T228 21—The Permeability of Cross-wound

21—THE PERMEABILITY OF CROSS-WOUND COTTON

YARN PACKAGES
By M. J. DENTON

The effects of package dimensions, structure, and density on the flow of air and
water through yarn packages have been investigated. Packages are considered
as homogeneous porous bodies, and the experimental results are correlated by
theoretical relationships based on Darcy's law and the Kozeny-Carman equation.
The particular importance of variations in density and radius, which, under
some conditions, can cause relatively large variations it) permeability, is pointed
out.
INTRODUCTION
The fundamental problem of package processing, whether scouring,
bleaching, dyeing, or drying, is to ensure that the processing fluid penetrates
to all parts of every package, and is distributed as evenly as possible within
any one package and equally between one package and another. Ideally, a
number of identical packages are subjected to a common pressure head and
each receives the same flow of liquor and undergoes an identical processing.
In practice, however, packages vary to a greater or less extent in hardness and
size because of variations in tension and other factors in winding. These
variations are of major importance, since, in wet processes, hard dense
packages are less easily penetrated by the liquor than soft ones, and
diflFerences in flow rate can lead, for example, to shade differences in dyeing.
Similarly, differences in rates of drying can occur between packages when
hot air is circulated through them.
Several papers have been published in recent years concerning both the
practical and theoretical aspects of package processing. Armfield^ studied
the eflect of the rate of flow of a dye liquor through a package on the levelness,
and showed that the higher flow rates give better levelness. Boulton and
Crank^ have described a theoretical model of a yarn package and discussed
the level absorption of dye in such a package. They showed the importance
of the eflects of flow velocity, and the rate of strike and levelling properties
of the dyestufl". In a second paper^, results from practical experiments were
examined in the light of the theoretical model.
The uniform presentation of dye liquor to the textile material is of
obvious importance, and, in a previous paper, the present author® has
examined the difficulty of removing air trapped inside a package during the
wetting-out process. Hadfield and Lemin^^ have described the efl'ects of air,
present because of foaming, on the permeability of packages.
Very useful general information on the technology of package processing
has been presented by Whittaker^', who also reviewed the types of package
in general use and called attention to the care needed in their preparation.
Fox^° has summarized the major factors contributing to the production of
high-quality dyed yarn, and in particular discussed some of the faults that
can arise from unsatisfactory packages.
All these authors point out the importance of packages being uniformly
constructed and of nearly equal permeability. The purpose of this paper is
to describe the effect of the size, density, and structure of packages on their
permeability to fluids and thus to assess the relative importance of these
quantities in producing packages of equal permeability.
CHARACTER OF THE FLOW THROUGH PACKAGES
Before discussing further the effect of package properties on permeability,
it is necessary to determine whether the liquor-flow is streamline or turbulent.
Cotton Yarn Packages—Denton T229

Since the pressure drop needed to produce a given flow rate is proportional
to the flow rate only when the flow is streamline, the type of flow is easily
found by plotting flow rate against pressure drop. Typical curves for three
packages of different densities are shown in Fig. 1 for air-flow and in Fig. 2
for water-flow. These are substantially linear over the practical range and it
is concluded that the flow is, therefore, streamline.

10

Package Oenstty

8 \

u p= 0-4 5 g/cc

a.

Q
UJ
iX
3

5 10 15
FLOW RATE (iitres/min)

Fig. 1
The relation between air-flow rate and pressure drop (20s American cotton yarn)

THEORY
Darcy® found that the results of his experiments on the streamHne flow
of fluids through sand-filtration beds could be expressed in the form

-=^4. (1)
where R is the flow rate and \i the viscosity of the fluid, and P the pressure
drop across a bed of depth / and area A; R/P, the ratio of flow rate to
pressure drop, is the permeability of the bed; Ks, the constant of the equation,
is called the speciflc permeability and is independent, as far as is possible, of
the size and shape of the porous body and the nature and condition of the
flowing fluid. In more general terms, for bodies of any shape, the specific
permeability K, is related to the permeability K by the following equation:
D C
K = = AT ^'>\
p ^« „ ' v-i;
T230 21—The Permeability of Cross-wound
where 5 is a shape factor depending on the dimensions of the porous body
and the paths followed by the fluid through it. Since the flow with which we
are concerned is also streamline and a direct proportionality exists between
the pressure drop across the package and the flow rate through it, the
permeability can similarly be defined as the ratio offlowrate to pressure drop.

0-8

E 06

\
Package Density

10 15
FLOW RATE

Fig, 2
The relation between water-flow rate and pressure drop {20s American cotton yam)

In conical packages or cyhndrical packages with open ends and in which

there is an axial, as well as a radial, component of flow, the flow pattern is
rather complicated' and no simple expression exists for S, However, in the
case of an ordinary cylindrical cheese, in which the flow is purely radial, the
shape factor S is given by the equation

5 = (3)
log
r,, To, and h being as shown in Fig. 3. Thus, if the permeability of such a cheese
be measured, its specific permeability can be calculated, and the effects of
wind, density, and yarn properties compared.
The above equations express the dependence of the permeability of
porous bodies on their dimensions and shape. The effect of the fine porous
structure of the materials making up the body will now be considered. The
various theories developed to explain the effect of the structure of the material
may be divided into two main groups. In the first, the capillary models
assume the pores of the medium to consist of fine capillary tubes of various
sizes in series and parallel, theflowthrough the medium as a whole depending
on the flow through the individual capillaries, in which the flow is governed
by Poiseuille's law or a similar expression. In the second group of theories,
the resistance to flow is assumed to be due to the drag on theflowingfluidof
the inside surface of the porous medium. Perhaps the best known of the
Cotton Yarn Packages—Denton T231

capillary theories is that developed by Kozeny^^ and modified by Carman^

the specific permeability being given by the expression;

(1 -
in which e is the porosity of the porous body (the fractional volume available
to flow in unit volume of porous material), S^ the specific surface, or surface
area of the material making up the porous body in unit volume, g the
gravitational acceleration constant, and K^ another constant, usually known
as the Kozeny constant.

Fig. 3

Tn general, experimental evidence supports the Kozeny-Carman theory

for media of low porosity. Thus Fowler and Hertel®, Sullivan^^, and Sullivan
and HerteF^ applied the equation successfully to air-flow through low-
porosity wads of cotton fibres, and Robertson and Mason^* have confirmed
the equation for flow of liquids through low-porosity plugs of wood and
cotton pulps. The Kozeny-Carman equation does not, however, apply to
highly porous fibrous media^^*^*-^^. Brinkman* has shown that the drag
theory leads to Stokes's value for the damping coefficient at high porosities
whereas the Kozeny-Carman theory does not, that the two theories are in
reasonably good agreement for porosities between 0-8 and 0-5, and that, for
lower porosities, the drag theory is out of agreement with experiment. Since
the porosity of yarn packages lies between 0-1 and 0-7 the Kozeny-Carman
equation has been used in this investigation.

APPARATUS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE

Packages were wound on a Leesona, single-head, spindle-driven winding
machine fitted with a Kidde yarn-tension control. The traverse length was
fixed at 5 inches, but the yarn tension, roller pressure, and wind could all be
varied. Stainless-steel spring centres made by Messrs. Davidson, McGregor
were used throughout. Care was taken to ensue that packages were, as far
as possible, free from radial density variations.
The apparatus used for measuring the air-permeability of packages is
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 4. Air flowed into the reservoir, which helped
to smooth out small variations in the pressure and thus to maintain a steady
pressure head. The air-flow, controlled by the needle valve, was measured by
T232 21—The Permeability of Cross-wound

the Rotameter flowmeter. Packages, mounted in the holder, the end faces
being covered to ensure radial flow, could be compressed to any desired
length. The pressure drop across the package was measured by means of a
vertical U-tube water manometer; when this was not sufficiently accurate, it
was replaced by an inclined tube.

Flowmeter — Manometer —

Comprejied
Air
*
u
Rickaqe
in holder

Reservoir
Needle i
valve

Fig. 4
The air-permeability apparatus

Water-permeabilities were measured in a Pegg single-package dyeing

machine, which had been fitted with a Rotameter flowmeter measuring rates
from 1 to 5 gallons per minute, and which had a mercury manometer
connected across the package chamber. In order to avoid compression of
the packages by the flowing liquid, the flow direction was outwards.

RESULTS
Preliminary Experiments
Experiments to determine the nature of the flow have already been
mentioned. Two further experiments were performed to check the application
of Darcy's law to packages: the first to determine the effect of the viscosity
of the flowing fluid and the second to confirm the effect of package radius
(equation (3)).
According to equation (2), the flow rate through a package is inversely
proportional to the fluid viscosity [i. This relationship has been investigated
in the case of a cheese of spun glass yarn, a variation in viscosity being
achieved by varying the temperature of the circulating water. Glass yam
was chosen for this experiment rather than cotton in order to avoid the
complication of having diflerent coeflicients of swelling of the yarn at dififerent
temperatures. The results obtained, shown in Fig. 5, confirm the linear
relationship between the package permeability and If
Cotton Yarn Packages—Denton T233

Because of the difficulty of winding packages with different outside radii

but fixed density, it was not possible to examine the effect of package radius
on permeability directly. In order to overcome this difficulty, a number of
packages of difTerent density were wound at each of five values of radius
between 3 and 6-4 cm. Curves were plotted of air-permeability against
density for each value of radius (data in appendix—Table IV), and perme-
abilities were then read from the curves at package densities of 0*24, 0-32,
0-40, and 0-48 g/cm^. According to equations (2) and (3), the permeability (K)
is proportional to (log ro/ri)~^, and plots of these quantities were found to be
nearly straight lines. For convenience of display, in Fig. 6, (log rjr^-^ has
been plotted against Kl{K log rolri)j,y^ where {K log ro/r,)^y is the average
value of (K log rjri) for the particular package density being considered.
All the points should, in this case, lie on a single line of slope 45° through
the origin, and in practice the deviations from this line are quite small.

0
(poise)-1

Fig. 5
The efTect of viscosity on permeability in a package of spun glass yarn

Effect of Package Wind and Density

In measuring the efTect of wind and density on specific permeability all
the measurements were made with the same yarn (nominally 16s cotton
count (36-9 tex) American cotton, with a twist factor of 4). Packages were
wound varying in wind* from 4^^/^^ to l^^U^, and, at each value of wind,
* Package *wind' is the number of wraps around the paackge for each double traverse
of the yam along the package.
T234 21—The Permeability of Cross-wound

measurements were made on a number of packages, varying in density from

0-2 g/cm^ to about 0-4

3-0

Package Density fk log r^)r1

/>(9/cc)
2-5
,0-24 74
.0-32 20- 3
o... .0-40 5- 53
A 0-4B 1- 51

. 2-0

cr
O

0
2-0 2-5

Fig. 6
The relation between package radius and air-permeability (20s American cotton yarn)

Longitudinal compression of the packages not only increases the density,

but also effectively changes the angle of wind. The density and wind range
were further extended by this means, and packages with the same wind but
different densities or the same density but different wind were compared.
Observations were made of package weight, length, and circumference, and
of flow rate and pressure drop. The specific permeability was then calculated
from the equation, derived from equations (2) and (3),

(5)
P 2nh r,
and the package density from the equation
M
(6)
M being the package mass. In Fig. 7, package density is plotted against
specific permeability. As the variation in specific permeability is very great
(roughly 100:1), it is convenient to plot on a logarithmic rather than a linear
scale.
It will be noticed that the specific permeability varied rapidly with
changing density. Varying wind, however, had little effect, points from any
 Cotton Yarn Packages—Denton

particular wind being evenly distributed on both sides of the line. The
effect of wind may, however, be masked by the hairiness of cotton yarn, as
three is some evidence to suggest that permeability does vary a little with
wind in packages of continuous-filament yarn. In Fig. 8, the large number of
points of Fig. 7 have been reduced to manageable proportions by calculating
the 'centres of gravity' of groups of points in regions of change of package
density each of 0-02 g/cm^.

0-60

^ 0-50

I—

5 040
Q
UJ
O

030

020 I [ 1 I • I I I I I r 1 i I I I I f I I I I I t

10"'* 10"'
SPECIFIC PERMEABILITY

Fig. 7
The effect of package density on specific permeability (air) (16s American cotton yarn)

The inter-yarn porosity of a package (e) is given by the expression

s = l - - ^ , (7)
CT being the yarn density or mass per unit length of the yarn divided by the
yarn cross-sectional area. Equation (4) can therefore be written

where q = p/a.
The plot of package density (p) against the logarithm of package permeability
is found to be nearly a straight line over a wide range of values of p. Now,
the function / = loge (1 — qY/q^ (see equation 8) has a similar property,
having a point of inflexion at 9 = 0-45, and being substantially linear for
0-3 < q < 0-6. The gradient of this function varies only between —9-9 and
— 11-0 over this range of q, the average value being —10-15. Hence the
effective yarn density a can be calculated directly from the gradient of the
loge Kg versus p curve, as:
d (logeK,) 1 g+ 2 10-15
dp a q(q ~ I) a ' ^
T236 21—The Permeability of Cross-wound

The effective yarn density a was calculated from the gradient of the
lower, linear, part of Fig. 7 by means of equation (10) and was found to be
0-59 g/cm^
By substituting this value of a in equation (7) and reading values of Kg
and p from the graph, gjK^So^ was calculated to have a value of 1 -42 x 10-^;
and, \^ Ko is assumed to have its usual value of 5, l/5,r is 7-25 x 10"^ cm^.
The effective diameter of the yarn, calculated from the density (a) and
the known mass per unit length (3-43 x 10"^ g/cm), was 2-72 x 10-^ -^ cm.
Direct measurement (projection method) gave the value 2-49 x 10~^ cm.
0-60

Kozeny-Carmon equation
Lord's curve
Electrical analoque

0-30

0-20 J—I t i
,-3
10"** • 10
SPECIFIC PERMEABILITY (K5)

Fig. 8
Relations between package density and air-permeability for flow around yarns (continuous
curve) and flow through yams (dotted curves)

For a perfectly smooth cyhndrical yarn, 1/5,, = djA, d being the yarn
diameter, but for a rough-surfaced yarn this must be written 1/5^ = flf/49,
9 being the roughness factor. From the values of l/S^- and d given above,
9 was calculated to be 2-5. Similar air-permeability measurements with
packages of a Courlene X3 monofilament (diameter 0-025 cm, circular cross-
section) and a continuous-filament Terylene yarn (50 denier (5-6 tex), 24
filaments) yielded values of roughness factor of 1-04 and 1-14, respectively,
in reasonable agreement with values estimated from yarn cross-sections
(1 and 1-2). The high roughness factor observed for the cotton yarn may
therefore be due to the hairy nature of its surface, as projecting fibres may
well change the pattern of flow around the yarns as well as increasing the
drag over the surface.
The curve K, = 1 42 x lO-^ (1-p/O-59)7(9/0-59)2 is shown plotted
in Fig. 8 (continuous line). The fit of the practical points is good over the
lower linear portion (p < 0-35 g/cm^), but, as the density is increased, the
practical observations show a considerably higher permeability than that
predicted by the theory. This theory is, however, concerned only with flow
round the yarns and assumes them to be completely impermeable.
Cotton Yarn Packages—Denton T237

The increased permeability is undoubtedly due to theflowof air through

the yarns, an effect which becomes more important as the inter-yarn porosity
is decreased. Lord^^ gives data for the flow of air through plugs of cotton
fibres, and a curve for the variation of specific permeability with density ex-
trapolated from his results is also shown in Fig. 8 (broken line). The practical
points approach this curve closely at high densities when the package density
approximates to the yarn density.
The third curve in Fig. 8 (shown dotted) was derived by an analogue
technique. The yarn permeability was assumed to be that predicted by Lord's
results for a yarn density of 0-59 g/cm^, and the yarns were assumed to be
separated by a square array of spaces of infinite permeability, shaped as the
space between four cylinders in contact. The size of these empty spaces
depends on the inter-yarn porosity at the particular package density being
considered.
Agreement with practical results is again good at high package densities,
but, as the permeability of the voids between the cylindrical yarns is assumed
to be infinite, the package permeability also becomes infinite at a porosity of
E = 1—7r/4 or, in this case, at a package density of 0-465 g/cm^.
The package permeability depends, therefore, at low densities on the
spacing of the yarns in the package and at high densities on the spacing of
the fibres within the yarn. At intermediate densities, the inter-yarn and inter-
fibre spaces both contribute to the permeability, which is greater than that
due to either of them alone.
Effect of Yam Count
Experiments similar to those described above were carried out on a range
of yarns varying in nominal cotton count from 5s to 30s (tex 118 to 19-7), all
the yarns being spun from the same cotton. In every case, the plot of log
(specific permeability) against package density was found to be a straight line
over the practical range of values of p. Although there were considerable
differences in the permeability of low-density packages wound from the diff-
erent yarns, at higher package densities all the packages had nearly the same
specific permeability, and this permeability was similar to that calculated from
Lord's results. The lines for the various yarns all lie within the shaded area
of Fig. 9. As might be expected, the permeability for packages of yarn of lower
counts was, in general, higher than for the finer yarns. Table I shows the yarn
densities, yarn diameters, and roughness factors for the various yarns.
Table I

Direct Measurement Air-permeability Measurement

Nominal
Yarn Mass/Unit Yarn Yarn Yarn Roughness
Count Length Diameter Density Diameter Factor
(Cotton (g/cm) (cm) (g/cm3) (cm)
System)

30 1-97 X 10-* 1*62 X 10-* 0*72 1*87 X 10-= 3*0

24 2-45 X 10-* 1*90 X 10-2 0*66 2*18 X 10-= 2*5
20 2-88 X 10-^ 2*24 X 10-2 0*66 2 36 X 10-= 2*9
16 3-75 X 10-* 2*49 X 10-2 065 2*72 X 10-^ 28
12 4*85 X 10-* 2*94 X 10-=* 0*60 3*20 X 10-^ 26
, 9 66 X 10-* 3 45 X 10-=^ 0*57 3-84 X 10-- 2-2
5 12*1 X 10-* 6*00 X IO-'' 0*55 5-30 X 10-2 30

Yarn diameters calculated from air-permeability measurements were, with

one exception, about 10% greater than those measured directly, but, as the
T238 21—The Permeability of Cross-wound
aerodynamic diameter is larger than the apparent diameter because of the
hairiness of the yarn, this result does not seem unreasonable.

Specific Permeability:-
0-50 Yarn Package Package
Count Density Density
0-25g/cc 0 45g/cc
5 3-1X10'^ 7 9x10*^
9 3-3 . 9-6 .
u 12 2-2 H 7-4
u 16 2-0 .. 8-9
0-40 20 1-4 .. 6-4
24 1-5 „ 7-2
30 1-1 « 6-6
LL)
o
< 0-30

0-20

tO^ 10 lO""

SPECIFIC PERMEABILITY (air)

Fig. 9
The dependence of specific permeability (air) on yarn count

Measurements made with water-flow were similar in so far as plots of

water-permeability against density were again straight lines, though the
'scatter' of observations was much greater than for air-flow. Plots of water-
permeability against density for the yarns of different counts lie within the
shaded area of Fig. 10, and Table II shows yarn diameters calculated from the
slopes of these lines. The increase in apparent yarn diameter, due to swelling,
above that found from the air-permeability experiments is given in the last
line of the table, the percentage change being, in general, greater for the finer
yarns than for the coarser and softer yarns.

Table n
Nominal yam count (cotton
system) 30 24 20 16 12 9 5
Yam diameter (cm x 10~^) 1-97 234 2-50 290 3 26 3 98 5 40

Diameter change (%) 6 7 6 6 5 3 2

The yarn swellings as deduced by this method were less than 15%, but
the permeability change was much greater than could be expected from this
result, the specific permeability (water) varying from about one-quarter to
one-sixth of the specific permeability (air) as the package density varied from
0-2 to 0-5 g/cm^. A calculation of roughness factor gave an average result of
4-7, but, as this figure is extraordinarily high, it seems probable that the water-
flow may have some influence on the package structure other than causing
Cotton Yarn Packages—Denton T239

yarn swelling. The greater drag forces occurring with water-flow may, for
example, be great enough to distort the yarns (thus increasing the specific
surface and constricting the flow channels) or to cause fibres from the yarn
surface to float into the inter-yarn spaces, thus reducing the efliective pore
sizes and again increasing the resistance to flow. Gassing of the yarn reduces
the hairiness, and is found in practice to increase package permeability.

specific PermeabHity:-
0-50
Yarn Package Package
Count Density Density
025g/cc 0 45 g/cc

5 5'4)(10'^ 1-2x10"^
o 9 6 7 . 1-5 »
12 4-2 1 '3
0-40
>- 16 64 1*6
20 3 3 . M .
Z 2-4 46 13 .
UJ 30 34 1-5 .
Q

0-30
U

0-20
,I . . 11
-5
to
-4
10- 3
SPECIFiC PERMEABILITY (water)

Fig. 10
The dependence of specific permeability (water) on yarn count

Fig. 11 shows a plot of specific permeability (water) against specific

permeability (air) for the various yarns. Though it is difficult to predict the
exact water-permeability of a package of known air-permeability, the correl-
ation between the two variables is very good for any particular yarn, and
changes in water-permeability can be predicted from changes in air-perme-
ability with reasonable accuracy. It is this close relation which suggests the
main practical use of air-permeability measurement as an aid to the non-
destructive sorting of packages, since similar packages of the same yarn with
equal air-permeabilities will have equal water-permeabilities.
Effect of Variation of Package Dimensions, Mass, and Density on Package Permeability
By combining equations (2) and (3), the permeability of an ordinary
cylindrical cheese package is shown to be

/s:
S9
\^ log
but, as a straight-line relation has been found to exist over the practical
range between the logarithm of the package specific permeability and the
package density, the above expression can be written
Inh
a e~Pp , (10)
log
T240 21—The Permeability of Cross-wound

where a and p are constants, p depending on the effective yarn density, and
a on the yarn density, type, and structure, p = 10-15/a (see equations 10
and 11) and, for the cotton yarns tested, varied between 14 and 18 for air,
and between 16 and 19 for water.

Package Density
Itf

0)
o

CO
LU

cC
LU
Q. P - 0-4 g/cc Yarn Count
... 5
• 9
U
UJ 12
a.
CO •16
10 = 0-5 g/cc
+ ••• 20
• - • . 24
0- -30

' I > • I • I
J ' • • •
r5
10
SPECIFIC PERMEABILITY (air)

Fig. II
Comparison of specific permeabilities for air and water
In addition, equation (7) gives the relation between the package mass,
size, and density.
From equations (6) and (10), the effect of any of the variables A, r^,, p, and
M on flow through the package can easily be calculated. The effect of a 1 %
increase in each of these variables is shown in Table III. Values, typical of
industrial packages, have been assumed as follows: r^ = 2 cm, r^ = l cm,
A = 15 cm, p = 17, p = 0-35 g/cm^, M = 740 g.
Table UI
Effect of Package Dimensions on Flow during Processing.
1% a change in
increase produces >- flow velocity
in of
with M and /•„ constant -6%
with /-„ and h constant -6%
with M and h constant
with P and M constant 1 /o
with 9 and h constant -1%
ro with M and h constant +ii°/(
h with P and constant 0%
h with P and M constant
h with M and constant +6%
M with P and constant 0%
M with and h constant
M with and h constant -6%
Catton Yarn Packages—Denton T241
Vijriation of Package Density
I The package density has a greater effect on the package permeability
than any of the other variables, and the control of package density during
\Viinding is of prime importance. This is particularly true of packages wet-
j/^^ocessed on rigid centres. When packages wound on compressible springs
are squeezed together on the dyeing stalk, the softer, less dense, packages are
compressed more than the hard, dense, ones. Though density variations
are thereby compensated for to some extent, they are not altogether
eliminated.

Variation of Package Radius

If the package densities of two packages of slightly different radii are the
same, then the difference in permeability is not great. If, however, packages
are wound to a fixed weight and length, then radius variation becomes impor-
tant, because of its effect on package density.

Variation of Package Length

When spring-wound packages are stacked together on a dyeing stalk,
they become compressed and the package length decreases, with a consequent
increase in package density. Though the decrease of package length is not in
itself important in its effect on the flow velocity through the package (or
the volume flow per unit length of package), the unavoidable increase of
package density has a very marked effect in decreasing the flow. The tendency
for the density to increase may be lessened to a small extent, however, by the
slight increase in package radius resulting from the compression.

Variation of Package Mass

As with the other variables, mass variation becomes important when the
package density is affected. Thus, if the package mass is increased with no
change in package dimensions, then there must be a proportional change in
density, and the permeability will be much decreased. If, on the other hand,
the package density remains constant, and the package dimensions increase,
then, though there can be some decrease of permeability, this will not be
great.

SUMMARY
The necessity for uniform packages of equal permeability at all stages
of package-processing is pointed out. The flow of both air and water through
packages is shown to be streamline at normal industrial flow rates. Darcy's
equation has been applied to a cylindrical package (i.e., a cheese) and the
relation between the pressure drop, the flow rate, and the dimensions of the
cheese has been experimentally verified.
At low package densities, the Kozeny-Carman equation is shown to
correlate the permeability of packages with their density satisfactorily, and
yarn diameters calculated from permeability measurements are shown to be
in reasonable agreement with those measured directly. At high package
densities, an appreciable proportion of the flowing fluid passes through the
yarns, and permeabilities approach those for uniform plugs of fibres.
The effects of variations in package dimensions, mass, and density on
package permeability are discussed, attention being drawn particularly to
the large variations in permeability that can be caused by relatively small
changes in package density.
T242 21—The Permeability of Cross-wound Cotton Yarn Packages—Denton
APPENDIX
Table IV
Effect of Package Radius on Permeability

Package Radius (cm)

3 •06 3 •39 4 •17 498 637

P K P K P K P K P K

023 200 023 200 024 140 022 130 032 16

030 72 026 110 027 70 025 68 036 10
035 20 028 67 029 40 029 33 0*37 7-8
035 34 030 62 030 49 031 34 039 6-2
038 33 032 44 033 23 034 12 041 3-8
040 8^7 035 20 034 21 036 15 041 5^2
040 12 036 23 037 11 036 16 043 2-9
042 14 036 25 0-38 13 039 1-7 0*44 30
048 49 039 11 042 6-1 039 1- 8 0-45 19
049 3-8 040 10 042 4-9 041 I- 3 0-47 14
043 6^6 046 26 0 43 36 048 1-5
044 5^2 047 24 043 47 049 098
044 5^3 052 12 0-47 16 051 1 00
049 2-8 048 19 051 072
050 2- 3 050 12

Units: Package density (p), g/cm^; package permeability {K)., litres/min cm water gauge.

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Cotton Silk and Man-Made Fibres Research Association,
Shirley Institute, Received 10.6.1963
Didsbury, Accepted for publication 1.10.1963
Manchester 20. Released for publication 6.12.1963