words. Review some key words that help you identify when
comprehension is called for. Remember that comprehending something implies that you can go
beyond merely parroting the material back but instead that you can give the material your own
significance.
VI. Step 3: Application
Application requires that you know what you have read, heard, or seen, that you comprehend it, and
that you carry out some task to apply what you comprehend to an actual situation. Review the some
tasks that require application.
VII. Step 4: Analysis
Analysis involves breaking what you read or hear into its component parts, in order to make clear
how the ideas are ordered, related, or connected to other ideas. Analysis deals with both form and
content. Reviewhow critical thinkers analyze form. Reviewhow critical thinkers analyze content.
VIII. Step 5: Synthesis
Synthesis involves the ability to put together the parts you analyzed with other information to create
something original. Review some key words that help you identify when synthesis is called for.
IX.Step 6: Evaluation
Evaluation occurs once we have understood and analyzed what is said or written and the reasons offered to
support it. Then we can appraise this information in order to decide whether you can give or withhold
belief, and whether or not to take a particular action. Review some key words that help you identify
whensynthesis is called for. Never put evaluation ahead of the other steps in critical thinking steps;
otherwise, you will be guilty of a "rush to judgment." When emotion substitutes for reasons, evaluation
incorrectly precedes analysis
What is Brainstorming?
Brainstorming is the name given to a situation when a group of people meet to generate new ideas
around a specific area of interest. Using rules which remove inhibitions, people are able to think
more freely and move into new areas of thought and so create numerous new ideas and solutions.
The participants shout out ideas as they occur to them and then build on the ideas raised by others.
All the ideas are noted down and are not criticized. Only when the brainstorming session is over are
the ideas evaluated.
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This is the traditional way brainstorming is done. The aim of this website is to train you in the
methods of traditional brainstorming and then to move on and discover a series of advanced
techniques available to you.
Some other definitions:
 Brainstorming is a process for generating new ideas
 Brainstorming is "a conference technique by which a group attempts to find a solution for a
specific problem by amassing all the ideas spontaneously by its members" - Alex Osborn
To brainstorm is to use a set of specific rules and techniques which encourage and spark off new
ideas which would never have happened under normal circumstance
What is concept Maping?

A concept map or conceptual diagram is a diagram that depicts suggested relationships between
concepts.[1] It is a graphical tool that instructional designers, engineers, technical writers, and others use to
organize and structure knowledge.
A concept map typically represents ideas and information as boxes or circles, which it connects with labeled
arrows in a downward-branching hierarchical structure. The relationship between concepts can be
articulated in linking phrases such as causes, requires, or contributes to.[2]
The technique for visualizing these relationships among different concepts is called concept mapping.
Concept maps have been used to define the ontology of computer systems, for example with the object-role
modeling or Unified Modeling Language formalism.
Overview
A concept map is a way of representing relationships between ideas, images, or words in the same way that
a sentence diagram represents the grammar of a sentence, a road map represents the locations of highways
and towns, and a circuit diagram represents the workings of an electrical appliance. In a concept map, each
word or phrase connects to another, and links back to the original idea, word, or phrase. Concept maps are
a way to develop logical thinking and study skills by revealing connections and helping students see how
individual ideas form a larger whole. An example of the use of concept maps is provided in the context of
learning about types of fuel.[clarification needed][3]
Concept maps were developed[according to whom?] to enhance meaningful learning in the sciences [citation needed]. A
well-made concept map grows within a context frame defined by an explicit "focus question", while a mind
map often has only branches radiating out from a central picture. Some research evidence suggests that the
brain stores knowledge as productions (situation-response conditionals) that act on declarative memory
content, which is also referred to as chunks or propositions. [4][5] Because concept maps are constructed to
reflect organization of the declarative memory system, they facilitate sense-making and meaningful
learning on the part of individuals who make concept maps and those who use them.
Venn diagram
A Venn diagram (also called primary diagram, set diagram or logic diagram) is a diagram that shows all possible logical
relations between a finite collection of different sets. These diagrams depict elements as points in the plane, and sets
as regions inside closed curves. A Venn diagram consists of multiple overlapping closed curves, usually circles, each
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representing a set. The points inside a curve labelledS represent elements of the set S, while points outside the
boundary represent elements not in the set S. Thus, for example, the set of all elements that are members of both
sets S and T, S ∩ T, is represented visually by the area of overlap of the regions S and T. In Venn diagrams the curves
are overlapped in every possible way, showing all possible relations between the sets. They are thus a special case of
Euler diagrams, which do not necessarily show all relations. Venn diagrams were conceived around 1880 by John
Venn. They are used to teach elementary set theory, as well as illustrate simple set relationships in probability, logic,
statistics, linguistics and computer science.
Learn the essentials of Venn Diagrams, along with their long history, versatile purposes and uses, examples
and symbols, and steps to draw them.
What is a Venn diagram?

A Venn Diagram uses overlapping circles or other shapes to illustrate the logical relationships between two
or more sets of items. Often, they serve to graphically organize things, highlighting how the items are
similar and different.
Venn Diagrams, also called Set Diagrams or Logic Diagrams, are widely used in mathematics, statistics, logic,
teaching, linguistics, computer science and business. Many people first encounter them in school as they
study math or logic, since Venn Diagrams became part of “new math” curricula in the 1960s. These may be
simple diagrams involving two or three sets of a few elements, or they may become quite sophisticated,
including 3D presentations, as they progress to six or seven sets and beyond. They are used to think through
and depict how items relate to each within a particular “universe” or segment. Venn Diagrams allow users
to visualize data in clear, powerful ways, and therefore are commonly used in presentations and reports.
They are closely related to Euler Diagrams, which differ by omitting sets if no items exist in them. Venn
Diagrams show relationships even if a set is empty.
Logical Reasoning
Logical reasoning is the process of using a rational, systematic series of steps based on sound mathematical
procedures and given statements to arrive at a conclusion. Geometric proofs use logical reasoning and the
definitions and properties of geometric figures and terms to state definitively that something is always true.
In logical reasoning, an if-then statement (also known as a conditional statement) is a statement formed
when one thing implies another and can be written and read as "If P then Q." A contrapositive is
the conditional statement created when negating both sides of the implication and can be written
and read as "If not Q, then not P." Anything that is not proven is known as a conjecture.
Informally, two kinds of logical reasoning can be distinguished in addition to formal deduction: induction
and abduction. Given a precondition or premise, a conclusion or logical consequence and a rule or material
conditional that implies the conclusion given the precondition, one can explain that:
 Deductive reasoning determines whether the truth of a conclusion can be determined for that rule,
based solely on the truth of the premises. Example: "When it rains, things outside get wet. The grass
is outside, therefore: when it rains, the grass gets wet." Mathematical logic and philosophical logic
are commonly associated with this type of reasoning.
 Inductive reasoning attempts to support a determination of the rule. It hypothesizes a rule after
numerous examples are taken to be a conclusion that follows from a precondition in terms of such a
rule. Example: "The grass got wet numerous times when it rained, therefore: the grass always gets
wet when it rains." While they may be persuasive, these arguments are not deductively valid, see
the problem of induction. Science is associated with this type of reasoning.
 Abductive reasoning, a.k.a. inference to the best explanation, selects a cogent set of preconditions.
Given a true conclusion and a rule, it attempts to select some possible premises that, if true also, can
support the conclusion, though not uniquely. Example: "When it rains, the grass gets wet. The grass
is wet. Therefore, it might have rained." This kind of reasoning can be used to develop a hypothesis,
which in turn can be tested by additional reasoning or data. Diagnosticians, detectives, and scientists
often use this type of reasoning.
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Critical Thinking through Socratic Questioning
centre@kpu.ca 1of 2 Learning Aid
Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is defined as the process we use to reflect on, access and judge the assumptions underlying
our own and others ideas and actions. This includes: “the thinker’s dispositions and orientations; a range of
specific analytical, evaluative, and problem-solving skills; contextual influences; use of multiple perspectives;
awareness of one’s own assumptions; capacities for metacognition; or a specific set of thinking processes or
tasks” (Stassen, et al, 2011).
Socratic Questioning
Socratic questioning is learning-centered approach that challenges a person to develop their critical thinking
skills and engage in analytic discussion which leads to independent learning and thinking. This form of
questioning can be used to explore ideas, to get to the root of things, to uncover assumptions, and to analyze
complex concepts. This type of questioning usually focuses on fundamental concepts, principles, theories,
issues or problems.
Socratic questioning is at the heart of critical thinking and the following questions can be used by tutors to
help
draw information from their tutees. These are adapted from R.W. Paul's six types of Socratic questions:
1. Questions for clarification: Why do you say that?
What do you mean by…?
How does this relate to our discussion?
2. Questions that probe assumptions: What could we assume instead?
How can you verify or disapprove that assumption?
On what basis do we think this way?
3. Questions that probe reasons and
evidence:
What would be an example?
What is....analogous to?
What do you think causes to happen...? Why?
4. Questions about Viewpoints and
Perspectives:
What would be an alternative?
What is another way to look at it?
Why is the best?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of...?
How are...and ...similar?
What is a counterargument for...?
5. Questions that probe implications and
consequences:
What generalizations can you make?
What are the consequences of that assumption?
What are you implying?
How does...affect...?
How does...tie in with what we learned before?
6. Questions about the question: What was the point of this question?
Why do you ask this question?
What does...mean?
How does...apply to everyday life?
Critical Thinking through Socratic Questioning

You can use Socratic questioning to:
1. probe your thinking which helps you begin to distinguish what you know or understand from what you
do not know or understand.
2. foster your abilities to ask Socratic questions for yourself and others, so that you can use these tools to
critically question situations. The more you practise them the more you will further your learning.
This tool focuses on open-ended questions with the goal of bringing a person to realize an answer for
themselves. It avoids giving an answer without giving any tools for solving the next questions. As you ask
questions, if you are not finding the answer, ask a different question or ask your question in a different way.
Socratic Questioning Activity:
Frame and then answer a series of questions from your subject area, using Socratic questioning.
Clarity
Assumptions
Evidence
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Perspectives
Implications
Questions about Questions
Teaching students to Ask Questions

When you prepare for class, office hours, and help sessions, compose specific questions that you will ask
your students (or that you anticipate they will ask you). Doing so will help you increase student
participation and encourage active learning. The strategies below will also help you formulate questions for
exams and paper assignments.
Active learning extends beyond the classroom. When you ask questions in the classroom, you are modeling
a process that students can and should use themselves; encourage your students to use the following
questioning strategies to assess what they have learned, to develop their thinking skills, and to study for
exams.
General Strategies for Asking Questions

 When planning questions, keep in mind your course goals. For example, do you want students to
master core concepts? To develop their critical thinking skills? The questions you ask should help
them practice these skills, as well as communicate to them the facts, ideas, and ways of thinking that
are important to their learning in your course. (For more information about course goals, see
Designing a Course).
 Avoid asking “leading questions.” A leading question is phrased in such a way that it suggests its own
answer and therefore discourages students from thinking on their own.
 Follow a “yes-or- no” question with an additional question. For example, follow up by asking
students to explain why they answered the way they did, to provide evidence or an example, or to
respond to a yes-or-no answer given by another student.
 Aim for direct, clear, specific questions. During class discussions, rather than beginning with a single
question that is multilayered and complex, use a sequence of questions to build depth and
complexity. Essay questions on exams or paper assignments, on other hand, often provide an
appropriate opportunity to ask multi-layered questions. If your exam will include multi-layered
questions, use questions during class time to walk students through the process of answering multi-
layered questions.
In class discussions, do not ask more than one question at once. When you ask more than one question,
students often do not respond because they are unsure which question you want them to answer.
When you plan each class session, include notes of when you will pause to ask and answer questions.
Asking questions throughout the class will not only make the class more interactive, but also help you
measure and improve student learning. Do not save the last two minutes of class for questions. Students
are unlikely to ask questions when they know that only a few minutes remain. (See Increasing Student
Participation and Teaching with Lectures.)
Ask a mix of different types of questions. You should use “closed” questions, or questions that have a
limited number of correct answers, to test students’ comprehension and retention of important
information. You should also ask managerial questions to ensure, for example, that your students
understand an assignment or have access to necessary materials. “Open” questions, which prompt multiple
and sometimes conflicting answers, are often the most effective in encouraging discussion and active
learning in the classroom. For examples of “open” questions and the purposes they can serve, see below.
Responding Effectively
Wait for students to think and formulate responses. Waiting 5-10 seconds will increase the number of
students who volunteer to answer and will lead to longer, more complex answers. If students do not
volunteer before 5 seconds have passed, refrain from answering your own question, which will only
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communicate to students that if they do not answer, you will do their thinking for them. If the students are
unable to answer after sufficient time for thinking has passed, rephrase the question.
Do not interrupt students’ answers. You may find yourself wanting to interrupt because you think you know
what the student is going to say, or simply because you are passionate about the material. Resist this
temptation. Hearing the students’ full responses will allow you to give them credit for their ideas and to
determine when they have not yet understood the material.
Show that you are interested in students’ answers, whether right or wrong. Encourage students when they
are offering answers by nodding, looking at them, and using facial expressions that show you are listening
and engaged. Do not look down at your notes while they are speaking.
Develop responses that keep students thinking. For example, ask the rest of the class to respond to an idea
that one student has just presented, or ask the student who answered to explain the thinking that led to her
answer.
If a student gives an incorrect or weak answer, point out what is incorrect or weak about the answer, but
ask the student a follow-up question that will lead that student, and the class, to the correct or stronger
answer. For example, note that the student’s answer overlooks the most important conclusion of the study
you are discussing, then ask that same student to try to recall what that conclusion is. If he or she does not
recall the conclusion, open this question up to the class.
Why Ask “Open” Questions? Twelve Objectives, with

Sample Questions
1. To assess learning.
 What is the most important idea that was generated in today’s discussion?
 Can you explain this concept in your own words?
 Can you draw a diagram to illustrate this idea?
2. To ask a student to clarify a vague comment.
 Could you elaborate on that point?

 Can you explain what you mean?
3. To prompt students to explore attitudes, values, or feelings (when appropriate).
 What are the values or beliefs that inform this argument?

 What is your initial reaction to this argument?
4. To prompt students to see a concept from another perspective.
 How do you think that this issue is viewed by those with whom you disagree?
 How does that concept apply to this new problem?
5. To ask a student to refine a statement or idea.
When does that principle apply? Always?Only under certain conditions?

Would you say, then, that you disagree with the author?
6. To prompt students to support their assertions and interpretations.
 How do you know that?

 Which part of the text led you to that conclusion?
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7. To direct students to respond to one another.
 What do you think about the idea just presented by your classmate?
 Do you agree or do you see the issue differently? Explain.
 Can you think of another way to solve that problem?
8. To prompt students to investigate a thought process.
 What are the assumptions that informed the design of this experiment?
 What are the assumptions that these two arguments share?
9. To ask students to predict possible outcomes.
 What might happen if this practice were to be outlawed?

 What would be the result if a different set of assumptions were used to set up this experiment?
 Would you get a different result?
10. To prompt students to connect and organize information.
 How does this article shed light on the concept we studied last week?
 Can you develop a graph or table that organizes this information in a helpful way?
11. To ask students to apply a principle or formula.
 How does this principle apply to the following situation?

 Who can suggest how we might use this new formula to solve the problems we examined at the
start of class today?
 Under what conditions is this equation not valid?
12. To ask students to illustrate a concept with an example.
 Can you think of an example of this phenomenon, drawn from your research?
 Can you point us to a specific part of the novel that led you to that conclusion?
Can you identify a painting or design that exemplifies that idea?
Use Bloom’s Taxonomy

Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (1956) provides another useful way to think about
when and how to use questions in teaching. As the following table shows, Bloom identified six types of
cognitive processes and ordered these according to the level of complexity involved. Ideally, you should
combine questions that require “lower-order thinking” (often “closed” questions) to assess students’
knowledge and comprehension with questions that require “higher-order thinking” (often “open”
questions) to assess students’ abilities to apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate.
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Teaching students to narrate and analyses points

the critical evaluation of ideas, arguments, and points of view is important for the development of students
as autonomous thinkers (1, 2). It is only through this critical evaluation that students can distinguish among
competing claims for truth and determine which arguments and points of views they can trust and those of
which they should be skeptical. This work lays the foundation for students’ progressing to staking their own
claims in an intellectually rigorous fashion. Learning how to analyze and critically evaluate arguments thus
helps them to develop a sound framework to test their own arguments and advance their own points of
view.
Objective 11 reflects an important component of the educational process – training students in the habits of thought
in our disciplines. IDEA research has found that it is related to Objectives #6 through #10 and Objective #12, which all
address activities at the upper levels of cognitive taxonomies, activities requiring application and frequent synthesis
and evaluation of ideas and events (3). Active processing is critical to our students’ long-term retention of ideas and
concepts and their ability to transfer those ideas and concepts to other contexts (4).
There is a link between this objective and developing deeper understandings of the self and the world. By
encouraging our students to adopt a critical framework, we prepare them not only to engage in scholarly
conversation and debate in our disciplines, but also to be engaged citizens in a democratic society. As
Patricia King points out,
a student who appreciates why people approach controversial issues in her discipline from different
perspectives is more likely to see and appreciate the reasons people approach social controversies from
different perspectives.
Helpful Hints
Teaching students “how to think” may begin by alerting them to the kinds of questions and problems that
interest scholars or professionals in your field. So you may consider organizing your courses around such
questions and problems to stimulate your students’ intellectual interest. Rather than simply presenting
information, be explicit with your students about how you approach such questions, defining critical
thinking in your field and modeling disciplinary ways of thought. Engage students in activities that require
sophisticated thinking and design assessments that call on students to demonstrate thinking skills. Below,
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we provide specific ideas for how to teach students to analyze and critically evaluate ideas and assess their
abilities to do so. These activities and assessments require students to identify assumptions, weigh
competing evidence, make decisions, imagine alternatives, and build arguments.
John Bean writes that once professors decide to focus on developing critical thinking skills, “much of their
classroom preparation time shifts from planning and preparing lectures to planning and preparing critical
thinking problems for students to wrestle with” (6, p. 122). Below, we suggest a series of what he might call
“critical thinking tasks” that give students practice—and the opportunity to receive feedback on—analyzing
and critically evaluating ideas, arguments, and points of view.
 In humanities and social science courses, keep the reading load manageable and model for students how to
read critically and to evaluate arguments in your field (see IDEA Paper #40 Getting Students to Read: Fourteen
Tips [PDF]).
 In math, sciences, and engineering courses, encourage students participating in study groups not only to share
ideas for solving problems but also to provide reasons for the problem solving ideas they advance.
 Have students respond to an editorial in a newspaper or to a review essay in a scholarly journal. For that
response, ask students to identify unstated assumptions, biases, and points of views and show how they
undermine the argument the author is making.
 Teach students to use a pro and con grid to analyze ideas and points of view (7, see pages 168-171).
 Take time in science and engineering classes to explore the ethical considerations of research questions and
experimental design.
 In organized class debates, ask students to argue for a point of view counter to their own.
 Give students “ill-structured problems” in class to work through. Such problems have no known answer or
solution and cannot be solved with formal rules of logic or mathematical formulas. Ask students to come up
with multiple solutions for each problem and rank the viability of each solution.
 Teach students the “believing and doubting game” (Elbow, cited in 6, p.142), which asks them to be both
sympathetic and skeptical readers.
 Help students develop strategies for systematically gathering data according to methodologies in your
discipline, assessing the quality and relevance of the data, evaluating sources, and interpreting the data (5, p.
24).
 Encourage students to enter into dialogue with the sources they read; encourage them to ask questions, give
assent, or protest in the margins of what they read.
 Train students to identify the author’s audience and purpose when they read.
 Encourage students to engage their critical reasoning skills outside of the classroom (5, p. 24).
 View and of others

The way we look at ourselves plays an important role in how we see the world. The way we see the world
plays an important role in how we see ourselves. In this sense, our view of self and others is an ever-
changing circle of influence. We know that those who are happy see more positive aspects of the world
than those who are depressed. We also know that living in an abusive household or an overly restrictive
environment can both lead to depression. This section will explore the social areas of attribution (how we
interpret those around us) and attraction (what we seek in a friend or partner).
Attribution Theory
We tend to explain our own behavior and the behavior of others by assigning attributes to these
behavior. An attribute is an inference about the cause of a behavior. According to the Attribution Theory,
we tend to explain our own behavior and the behavior of others by assigning attributes to these behavior.
There are basically two sources for our behavior; those influenced by Situational (external) factors and
those influenced by Dispositional (internal) factors. Imagine walking into your boss’s office and he
immediately tells you, in an angry tone, not to bother him. An external explanation of this behavior might
be, “He’s really a nice guy but the stress is overwhelming. He needs a vacation.” On the other hand, you
might see the same behavior and say, “What a jerk, I don’t know why is is so angry all the time.” The same
behavior is given two very opposite explanations.
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Many factors play a role in how we assign attributes to behaviors. Obviously our view of the world, our
previous experience with a particular person or situation, and our knowledge of the behavior play an
important role. Other factors can influence our interpretation as well, and there are two important errors
or mistakes we tend make when assigning these attributes.
1. Fundamental Attribution Error. This refers to the tendency to over estimate the internal and
underestimate the external factors when explaining the behaviors of others. This may be a result of our
tendency to pay more attention to the situation rather than to the individual (Heider, 1958) and is especially
true when we know little about the other person. For example, the last time you were driving and got cut
off did you say to yourself “What an idiot” (or something similar), or did you say “She must be having a
rough day.” Chances are that this behavior was assigned mostly internal attributes and you didn’t give a
second thought to what external factors are playing a role in her driving behavior.
2. Self-Serving Bias. We tend to equate successes to internal and failures to external attributes (Miller &
Ross, 1975). Imagine getting a promotion. Most of us will feel that this success is due to hard work,
intelligence, dedication, and similar internal factors. But if you are fired, well obviously your boss wouldn’t
know a good thing if it were staring her in the face. This bias is true for most people, but for those who are
depressed, have low self-esteem, or view themselves negatively, the bias is typically opposite. For these
people, a success may mean that a multitude of negatives have been overlooked or that luck was the
primary reason. For failures, the depressed individual will likely see their own negative qualities, such as
stupidity, as being the primary factor.
Attraction
Why are we attracted to certain people and not others? Why do our friends tend to be very similar to each
other? And what causes us to decide on a mate? Many of these questions relate to social psychology in
that society’s influence and our own beliefs and traits play an important role. Research has found five
reasons why we choose our friends.:
Proximity – The vast majority of our friends live close to where we live, or at least where we lived during the
time period the friendship developed (Nahemow& Lawton, 1975). Obviously friendships develop after
getting to know someone, and this closeness provides the easiest way to accomplish this goal. Having
assigned seats in a class or group setting would result in more friends who’s last name started with the
same letter as yours (Segal, 1974).
Association – We tend to associate our opinions about other people with our current state. In other words,
if you meet someone during a class you really enjoy, they may get more ‘likeability points’ then if you met
them during that class you can’t stand.
Similarity – On the other hand, imagine that person above agrees with you this particular class is the worse
they have taken. The agreement or similarity between the two of you would likely result in more
attractiveness (Neimeyer& Mitchell, 1988)
Reciprocal Liking – Simply put, we tend to like those better who also like us back. This may be a result of
the feeling we get about ourselves knowing that we are likable. When we feel good when we are around
somebody, we tend to report a higher level of attraction toward that person (Forgas, 1992; Zajonc&
McIntosh, 1992)
Physical Attractiveness – Physical attraction plays a role in who we choose as friends, although not as much
so as in who we choose as a mate. Nonetheless, we tend to choose people who we believe to be attractive
and who are close to how we see our own physical attractiveness.
This last statement brings up an important factor in how we determine our friends and partner. Ever
wonder why very attractive people tend to ‘hang around’ other very attractive people? Or why wealthy
men seem to end up with physically attractive, perhaps even much younger, women? There is some truth
to these stereotypical scenarios because we tend to assign “social assets” or “attraction points” to everyone
we meet.
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These points are divided into categories such as physical attractiveness, sense of humor, education, and
wealth. If we view education as very important, we may assign more points to this category making it more
likely that our friends or our mate will have more education. If we view wealth as more important then we
will be more likely to find a mate who has more money.
Open and close ended questions

These are two types of questions you can use that are very different in character and usage.
Closed questions
Definition
There are two definitions that are used to describe closed questions. A common definition is:
A closed question can be answered with either a single word or a short phrase.
Thus 'How old are you?' and 'Where do you live?' are closed questions. A more limiting definition that is
sometimes used is:
A closed question can be answered with either 'yes' or 'no'.
By this definition 'Are you happy?' and 'Is that a knife I see before me?' are closed questions, whilst 'What
time is it?' and 'How old are you?' are not. This causes a problem of how to classify the short-answer non-
yes-or-no questions, which do not fit well with the definition for open questions. A way of handling this is to
define 'yes-no' as a sub-class of the short-answer closed question.
Using closed questions
Closed questions have the following characteristics:
 They give you facts.

 They are easy to answer.
 They are quick to answer.
 They keep control of the conversation with the questioner.
This makes closed questions useful in the following situations:
Usage Example
As opening questions in a conversation, as it It's great weather, isn't it?
makes it easy for the other person to answer,
and doesn't force them to reveal too much Where do you live?
about themselves.
What time is it?
For testing their understanding (asking yes/no So, you want to move into our apartment, with
questions). This is also a great way to break your own bedroom and bathroom -- true?
into a long ramble.
For setting up a desired positive or negative Are you happy with your current supplier?
frame of mind in them (asking successive
questions with obvious answers either yes or Do they give you all that you need?
no ).
Would you like to find a better supplier?
For achieving closure of a persuasion (seeking If I can deliver this tomorrow, will you sign for it
yes to the big question). now?
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Note how you can turn any opinion into a closed question that forces a yes or no by adding tag questions,
such as "isn't it?", "don't you?" or "can't they?", to any statement.
The first word of a question sets up the dynamic of the closed question and signals the easy answer ahead.
Note how these are words like: do, would, are, will, if.
Open questions
Definition
An open question can be defined thus:
An open question is likely to receive a long answer.
Although any question can receive a long answer, open questions deliberately seek longer answers, and are
the opposite of closed questions.
Using open questions
Open questions have the following characteristics:
 They ask the respondent to think and reflect.

 They will give you opinions and feelings.
 They hand control of the conversation to the respondent.
This makes open questions useful in the following situations:
Usage Example
As a follow-on from closed questions, to What did you do on you holidays?
develop a conversation and open up someone
who is rather quiet. How do you keep focused on your work?
To find out more about a person, their wants, What's keeping you awake these days?
needs, problems, and so on.
Why is that so important to you?
To get people to realize the extend of their I wonder what would happen if your customers
problems (to which, of course, you have the complained even more?
solution).
Rob Jones used to go out late. What happened
to him?
To get them to feel good about you by asking How have you been after your operation?
after their health or otherwise demonstrating
human concern about them. You're looking down. What's up?
Open questions begin with such as: what, why, how, describe.
Using open questions can be scary, as they seem to hand the baton of control over to the other person.
However, well-placed questions do leave you in control as you steer their interest and engage them where
you want them.
When opening conversations, a good balance is around three closed questions to one open question. The
closed questions start the conversation and summarize progress, whilst the open question gets the other
person thinking and continuing to give you useful information about them.
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A neat trick is to get them to ask you open questions. This then gives you the floor to talk about what you
want. The way to achieve this is to intrigue them with an incomplete story or benefit.
Critical thinking and applications

Critical thinking is an important skill that moves a student from concrete ideas to abstract and inferred concepts. Critical
thinking allows us to analyze outcomes, compare ideas, identify parallels, sequence events, synthesize information and
draw conclusions from a given body of knowledge.
Students can try the following five tools students to develop the critical thinking skills necessary for success:
1. Brain Games
2. Logic Puzzles
3. Board Games
4. Journaling
5. Book Clubs
Primary vs Secondary Sources
What is a Primary Source?

Primary sources are original records of specific historical periods. Primary sources are produced
by people who participated in and witnessed the past.
Primary sources offer a variety of points of view and perspectives of events, issues, people, and
places. Primary sources are created by someone with firsthand experience of an event.
Examples of Primary Sources

Primary sources are not just documents and written records.
There are many different kinds of primary sources, including: first-person accounts, documents,
physical artefacts, scientific data that has been collected but not interpreted, and face-to-face
mentors with specific knowledge or expertise.
Primary sources also take a variety of formats such as:

- Audio - oral histories or memoirs, interviews, music Images—photographs, videos, film, fine
art
-Objects - clothing (fashion or uniforms), tools, pottery, gravestones, inventions, weapons,
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memorabilia - Statistics - census data, population statistics, weather records
- Text - letters, diaries, original documents, legal agreements, treaties, maps, laws,
advertisements, recipes, genealogical information, sermons/lectures
How do Primary and Secondary Sources differ?

While primary sources are the original records created by firsthand witnesses of an event,
secondary sources are documents, texts, images, and objects about an event created by
someone who typically referenced the primary sources for their information. Textbooks are
excellent examples of secondary sources.
Why is it important for students to use Primary

Sources?
1. Direct engagement with artifacts and records of the past encourages deeper content
exploration, active analysis, and thoughtful response.
2. Analysis of primary sources helps students develop critical thinking skills by examining
meaning, context, bias, purpose, point of view, etc.
3. Primary source analysis fosters learner-led inquiry as students construct knowledge by
interacting with a variety of sources that represent different accounts of the past.
4. Students realize that history exists through interpretation that reflects the view points and
biases of those doing the interpreting. Sources: National Archives and Records Administration,
www.archives.gov
Primary and Secondary Sources (Teacher Background Notes)
In their study of Canadian history in Grade 5, students have been introduced to the
concept of primary and secondary sources, and have used both types of sources in
their research. Students will continue to consult primary and secondary sources in
Grade 6, and will learn to distinguish between various examples of each. They will
also enrich their interpretive skills and their critical thinking about both primary
and secondary sources.
A primary source is anything that has survived from events in the past, and
that tells us something about those events. Due to the fact that primary sources
were created when the events were happening, or just afterward, they are usually
more useful to historians than secondary sources.
Primary sources in electronic format are still primary sources. They record the
words, images, or objects that were created by the people who were there.
A secondary source is any image or description of an event or place that has
been made at some time after the events, usually by someone who was not there.
© Library and Archives Canada.Reproduced with permission from the Library and
Archives Canada website <www.collectionscanada.ca/index-e.html>.
Encourage students to think of a variety of types of sources of historical
information when they are conducting historical research. Some examples of
primary sources may include written materials such as letters, reports and books of
that period, diaries and journals, government documents, cookbooks, literature, and
poetry; visual media such as pictures, maps, photographs, art, and statues of that
time; objects and artifacts of that time, including clothing, tools, household items,
architecture, and other constructions; original stories from the oral tradition of
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that time; and songs, music, and dance from that time.
Some examples of secondary sources may include textbooks, encyclopedias,
websites, pieces of art, literature, music, or dance created later to represent life
in that time period.
Teachers may wish to caution students that, although primary sources may give a
more complete picture of life in another historical period, they may also be subject
to error or misinterpretation. Written accounts from primary sources often include
opinions, attitudes, words, and values that reflect the biases of a particular group
living in a particular time. Primary sources are not free of bias or errors. Encourage
students to think critically about any source they consult in their historical
inquiries
Introduction to reflection
Reflective teaching means looking at what you do in the classroom, thinking about why you do it,
and thinking about if it works - a process of self-observation and self-evaluation
By collecting information about what goes on in our classroom, and by analysing and
evaluating this information, we identify and explore our own practices and underlying
beliefs. This may then lead to changes and improvements in our teaching.
Reflective teaching is therefore a means of professional development which begins in our

classroom.
 Why it is important
 Beginning the process of reflection

o Teacher diary
o Peer observation
o Recording lessons
o Student feedback
 What to do next
o Think
o Talk
o Read
o Ask
 Conclusion
Why it is important
Many teachers already think about their teaching and talk to colleagues about it too. You
might think or tell someone that "My lesson went well" or "My students didn't seem to
understand" or "My students were so badly behaved today."
However, without more time spent focussing on or discussing what has happened, we may
tend to jump to conclusions about why things are happening. We may only notice reactions
of the louder students. Reflective teaching therefore implies a more systematic process of
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collecting, recording and analysing our thoughts and observations, as well as those of our
students, and then going on to making changes.
 If a lesson went well we can describe it and think about why it was successful.
 If the students didn't understand a language point we introduced we need to think

about what we did and why it may have been unclear.
 If students are misbehaving - what were they doing, when and why?
Beginning the process of reflection

You may begin a process of reflection in response to a particular problem that has arisen
with one or your classes, or simply as a way of finding out more about your teaching. You
may decide to focus on a particular class of students, or to look at a feature of your teaching
- for example how you deal with incidents of misbehavior or how you can encourage your
students to speak more English in class.
The first step is to gather information about what happens in the class. Here are some
different ways of doing this.
Teacher diary
This is the easiest way to begin a process of reflection since it is purely personal. After each
lesson you write in a notebook about what happened. You may also describe your own
reactions and feelings and those you observed on the part of the students. You are likely to
begin to pose questions about what you have observed. Diary writing does require a certain
discipline in taking the time to do it on a regular basis.
Here are some suggestions for areas to focus on to help you start your diary.
Download diary suggestions 51k
Peer observation
Invite a colleague to come into your class to collect information about your lesson. This may
be with a simple observation task or through note taking. This will relate back to the area
you have identified to reflect upon. For example, you might ask your colleague to focus on
which students contribute most in the lesson, what different patterns of interaction occur or
how you deal with errors.
Recording lessons
Video or audio recordings of lessons can provide very useful information for reflection. You
may do things in class you are not aware of or there may be things happening in the class
that as the teacher you do not normally see.
 Audio recordings can be useful for considering aspects of teacher talk.

o How much do you talk?
o What about?
o Are instructions and explanations clear?
o How much time do you allocate to student talk?
o How do you respond to student talk?
 Video recordings can be useful in showing you aspects of your own behaviour.
o Where do you stand?
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o Who do you speak to?
o How do you come across to the students?
Student feedback
You can also ask your students what they think about what goes on in the classroom. Their
opinions and perceptions can add a different and valuable perspective. This can be done
with simple uestionnaires or learning diaries for example.
What to do next
Once you have some information recorded about what goes on in your classroom, what do
you do?
 Think
You may have noticed patterns occurring in your teaching through your observation.
You may also have noticed things that you were previously unaware of. You may have
been surprised by some of your students' feedback. You may already have ideas for
changes to implement.
 Talk
Just by talking about what you have discovered - to a supportive colleague or even a
friend - you may be able to come up with some ideas for how to do things differently.
o If you have colleagues who also wish to develop their teaching using reflection
as a tool, you can meet to discuss issues. Discussion can be based around
scenarios from your own classes.
o Using a list of statements about teaching beliefs (for example, pairwork is a
valuable activity in the language class or lexis is more important than grammar)
you can discuss which ones you agree or disagree with, and which ones are
reflected in your own teaching giving evidence from your self-observation.
 Read
You may decide that you need to find out more about a certain area. There are plenty
of websites for teachers of English now where you can find useful teaching ideas, or
more academic articles. There are also magazines for teachers where you can find
articles on a wide range of topics. Or if you have access to a library or bookshop, there
are plenty of books for English language teachers.
 Ask
Pose questions to websites or magazines to get ideas from other teachers. Or if you
have a local teachers' association or other opportunities for in-service training, ask for
a session on an area that interests you.
Conclusion
Reflective teaching is a cyclical process, because once you start to implement changes, then
the reflective and evaluative cycle begins again.
 What are you doing?
 Why are you doing it?
 How effective is it?
 How are the students responding?

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 How can you do it better?
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The importance of ‘reflection’ for teachers

The importance of ‘reflection’ for teachers
1. 1. 1 Ronglin Yao The importance of ‘reflection’ for teachers Reflection is a very important practice for
teachers as it relates to whether teachers can continue to move forward, and whether teachers can
improve teaching practice so as to become good teachers. But in the end, reflection ‘is in our own
best interests’ (Brookfield, 1995, p.22). Brookfield (1995) gives us six reasons in answering the
importance of ‘reflection’ for teachers: 1. It helps us take informed actions. For example, when are
questioned as to why we are doing something, we can show how our action springs form certain
assumptions we hold about teaching and learning, and then make a convincing case for their
accuracy by laying out the evidence that undergirds them (Brookfield, 1995, p.22f). This is true for
those teachers who constantly reflect their teaching beliefs / assumptions and practice. Such
teachers can have their teaching beliefs / assumptions and practice firmly grounded in a clearly
understood rationale. They can justify their teaching beliefs / assumptions and practice when
needed. So this prompts Brookfield to claim his 2nd reason for the importance of teacher reflection:
2. It helps us develop a rationale for practice. Brookfield (1995) provides us such explanation: A
rational for practice serves as a methodological and ethical touchstone. It provides a foundational
reference point—a set of continually tested beliefs that we can consult as a guide to how we should
act in unpredictable situations (p.23).
2. 2 3. It helps us avoid ‘traps of demoralization and self-laceration’ (Brookfield, 1995, p.2). As teachers
often encounter various problems in classroom teaching, for example, despite our best effort, students
show resistance in learning or become uncooperative / disruptive in the classrooms, or when dropout
happens, quite often ‘we tend to accept the blame for problems that are not of our own making’
(Brookfield, 1995, p.2). Another situation is, ‘We become depressed when ways of behaving toward
students and colleagues that we think are democratic and respectful are interpreted as aloof or
manipulative.’ But chances are that it is due to social, emotional, cultural, and economic pressures entirely
beyond our control (Brookfield, 1995, p.2 & p.180f). If we are critically reflective, we can avoid all these
‘traps of demoralization and self-laceration’. 4. It grounds us emotionally. Teachers can be caught in
emotional roller coaster where every action either confirms our brilliance or underscores our failure. Either
we withdraw from the classroom or we are forced to suppress the emotional content of our daily
experiences. If we have the habit of critical reflection, it can ground us emotionally (Brookfield, 1995, pp.24-
25ff). 5. It enlivens our classroom. Osterman (1990) comments.
2. that critically reflective teachers are more likely to have classes that are challenging, interesting, and
stimulating for students (cited in Brookfield, 1995, p.25f) as they ‘turn the classroom into a
laboratory for purposeful experimentation’ (Brookfield, 1995, p.264). 6. It increases democratic
trust. If we adopt a reflective practice, we will know that something about the effects we are having
on students. A teacher who takes students seriously and treats them as adults shows that she / he
can be trusted (Brookfield, 1995, pp.25-26ff).
3. 3. 3 From Brookfield’s stated reasons, we can clearly see the importance of reflection for teachers. If
we use reflection as part of our professional life, it can make us a lot easier in our classroom
teaching. Having mentioned Brookfield’s six important reasons for teacher reflection, I shall now
move into other areas that are very important for teacher reflection. What I considered important in
teacher reflection is that it can give us an opportunity to inquire into ourselves, our students and our
own teaching practice. Teachers who have a deep respect for the power of chance to reflect can
know that much of what occurs can not be predicted. But they know that they are not victims of
fate. They can make adjustments in their teaching practice so they do not feel out of control
(Bradfield, 1995, p.264f). This is the very reason why reflection is important for the teaching
professionals. The importance of teacher reflection can extend to curriculum construction / program
design, implementation and evaluation since teachers are often involved in such process. By
reflecting on such process, we can identify some issues relating to curriculum construction / program
design, implementation and evaluation, and find solutions to the issues. In this regard, teacher
reflection is vital for the success of the curriculum construction / program design, implementation
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and evaluation. Alongside the important part teacher reflection plays in curriculum construction /
program design, implementation and evaluation, the importance of teacher reflection also relates to
our own teaching practice, specifically our unit plan, lesson plan,
4. 4. 4 teaching methodologies, classroom management, assessment and reporting. Through reflecting
our own teaching practice in these areas, new teachers can survive in the classroom; in-service
teachers can further improve teaching practice. Thus, it is evident that reflection is important for the
teachers concerned. Pollard (2002) echoed that teacher reflection supports the development and
maintenance of professional expertise (p.4f). Furthermore, through reflection, teachers can be more
aware of students’ perceptions of good teachers. For example, students think that a good teacher
should be one who:  helps you with your work;  explains well so we can understand;  is friendly,
easy to get on with, doesn’t yell at you;  make lessons interesting and enjoyable;  cares about you,
always ready to listen to you, understands us;  has a sense of humour, will have a laugh with you; 
controls the class (Batten, 1993, pp.16-17) The afore-mentioned students’ perceptions of good
teachers can serve as a mirror through that we can find out how good we are as teachers. This can
only be possibly checked out through teachers’ reflection. As such, it is important for teachers to
have a reflective practice. Likewise, the importance of teacher reflection can also be seen as a way to
improve teaching.
5. 5. 5 Batten (1993) lists students’ comments on good teaching as:  explains clearly so you
understand, shows you how to do things  helps with our work  caring, relates to students,
understands what we say  controls the class well, doesn’t yell  makes the work interesting and
enjoyable  can joke around, combines humour with learning  doesn’t rush us or force us, can work
in my own way  we learn a lot  knows what s/he’s talking about  fair, straightforward (p.28) Here
we can use Batten’s list to find out if our teaching meets students’ expectations and if a good
teaching has been realised. Again, this relies on our own reflection. From this aspect, we can see the
importance of teacher reflection. More importantly, teacher reflection can lead toward a successful
teaching. We can reflect by checking against the following comments made by in-service teachers in
Batten, Marland, and Khamis’ (1993) research findings in terms of successful teaching: 1. ‘It’s
motivation basically in that the kids are enjoying what they’re doing’ 2. ‘Having a comfortable
environment where discussions can develop and the students feel that they can get involved and
have some sort of ownership of what is being discussed’ 3. ‘Monitoring of what’s happening and
basically keeping everyone on track’ 4. ‘Classroom management’
6. 6. 6 5. ‘Almost getting towards the discipline element’ 6. ‘Feeling comfortable in the class…I think it’s
very important for them to see you as a human being and for you to treat them as such, and then
I’ve found discipline is never a problem’ (pp.82-84) Using these comments on successful teaching for
our own reflection, we can be aware of what successful teaching meant to be. This again proves the
importance of teacher reflection. All in all, reflection is an important component in our professional
life. Through reflection, we can continue to learn from experience and grow as teachers; we can
enhance our teaching and become good teachers which will, in the end, support student learning in
the best possible ways. References Batten, M. (1993). Knowing how to teach well: Teachers reflect
on their classroom practice. In ACER Research Monograph, VOL.41-44, No. 44, Students’ perceptions
of effective teaching (pp.16-17). Hawthorn, Victoria: The Australian Council for Educational Research
Ltd. Batten, M. (1993). Knowing how to teach well: Teachers reflect on their classroom practice. In
ACER Research Monograph, VOL.41-44, No. 44, Exploring teachers’ professional craft knowledge: The
Victorian study (p.28). Hawthorn, Victoria: The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd.
Batten, M., Marland, P. and Khamis, M. (1993). Knowing how to teach well: Teachers reflect on their
classroom practice. In ACER Research Monograph, VOL.41-44, No. 44, Criteria for successful teaching:
Associated strategies / reasons (pp.82-84). Hawthorn, Victoria: The Australian Council for
Educational Research Ltd. Brookfield, S.D. (1995). Becoming a critically reflective teacher (p.2, pp.22-
26, p.180 and p.264). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Pollard, A. (2002). Reflective teaching:
Effective and evidence-informed professional practice (p.4). London: Continuum.
Teacher Reflection
Teachers spend a lot of time focusing on many aspects of teaching including:
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 Developing Unit and Daily Lesson Plans
 Daily Preparation of Materials
 Daily Housekeeping Tasks
 Classroom Management Strategies
 Delivering Lessons to Students
 Grading Assignments
However, there is another aspect of teaching which regretfully is often forgotten or pushed aside because of
busy schedules. That is the role of reflection in the building of an effective teaching career.
Having spent so much time preparing for and delivering lessons, it is easy to see why teachers often do not
spend the time looking back over what they've done, how students responded, and what the results of
informal and formal assessments showed about the information that was actually learned. Nonetheless, it
is used by many school districts as part of the teacher evaluations and also plays a part in national
certification. In fact, teacher reflection is a key part of teacher growth and should become a part of every
teacher's career.
Methods of Teacher Reflection
Following are a few ways that teachers can include reflection as part of their own path towards professional
development.
 Daily Reflection - All teachers should take a few moments to debrief on the day's events. Typically,
this won't take but a few moments and over time the information can be quite valuable. Some
teachers keep a daily journal while others simply jot down notes about issues that they had in class.
 Unit Reflection - At the end of a teaching unit, once assessments have all been graded, teachers
should take some time to reflect on the unit as a whole. Questions to consider include:
o Overall which lessons worked and which didn't?
o On which objectives did students struggle the most? Why?
o Which learning objectives seemed the easiest for students? What made those work better?
o Were the end results of the unit what you had expected and hoped for? Why or why not?
Answering these questions can help guide teachers as they decide what they want to keep and what
they want to change the next time they teach the same unit.
 End of Term Reflection - At the end of each term or semester, look back over the student's grades
and refer back to your daily and unit reflection notes. Try and make an overall judgment about
things that are positive and areas that need improvement. If possible, try to come up with one
change that can help as you head into the next term.
 End of Year Reflection - Once the year is completed, go back through your notes and write down
what you are most proud of along with areas that need improvement. You should then move on to
the next part of the process: implementing changes based on what you have learned

 Reflective practice is the ability to reflect on one's actions so as to engage in a process of continuous
learning.[1] According to one definition it involves "paying critical attention to the practical values
and theories which inform everyday actions, by examining practice reflectively and reflexively. This
leads to developmental insight".[2] A key rationale for reflective practice is that experience alone
does not necessarily lead to learning; deliberate reflection on experience is essential.[3][4]
 Reflective practice can be an important tool in practice-based professional learning settings where
people learn from their own professional experiences, rather than from formal learning or
knowledge transfer. It may be the most important source of personal professional development and
improvement. It is also an important way to bring together theory and practice; through reflection a
person is able to see and label forms of thought and theory within the context of his or her work. [5] A
person who reflects throughout his or her practice is not just looking back on past actions and
events, but is taking a conscious look at emotions, experiences, actions, and responses, and using
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that information to add to his or her existing knowledge base and reach a higher level of
understanding.[6]
John Dewey is thought to be the founder of reflection as it relates to personal

learning. Dewey highlighted that reflection in a learning context is not just a passive
recall of an event. Reflection is a deliberate and active process. It is about thinking to
learn. In Dewey’s words it is an “active, persistent and careful consideration of any
belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and
further conclusions to which it leads” (Dewey 1933 pg. 118).
Dewey believed that reflection could be really useful for making sense of situations
or events that we found puzzling or hard to explain. He suggested that reflection for
learning should include recalling the event and then posing questions to explore why
things turned out the way they did and what possible actions could have given a different outcome.
Since Dewey’s initial work a variety of models have been proposed to capture the components of reflection
within learning.
Schön built on Dewey’s work and linked reflection more solidly to professional
development and professional practice. Schön claimed that by using reflection,
practitioners can make explicit, hidden (tacit) knowledge. This knowledge is the
theory that underpins what practitioners do often by instinct. Further, this new
understanding can help practitioners improve their practice and become increasingly
expert at what they do.
Schön identified two types of reflection: reflection on action, which is undertaken

retrospectively, and reflection in action, which is essentially ‘thinking on your feet’.
He also proposed that by repeatedly carrying out the process of ‘reflecting on action’
can help practitioners to build upon previous experiences and scenarios. This leads to the creation an
extensive repertoire of rehearsed interventions. When new or unexpected situations occur in practice, this
repertoire enables the expert practitioner to respond rapidly and instinctively in an appropriate manner.
|Dewey |Sch�n|Kolb |Theory development over time|
Theory
Reflective practice is a fairly new idea, which only really emerged in the early 1980s with Sch�n�s (1983)
notion of �reflection-in-action' and �reflection-on-action�, a concept that built on Dewey�s original
�reflective thought�theory . Since the 1980s ethimportance of professional and self reflective skills has
exposed the valuable side of theory working in practice.
When ��we think and act, questions arise that cannot be

answered in the present. The space afforded by recording
and conversation with [our self and] our peers allows us �
[the] �space in the present and the promise of space in
the future [to reflective]. (Smith 1994, p150)
John Dewey
Originally, "reflective thought" was introduced by John Dewey (1859 - 1952) in 1910 in "How We Think".
The fundamental point of Dewey's work relates to the idea that improved learning arises from the process
of reflection. John Dewey's investigation into thinking and reflection has greatly influenced developed
models by writers such as Donald Sch�n and alike.
(Smith, 1994; Moon, 1999)
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Donald Schon
Donald Sch�n had a major influence in promoting Dewey�s ideas on reflection with the publication of �The
Reflective Practitioner� (1983) and the notion of �reflection
-in-action' (during an action) and �reflection-on-
action� (once the action is completed).
(Smith, 1994; Moon, 1999)
David A. Kolb
David A. Kolb along with Roger Fry, is credited with developing the experimental learning circle, a model
with four elements; concrete experience, observation and reflection, the formation of abstract concepts and
testing new learning. The idea being that the learning process can begin at any one of the four points.
(Smith, 1994; Moon, 1999)
Theory development over time

The process of reflective thinking
Proponent Theme Process
An experience
Spontaneous interpretation of the experience
Naming the problem9s) or the question(s) that arise out of the experience
Dewey (1933) Reflective thinking process
Generating possible explanations for the problem(s) or question(s) posed
Ramifying the explanations into full blown hypotheses
Experimenting or testing the selected hypothese
Reflection-in-action
Ploblematic situations
Sch�n (1987) Reflective thinking approach Frame/reframe the problem
Experiomentation
Review consequences/implementation
Reframing through clarifying questions
Problem summarisation
Pugach and Johnson (1990) A peer collaboration framework
Generation and prediction
Evaluation and reconsideration
Initial Thoughts
Reflecting on the subject and trying to understand
Gagatsis and Patronis (1990) Progression of reflective thinking Discovery and (partial) understanding
Introspection
Full awareness
Observing
reflecting
Gathering data
Elby and Kujawa (1994) A model of reflective thinking Considering moral principles
making judgement
Considering strategies
Action
Problem context/episode
Problem definition/reframing
Seeking possible solution
Lee (2000) Reflective thinking process
Experimentatin
Evaluation
Acceptance/rejection
Presence to experinec
Description of experience
Rodgers (2002) ReorganisingDewey�s phases
Analysis of experience
Intelligent action/experimentation
The Process of Reflection

Getting Started: Methods of Reflection
For both instructors and consultants, the process of reflection (both reflection-in-action and meta-
reflection) can be strengthened with conscious, deliberate attention to the method of observation.
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Observation focuses on concrete, observable phenomena that are specific rather than general, drawing
from sensory experience. Observations focus on what actions and behavior people do rather than on who
they are. When written down, observations rely upon descriptive, concrete language rather than evaluative,
abstract language. Ideally, observations include not only single instances of a particular action or behavior
but patterns and repetitions. (For more on observation, please refer to the CELT Peer Review Handbook.)
Along with observations, another method of reflection is interpretation. Interpretation focuses on the
meaning and significance of what is being observed. Thus, interpretations are grounded in observable
phenomena. Reflective practice requires that instructional consultants make this connection explicit rather
than implicit. For instance, instead of simply offering an interpretation of a behavior (“You were
frustrated”), a reviewer would include observations of actions or behaviors that led to that interpretation
(“You shook your head several times, paced back and forth, and then got very quiet when students did not
stop talking.”)
Recording Reflections: Double entry notes

One helpful way of recording reflections, especially when the instructor or the consultant is simply an
observer, as opposed to a presenter, is by using double-entry notes, a form of note-taking adapted from the
work of Ann E. Berthoff, a specialist in composition studies, for the purposes of instructional consulting.
 Draw a line down the middle of a piece of paper (or if you prefer, one third of the way from one
side).
 At the top of one column, write “Observations.”
 At the top of the other, write “Interpretations.”
 As a participant-observer, try to separate out, in this way, what you observe from how you interpret
it. Later, after the observation is over, fill in other observations and interpretations (see below,
“Reflecting on Reflections").
 Reflection strategies for classroom activities
(Compiled by Professor Diane Sloan, Miami Dade College, and based on the work of Julie Hatcher and
Robert Bringle's "Reflection Activities for the College Classroom": Indiana University-Purdue
University Indianapolis )
 It is clear that the power in learning is in the action of doing the activity. Reflection provides the
same power through the action of articulating thoughts. Reflection is the necessary bridge in the
learning process that takes place when a student is involved in a service-learning experience. There
are the traditional strategies such as writing in journals, reporting orally in front of the class, or
writing an essay describing the experience. The following examples will include and also move ahead
of the tried and true, giving the facilitator a variety of other methods that he/she might like to
incorporate in the classroom.
Personal Journals
2. Dialogue Journals
3. Highlighted Journals
4. Key Phrase Journals
5. Double-entry Journals
6. Critical Incident Journals
7. Three-part Journals
8. Free Association Brainstorming
9. Quotes
10. Quotes in Songs
11. Reflective Essays
12. Directed Writings
13. Experiential Research Paper
14. Service-Learning Contracts and Logs
15. Directed Readings
16. Ethical Case Studies
17. Class Discussion.
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 18. Truth is Stranger than Fiction
19. Student Portfolios
20. It's My Bag
21. It's Your Thing/Express Yourself
22. Small Group Week
23. Email Discussion Groups
24. Class Presentations
 ( A note about reflection journals: a common tendency is for journal entries to become a mere log of
events rather than a reflective activity in which students consider the service experience in the
context of learning objectives. Guidance is needed to help students link personal learning with
course content.)
 1.Personal Journal - Students will write freely about their experience. This is usually done weekly.
These personal journals may be submitted periodically to the instructor, or kept as a reference to
use at the end of the experience when putting together an academic essay reflecting their
experience. (Hatcher 1996)
 2.Dialogue Journal - Students submit loose-leaf pages from a dialogue journal bi-weekly (or
otherwise at appropriate intervals) for the instructor to read and comment on. While labor intensive
for the instructor, this can provide continual feedback to students and prompt new questions for
students to consider during the semester. (Goldsmith, 1995)
 3.Highlighted Journal - Before students submit the reflective journal, they reread personal entries
and, using a highlighter, mark sections of the journal that directly relate to concepts discussed in the
text or in class. This makes it easier for the instructor to identify the student to reflect on their
experience in light of course content. (Gary Hesser, Augsberg College )
 4.Key Phrase Journal - In this type of journal, students are asked to integrate terms and key phrases
within their journal entries. The instructor can provide a list of terms at the beginning of the
semester or for a certain portion of the text. Students could also create their own list of key phrases
to include. Journal entries are written within the framework of the course content and become an
observation of how course content is evident in the service experience. (Hatcher 1996)
 5.Double-entry Journal - When using a double-entry journal, students are asked to write one-page
entries each week: Students describe their personal thoughts and reactions to the service experience
on the left page of the journal, and write about key issues from class discussions or readings on the
right page of the journal. Students then draw arrows indicating relationships between their personal
experiences and course content. This type of journal is a compilation of personal data and a
summary of course content in preparation of a more formal reflection paper at the end of the
semester. (Angelo and Cross 1993)
 6.Critical Incident Journal - This type of journal entry focuses the student on analysis of a particular
event that occurred during the week. By answering one of the following sets of prompts, students
are asked to consider their thoughts and reactions and articulate the action they plan to take in the
future: Describe a significant event that occurred as a part of the service-learning experience. Why
was this significant to you? What underlying issues (societal, interpersonal) surfaced as a result of
this experience? How will this incident influence your future behavior? Another set of questions for a
critical incident journal includes the following prompts: Describe an incident or situation that created
a dilemma for you in terms of what to say or do. What is the first thing you thought of to say or do?
List three other actions you might have taken. Which of the above seems best to you now and why
do you think this is the best response? (Hatcher 1996)
 7.Three-part Journal - Students are asked to divide each page of their journal into thirds, and write
weekly entries during the semester. In the top section, students describe some aspect of the service
experience. In the middle of the page, they are asked to analyze how course content relates to the
service experience. And finally, an application section prompts students to comment on how the
experience and course content can be applied to their personal or professional life. (Bringle 1996)
 8.Free Association Brainstorming - (This reflection session should take place no earlier than the end
of the first 1/3 of the project experience.) Give each student 10-20 "postits" and ask them to write
down all the feelings they had when they first heard about their service-learning requirement. After
they finish the first question, have them write down all of the feelings they had when they
experienced their first "field encounter." After finishing question two completely, have them write
down all of the feelings they are having "right now" regarding their service-learning experience.
Encourage them to write down as many different brainstormed thoughts as possible (one for each
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card). Have three newsprint papers strategically located and taped to the walls around the
classroom. Have one with a large happy face, one with a sad face, and one with a bewildered face.
Ask students to now place their words on the newsprint paper that closest fits their brainstormed
feelings. Then have them stand next to the newsprint that has most of their feelings. This exercise
involves both writing and speaking and is seen as non-threatening in an oral presentation sense.
(Sloan 1996)
 9.Quotes - Using quotes can be a useful way to initiate reflection because there is an ample supply of
them, and they are often brief and inspiring. Here are some quotes as examples you might want to
use:
 "If we do not act, we shall surely be dragged down the long, dark and shameful corridors of
time reserved for those who possess power without compassion, might without morality, and
strength without insight." ---Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
 "I believe that serving and being served are reciprocal and that one cannot really be one
without the other." ---Robert Greenleaf, educator and writer
 "Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world:
indeed, it's the only thing that ever has." ---Margaret Mead
 "Unless you choose to do great things with it, it makes no difference how much you are
rewarded, or how much power you have." ---Oprah Winfrey
 Quotes may be used in a variety of ways. You might give each student a page of quotes and ask them
to pick one that fits his/her feelings about the service-learning project. Then you could ask them to
explain why this quote represents his/her feelings. The best results seem to be when the students
are given the sheet one session before the reflection class. This gives them time to put their thoughts
together. The students could also do it as a one-minute paper that might then be read and explained
to the rest of the class. (Diane Sloan, Miami Dade College )
 10.Quotes in Songs - Ask the students to find a song where the singer uses lyrics that describe what
he/she feels about the service-learning project. Emphasize that it does not need to be a whole song
but a lyric in a song. If they have access to the song, tell them to bring it to play at the end of the
reflection session. Even if they do not have the song, ask them to "say" the lyric that describes their
feelings. This usually proves to be "fun" in a sense that it creates a casual atmosphere and bonds the
group together. Many times others will help by trying to sing it with them. Playing the songs usually
creates a celebratory atmosphere. You might also bring a bag of Hershey's kisses, or something
similar to keep the festive spirit going. (adapted from Prof. Gwen Stewart's song speech, Miami Dade
College )
 11.Reflective Essays - Reflective essays are a more formal example of journal entries. Essay questions
are provided at the beginning of the semester and students are expected to submit two to three
essays during the term. Reflective essays can focus on personal development, academic connections
to the course content, or ideas and recommendations for future action. As with any essay, criteria
can be clearly stated to guide the work of the students. (Chris Koliba, Georgetown University )
 12. Directed Writings - Directed writings ask students to consider the service experience within the
framework of course content. The instructor identifies a section from the textbook or class readings
(i.e., quotes, statistics, concepts) and structures a question for students to answer. For example,
"William Gray has identified five stages of a mentor-protégé relationship. At what stage is your
mentoring relationship with your protégé at this point in the semester? What evidence do you have
to support this statement? In the following weeks, what specific action can you take to facilitate the
development of your mentoring relationship to the next stage on Gray's continuum?" A list of
directed writings can be provided at the beginning of the semester, or given to students as the
semester progresses. Students may also create their own directed writing questions from the text.
Directed writings provide opportunity for application and critical analysis of the course content.
 13.Experiential Research Paper - An experiential research paper, based on Kolb's experiential
learning cycle, is a formal paper that asks students to identify a particular experience at the service
site and analyzes that experience within the broader context in order to make recommendations for
change. Mid-semester, students are asked to identify an underlying social issue they have
encountered at the service site. Students then research the social issue and read three to five articles
on the topic. Based on their experience and library research, students make recommendations for
future action. This reflection activity is useful in inter-disciplinary courses and provides students
flexibility within their disciplinary interests and expertise to pursue issues experienced at the service
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site. Class presentations of the experiential research paper can culminate semester work. (Julie
Hatcher, IUPUI).
 14.Service-Learning Contracts and Logs - Service-learning contracts formalize the learning and service
objectives for the course. Students, in collaboration with their instructor and agency supervisor,
identify learning and service objectives and identify the range of tasks to be completed during the
service experience. Oftentimes, a service-learning contract cannot be completed until the student is
at the agency for a couple of weeks and has a clear idea of how their skills and expertise can be of
service. A service log is a continuous summary of specific activities completed and progress towards
accomplishing the service-learning goals. The contract and the log can become the basis for
reflection when students are asked to assess their progress towards meeting the identified
objectives and identify the obstacles and supports that had an impact on their ability to achieve the
service-learning objectives. These items can also be submitted in a service-learning portfolio as
evidence of the activities completed.
 15. Directed Readings - Directed readings are a way to prompt students to consider their service
experience within a broader context of social responsibility and civic literacy. Since textbooks rarely
challenge students to consider how knowledge within a discipline can be applied to current social
needs, additional readings must be added if this is a learning objective of the course. Directed
readings can become the basis for class discussion or a directed writing.
 16.Ethical Case Studies - Ethical case studies give students the opportunity to analyze a situation and
gain practice in ethical decision making as they choose a course of action. This reflection strategy can
foster the exploration and clarification of values. Students write a case study of an ethical dilemma
they have confronted at the service site, including a description of the context, the individuals
involved, and the controversy or event that created an ethical dilemma. Case studies are read in
class and students discuss the situation and identify how they would respond. (David Lisman,
Colorado College )
 17.Structured Class Discussions - Structured reflection sessions can be facilitated during regular class
time if all students are involved in service. It is helpful for students to hear stories of success from
one another. They can also offer advice and collaborate to identify solutions to problems
encountered at the service site. The following exercise is an example of structured reflection
discussion: list phrases that describe your senses/feelings at the service site. List phrases that
describe your actions at the service site. List phrases that describe your thoughts at the service site.
What contradictions did you sense at the service site? What connections can you make between
your service and the course content? (Nadinne Cruz, Stanford University )
 18.Truth is Stranger than Fiction - (This is an exercise that is best used toward the middle or end of
the student's experience). Have the students break into groups of three (no more). Ask them to
share the most unusual story that happened to them during their service-learning experience. Some
students will be hesitant at first. If they really can't think of one, don't let them off the hook. Tell
them to take the assignment home, write it and submit it at the next session. This usually motivates
them to think of one rather quickly. In fact, most classes come up with some really interesting
stories. Then have the class come together as a whole and share them. It is surprising how animated
all of the students get. Even if it's not their own story, they feel some ownership if the person was in
their group. Usually everyone ends up sharing a story. As you move through the exercise, even the
reticent ones usually find themselves sharing something. Be prepared to prod these students a little.
If you happen to have a class that's filled with interesting stories, you might want to save these
stories and submit them to the Service-learning Program for future use. (Diane Sloan, Miami Dade
College )
 19.Student Portfolios - This type of documentation has become a vital way for students to keep
records and learn organizational skills. Encourage them to take photographs of themselves doing
their project, short explanations (like business reports), time logs, evaluations by supervisors or any
other appropriate "proof" which could be used in an interview. Require them to make this
professional. Keep reminding them that submitting it at the end of the term is only one reason for
doing this. "The real reason is to have documentation to present at future interviews. This could be a
major factor in distinguishing them from other candidates." Student portfolios could contain any of
the following: service-learning contract, weekly log, personal journal, impact statement, directed
writings, photo essay. Also, any products completed during the service experience (i.e., agency
brochures, lesson plans, advocacy letters) should be submitted for review. Finally, a written
Page 44 of 45
evaluation essay providing a self-assessment of how effectively they met the learning objectives of
the course is suggested for the portfolio.
 20.It's My Bag - Tell the students to find a bag at home (any bag). Then tell them to fill it with one (or
two-depending on time) item(s) that remind them of how they feel about their service-learning
project. Tell them to bring this bag with the item(s) to the reflection session, and have them explain
their items to the rest of the class. The items that they bring usually turn out to be inspiring visual
aids that bring out some great comments. (adapted through a speech exercise provided by Prof.
James Wolf 1998)
 21.It's Your Thing/Express Yourself - This reflection exercise takes a long time in preparation
(probably several weeks, if you want them to use lots of creativity). You can use a solo version or
group. Both usually turn out to be very rewarding for the individual performers and the class. Tell
the students that they will have the opportunity to create their own version of their feelings toward
the service-learning project. Examples could include poetry, visual art, (paintings, drawings,
sculptures) music, (rap is a rather popular choice for this exercise), individually created games or
puzzles, any form of creative outlet that gives the student the chance to perform or explain in front
of the class is what you are looking for. Be sure to require that it must be some kind of individual
work that he/she has created. This type of reflection works well if you have each student create
something. However, if you are limited for class time, ask them to form groups and give them the
same directions explaining that at least one of each group member's feelings must be included in
their creation. You will be amazed at the kind of creativity that surfaces either way you do it.
(adapted from Multiple Intelligence exercises created by Profs. Michael and Donna Lenaghan, Miami
Dade College )
 22.Small Group Week - This is a simple alternative to full-class reflection sessions when you really
want students to have a maximum amount of time to talk individually. Schedule the reflection
sessions so that only a small number of students need to attend. The group should consist of no
more than 10-12, if possible. The rest of the class will be scheduled to attend other class periods,
using this period for whatever you want them to be doing outside of class. The students will feel
more like sharing when you form the group in a small intimate circle and spend the period asking
them questions related to their service-learning experience that encourage self-expression. (Prof.
Dave Johnson, Miami Dade College )
 23 .E-mail Discussion Groups - Through e-mail, students can create a dialogue with the instructor and
peers involved in service projects. Students write weekly summaries and identify critical incidents
that occurred at the service site. Students can rotate as a moderator of the discussion every two
weeks. Instructors can post questions for consideration and topics for directed writings. A log can be
printed to provide data about group learning’s that occurred from the service experience.
24.Class Presentations - A way for students to share their service-learning experience with peers is to
make a class presentation through a video, slide show, bulletin board, panel discussion, or a
persuasive speech. This is an opportunity for students to display their work in a public format. A
similar presentation can be offered to the community agency as a final recognition of the students'
involvement
Page 45 of 45

EDT-11804 Critical Thinking & Reflective Practices

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EDT-11804 Critical Thinking & Reflective Practices

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Prepared by: ZEENAT NAZ – M.Phil Eng, M.

Ed (Special Edu) Editing & Composed By: ZAFAR ABBAS-03458719423

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan

Class: B.Ed (1stSemester) Mid Term Session: 2016-18

Q 1: Choose the Correct Answer. (5)

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan

Class: B.Ed (1st Semester Final term) Session: 2016-18

Q.No.2. Answer the following short question. (20)

 Critical Thinkingenhances language and presentation skills. Thinking clearly and

 Critical Thinking promotes creativity. To come up with a creative solution to a problem

Here are three reasons why critical thinking matters:

1. It exposes everyday fallacies

2. It helps you act responsibly

3. It results in work you can be proud of

Critical thinking and process of analyses

groups’, vested interest. As such it is typically intellectually flawed, however pragmatically

Another Brief Conceptualization of Critical Thinking

Why Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective

Critical Thinking Defined by Edward Glaser

(Edward M. Glaser, An Experiment in the Development of Critical Thinking,

The Critical Thinking Process

Critical thinking process

I. Critical Thinking Dispositions

II.Critical Thinking Skills

III.Characteristics of Critical Thinking

IV. Step 1: Knowledge

VI. Step 3: Application

VII. Step 4: Analysis

VIII. Step 5: Synthesis

Some other definitions:

 Brainstorming is a process for generating new ideas

What is concept Maping?

What is a Venn diagram?

Critical Thinking through Socratic Questioning

Teaching students to Ask Questions

General Strategies for Asking Questions

Why Ask “Open” Questions? Twelve Objectives, with

2. To ask a student to clarify a vague comment.

 Could you elaborate on that point?

3. To prompt students to explore attitudes, values, or feelings (when appropriate).

 What are the values or beliefs that inform this argument?

4. To prompt students to see a concept from another perspective.

5. To ask a student to refine a statement or idea.

When does that principle apply? Always?Only under certain conditions?

6. To prompt students to support their assertions and interpretations.

 How do you know that?

8. To prompt students to investigate a thought process.

9. To ask students to predict possible outcomes.

 What might happen if this practice were to be outlawed?

10. To prompt students to connect and organize information.

11. To ask students to apply a principle or formula.

 How does this principle apply to the following situation?

12. To ask students to illustrate a concept with an example.

Can you identify a painting or design that exemplifies that idea?

Use Bloom’s Taxonomy

Teaching students to narrate and analyses points

 View and of others

Open and close ended questions

A closed question can be answered with either 'yes' or 'no'.

Using closed questions

Closed questions have the following characteristics:

 They give you facts.