WEEK 4

Classical Elasto-Plastic Description of Soil Behaviour

Part 1: Mohr-Coulomb Model

6. Elasto-Plastic Soil Model: General

We have had a brief look at what elasto-plasticiy means. Elasticity means that deformation
is recoverable upon removal of a load, and this is obviously not helpful in describing, for
example, failure of soil. An elasto-plastic description is necessary to describe both
deformation and failure. We will see here two classical examples of the elasto-plastic soil
models widely in use in geotechnics; a Mohr-Coulomb model and the Cam Clay Model,
along with basic concepts that underpin the mathematical formulation of these models.

6-1. Ingredients of elasto-plastic soil model

The following concepts are typically adopted to formulate elasto-plastic models.

- Elasticity
- Yield criteria
- Plastic potential
- Hardening rule

Firstly let us have a look at what each of these concepts means (excluding elasticity, which
we have already studied briefly in the earlier weeks), and see how they work by looking at
the two particular models introduced above.

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6-2. Yield criteria (yield surface)

Firstly let us review what yielding means; this is the diagram shown in Week 2.

Yielding occurs at
q q yield stress, qy
q
Irrecoverable

Recoverable
Recoverable

εq εq εq

This type of behaviour is clearer in over-consolidated clays in, for example, triaxial tests.

In the meantime, you must be already familiar with this yielding behaviour in 1-D or
isotropic compression.

v = 1+ e Yield point

log p
log p y Tri. comp.
1-D comp.

By plotting yield stresses in multi-dimensional

Yield
stress space, a yield surface is obtained.
surface
A conventional interpretation is that soil is elastic
within a yield surface. p
Iso. comp.

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Exploration of yield surface: probing

v = 1+ e
Yield point

The yield surface can be explored by,

for example, performing triaxial
compression tests from different p
1-D
compression

p
q q
Triaxial compression
from different p
Yield surface
Yield
point

εq p

q
Or, stress paths can be directed radially
outward from a particular point. This is Yield surface
done by adjusting the axial load (σ1)
and the cell pressure (σ3) at the same
time in a triaxial cell.

This type of test is called stress-path

tests, or probe tests. p

Be aware that stress-path tests are

feasible only under drained conditions.
Think why.

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Characteristics of yield surface

Outside the yield surface:

You’ll never be here (at least in classical theory; we shall see). This is because, as you
try to reach outside, the yield surface expands (isotropic hardening) and/or translates
(kinematic hardening) accordingly.

q q

Isotropic hardening Kinematic hardening

p p

Inside: Elastic Stress path

Again, we are familiar with this

characteristic in a consolidation test.

No!

Yes:
Back to
elastic region
Yes:
Keep yielding

log p

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6-3. Plastic potential and flow rule

An irrecoverable plastic strain increment, δεp, is considered something similar to water

flowing along a hillside.

q δε qp δε~ p

δε pp

In the stress space, plastic potential is considered to exist. In the above analogy, the plastic
potential corresponds to the elevation along the hillside. Water is supposed to flow down in
the direction normal to contours. The same is assumed in the plasticity theory.

In the above diagram, the components of δεp along the q and p- axes are assumed to be
δεqp and δεpp, respectively. This means that the stress and strain coordinate systems are
exactly superposed on each other. This condition is called co-axiality.

If the plastic potential contours are assumed to be same as the yield surfaces, it is called
associate flow rule or normality rule.

q q

p p
Associated flow rule Non-associated flow rule
Yield surface
Yield surface
≠ plastic potential
= plastic potential contour
contour

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6-4. Hardening rule

The plastic potential contours alone simply describe the direction of the plastic strain vector.
A hardening rule states how the yield surface evolves (we have already looked at two
examples : Isotropic and kinematic hardening), and how the evolution (i.e. stress changes)
is linked to generation of the plastic strain.

This is a simple example of hardening rules.

The change in the yield stress (i.e. yield surface) is linked to the plastic volumetric
strain, δε pp . This is called volumetric hardening. In this case, the function for the normal
compression line (i.e. ‘e-log p’ line) serves as a hardening rule.

δε pp

δε ep

log p
δ (log p y )

In constructing an elasto-plastic soil model, the ingredients reviewed hitherto (elasticity,

yield surface, plastic potential and hardening rule) must be given particular mechanisms
and functions expressed by mathematical equations. There have been literally hundreds of
models proposed for simulating particular aspects of soil behaviour. In this lecture course,
we will study two prominent examples; a Mohr-Coulomb model and the Cam Clay Model.

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7. Mohr-Coulomb Model

All of you must already have learnt the Mohr-Coulomb strength criterion. By adopting this
and combining it with elasticity, a very simple elasto-plastic model can be constructed.

(i) Yield surface

The yield surface is defined by

σ 1′ − σ 3′ = (σ 1′ + σ 3′ ) sin φ ′ + 2c′ cos φ ′ τ

or
t = s′ sin φ ′ + c′ cos φ ′

In triaxial compression,

 sin φ ′  c′
f ( q, p′) = 1 −  q − 2 p′ sin φ ′ − 2c′ cos φ ′ = 0
 3 
σ′
In triaxial extension,
 sin φ ′ 
f ( q, p′) = 1 + q − 2 p ′ sin φ ′ − 2c′ cos φ ′ = 0
 3 

q 6 sin φ ′
3 − sin φ ′
6 sin φ ′
3 + sin φ ′
6c′ cos φ ′
3 − sin φ ′

6c′ cos φ ′ p′
3 + sin φ ′

There is no yield surface in the direction of p’. It means that, in this model, the soil is
assumed never to yield in compression. This is sometimes a reasonable assumption. For
example, heavily over-consolidated clays or dense sand requires a very large increase in p’
to cause significant plastic volumetric strain. If such a large p’ increase is not expected or if
the volumetric strain does not matter very much in the problem, it may be neglected.

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(ii) Plastic potential

The simplest way is to assume associated flow rule, thereby setting plastic potential
identical to the yield function.

Let us consider a case of triaxial compression

q
 sin φ ′ 
g (q, p′) = 1 −  q − 2 p ′ sin φ ′ − 2c′ cos φ ′ = 0
 3 
δε~ p
So the plastic strain increment vector is:

 ∂g 
δε  p  ∂q   sin φ ′ 
1 − 
δε~ p =  q
 = λ  ∂g  = λ  3 
δε  p′
p
p   − 2 sin φ ′
 ∂p′ 

By definition, this vector is normal to the yield surface and the plastic potential.
The parameter λ is a multiplier determining the magnitude of the plastic strain increment.
Its value is determined by the hardening rule.

(iii) Hardening rule

The simplest hardening rule is to assume that the yield surface’s configuration never
changes. This means that, because the yield surface is determined by parameters c’ and φ’,
these parameters are constant. i.e. the soil never hardens. In this case, the multiplier λ is
infinite, meaning that infinite strain develops as the stress tries to go beyond the yield
surface.

(iv) Elasticity

Let us assume the simplest, linear isotropic elasticity.

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(v) Predicted soil behaviour (associated flow rule)

Triaxial compression under drained conditions:

q q
δε~ p
δε~ p
6 sin φ ′
3G 1:
3 − sin φ ′

εq p′

εp
Volume 6 sin φ ′
decrease −
3 − sin φ ′

εq
Volume
increase

Characteristics of model:

- There is no plastic hardening, giving bilinear stress-strain relationships.

- Plastic volumetric changes are always dilative. As shearing continues, the volume
increases infinitely.
- The dilation rate (ratio of the volumetric strain to the shear strain) is determined as a
function of the friction angle, φ’ via the associate flow rule. However, this modelling is
known to overestimate the amount of dilation in typical situations.

In order to counter the third problem above, non-associated flow rule is sometimes
assumed.

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(vi) Predicted soil behaviour (non-associated flow rule)

Triaxial compression under drained conditions:

An additional parameter β is introduced to adjust the inclination of the plastic potential

contour.

q q
δε~ p

δε~ p 6 sin φ ′
1:
3G 3 − sin φ ′

εq p′

εp 1 : tan β
Yield surface
Volume Plastic potential
decrease − tan β

εq
Volume
increase

The parameter β is directly related to the dilatancy angle, ν.

δε 1p + δε 3p δε pp δε 1p + 2δε 3p
sin ν = − p tan β = − = −
δε 1 − δε 3p δε qp 2
(δε 1p − δε 3p )
3
3
tan β = (3 sin ν + 1)
4

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IncidentallyE

If deformation is in plane strain, things are a lot simpler.

t t
δε~ p

δε~ p
1 : sin φ ′
G

γ s′

εp 1 : sin ν

Volume
decrease − sin ν

γ
Volume
increase

In plane strain conditions, associated flow rule means φ’ = ν.

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(vii) Yield surface in principal stress space

π-plane
σ 1′ σ 1′ Triaxial compression
p − axis Triaxial extension

σ 3′
σ 2′ σ 3′

σ 2′

If we assign the symbols σ’1, σ’2 and σ’3 as the major, intermediate and minor principal
stresses, then, by definition, σ’1 > σ’2 > σ’3. So only the grey area shown above is relevant.

In many textbooks and lectures, it is usual to introduce some other yield surfaces (or failure
criteria) such as Tresca, von Mises, extended von Mises, Prager-Drucker and Matsuoka-
Nakai to compare them with Mohr-Coulomb on the π-plane. In this lecture, these are left for
the week discussing strength characteristics of soils. Many of you probably know them
already.

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