CHAPTER 3 r1

SAUDI ARAMCO WORKOVER MANUAL
Drilling Technical Department September 2013
CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS
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WORKOVER FLUIDS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Back
1.1 Definitions
1.1.1 Workover fluids
1.1.2 Drill – in Fluids
1.1.3 Completion Fluids
1.2 Selection of Fluids

1.2.1 Procedure
1.2.2
1.2.3 Fluid Functions
1.2.4 Well Control
1.2.5 Wellbore Cleanout
1.2.6 Milling Fluid
1.2.7 Drilling Fluid
1.2.8 Corrosion Protection
1.2.9 Formation Protection
1.2.10 Treating Chemical Displacement
2.0 TYPES OF FLUIDS
2.1 Oil Fluids

2.1.1 Crude Oil
2.1.2 Diesel Oil
2.2 Clear Water Fluids

2.2.1 Formation Water
2.2.2 Abqaiq Pit Brine
2.2.3 Seawater
2.2.4 Brines
2.3 Oil & Water Emulsions
3.0 MILLING FLUIDS
3.1 Milling Fluid Types

3.1.1 Bentonite Based Mud
3.1.2 LSND Polymer Grilling Fluid
3.1.3 Specialized Milling Fluids
3.1.4 Oil Based Mud (OBM)
3.2 Milling Fluid Practices And Guidelines
3.3 Guidelines For Hole Cleaning Sweeps
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4.0 SPECIALIZED DRILLING FLUIDS
4.1 Overbalance Drilling Fluids

4.2 High Performance Water Based Mud Technology
4.3 Low Density Emulsion (Oil In Water Or Brine) Emulsions
4.3.1 Direct Emulsions
4.4 Oil-Based Fluids or Invert Emulsions

4.5 Air/Mist/Foam
4.6 Gypsum Muds
5.0 RESERVOIR DRILL-IN FLUIDS
5.1 Overview – All Areas

5.1.1 Reservoir Drill-In Fluid
5.1.2 Reservoir Drill – Fluid – Design of Bridging Materials
5.1.3 Reservoir Drill-In Fluid Maintenance
5.2 Acid Soluble (CaCO3) Bridging and Weight Material

5.2.1 Fluid Formulation (Example)
5.3 Brine Based Drill-In Fluids

5.4 Formate Based Drill-In Fluids
5.5 Water Soluble Bridging Material
5.6 Lost Circulation Solutions for the Reservoir
5.7 Reservoir Drill-In Fluids – Important Points
6.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUID ADDITIVES
6.1 Acid Soluble (CaCO3) Weighting Material

6.2 Characteristics of Polymers
6.3 Viscosity and Suspension
6.3.1 Temperature
6.3.2 Solids to be transported
6.3.3 Shear Condition
7.0 SELECTING A COMPLETION FLUID
7.1 Solids-Free High Density Fluids

7.1.1 Single Salt Brines
7.1.2 Two Salt Brines
7.1.3 Three Salt Brines
7.2 Sodium Chloride Brines

7.3 Potassium Chloride Brines
7.4 Calcium Chloride Brines
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7.5 Sodium Chloride/Calcium Chloride brines

7.6 Field Operations Utilizing Brines (Compatibility)
8.0 DISPLACEMENT TECHNOLOGY
8.1 Conditioning the mud

8.2 Displacement Spacers
8.2.1 Displacement of Pads/Spacers
8.2.2 Chemical Washes
8.3 Special Techniques

8.3.1 Water Flushes
8.3.2 Reverse Circulation
8.3.3 Staging Spacer Densities
8.4 General Displacement Procedures

8.4.1 Displacement of Water-Based Mud Using Seawater Flush
8.4.2 Displacement of Oil –Based Mud Using Seawater Flush
8.4.3 Balanced Displacement of Water-Based Mud
8.4.4 Balanced Displacement of an Oil-Based Mud
8.5 Spacers and pills

8.5.1 Viscous Spacers
8.5.2 Water Spacers
8.5.3 Weighted Spacers
8.5.4 Diesel Spacers
8.5.5 Emulsified Spacers
8.5.6 Frac-Sand Spacers
8.6 Pills
8.6.1 Viscous pills
8.6.2 Carbonate Pill
8.7 Clear Brine Completion Fluid Displacement

8.7.1 Indirect Displacement Procedure
8.7.2 Direct Displacement
9.0 PACKER FLUIDS
9.1 Functions
9.2 Characteristics and Properties of Packer Fluid
9.3 Packer Fluid Types
9.3.1 Diesel as a Packer Fluid
9.3.2 NaCl Brines
9.3.3 CaCl2 Brines
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9.4 Corrosion Inhibitors
10.0 HANDLING COMPLETION FLUIDS
10.1 Transportation (Trucks and Boat Hold Tanks)

10.2 Rig Preparation
10.3 Clear Brines
10.4 Fluid Maintenance
11.0 CLEAR FLUID FILTRATION
11.1 Benefit of Filtration

11.2 Diatomaceous Earth (DE) Filter Press Unit
11.3 Pod Cartridge Filter Unit
11.4 Choosing a Filter Unit Type and Layout at the Wellsite
11.5 Wellsite Fluid Quality Measurement
12.0 DRILLING FLUID PRACTICES, PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
12.1 Hole Cleaning
12.1.1 Indicators of Hole Cleaning Problems

12.1.2 Performance of High Density vs High Viscosity Sweeps
12.1.3 Rotation of Drill String & Rheology is Critical
12.1.4 Best Practices for highly Deviated or Horizontal Holes
12.1.5 Tripping Procedures
12.1.6 Circulation Prior to Tripping
12.2 Wellbore Stability
12.2.1 Misconceptions about Wellbore Stability

12.2.2 Signs of Wellbore Instability
12.2.3 Rock Failure Mechanisms
12.2.3.1 Prevention
12.2.4 Exceeding Compressive Strength (Hole Collapse)
12.2.4.1 Effects of Compressive Failure
12.2.4.2 Prevention
12.2.5 Bedding plans slippage
12.2.5.1 Prevention
12.2.6 Chemical Instability
12.2.6.1 Prevention
12.3 Stuck Pipe

12.3.1 Causes of Stuck Pipe
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12.3.1.1 Mechanically Stuck Pipe

12.3.1.2 Differential Sticking
12.3.2 Prevention
12.3.2.1 General
12.3.2.2 Mud Condition
12.3.2.3 The Importance of Proper Bridging Materials
12.3.2.4 Connection Guidelines
12.3.2.5 Reaming and Back-Reaming Guidelines
12.3.3 Treatment
12.3.4 How to Determine if the Pipe is Differential Or Mechanically
stuck
12.3.5 Stuck Pipe Action Plan
12.3.6 Spotting Fluids Classification
12.3.7 Spotting Fluid Types, Actions and Material Requirements
12.3.7.1 General Action of a Stuck Pipe Spotting Fluid
12.3.7.2 Spotting Procedure
13.0 SOLIDS CONTROL
13.1 Designing and Planning

13.1.1 Dilution / Displacement versus Solids Control Equipment
13.1.2 Mechanical Solids Control versus Random Dump Of Solids
13.1.3 Common Use of Centrifuges
13.1.4 Develop a Well Site Plan for SCE Implementation – Rig
Foreman, Mud Engineer
13.2 Mud solids
13.2.1 Mud Solids – What are they?
13.2.2 Types of Solids in Drilling Fluid
13.2.2.1 Drilling Fluid Solids
13.2.2.2 Effect/Impact on Drilling Fluid Properties
13.2.2.3 Plastic Viscosity
13.2.2.4 Yield Point and Gel Strength
13.2.3 Evaluating the Solids Content of Mud
13.2.3.1 Solids Content Definitions
13.2.3.2 Another Tool for Evaluating Solids Content –
Trend Charting
13.3 Solids Control Equipment
13.3.1 Typical Equipment and Layout

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13.3.2 How do I Know What Equipment to Run for my Mud Type

and when to Run It
13.3.3 Quick Check your Solids Control Equipment in 30 Minutes
or less
13.3.4 Shale Shakers
13.3.5 Hydrocyclones
13.3.6 Mud Cleaner
13.3.7 Centrifuges
13.3.7.1 Barite Recovery Mode
13.3.7.2 Total Solids Removal Mode
13.3.7.3 Notes on Centrifuging Un-weighted mud
13.3.7.4 Principles of Operation - Centrifuges
13.3.7.5 Examples of Savings by Using Centrifuges
14.0 SAFETY
14.1 Personal Protective Equipment

14.2 Rig Safety Equipment
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WORKOVER FLUIDS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Workover, drill-in and completion fluids are those that are placed against the
producing formation while side tracking, well killing, cleaning out, stimulating, or
perforating. A workover fluid is used during remedial work on a well which has
been producing for some time. A drill-in fluid is a specially designed drilling fluid
used to drill the reservoir. A completion fluid is the final fluid, typically a brine or
clean oil, which is left in the well.
Any contact of a well servicing fluid with an oil or gas reservoir rock will be a prime
source of wellbore damage. Poor performance of water source wells, injection
wells, or oil and gas production wells can almost always be traced to undesirable
characteristics of workover, drill-in and completion fluids used. As tools, workover
and drill-in fluids are introduced into the wellbore for a particular function and
should be removed after the job. Completion, workover and drill-in fluids
technology evolved in an effort to minimize this damage through the use of
specialized fluids. Drill-in fluids differ from drilling fluids in that they are tailored to
be non-damaging to the producing formation.
Two primary objectives must be accomplished regardless of the well

servicing operation undertaken:
• Control the well with required density and minimal leak-off

• Protect the producing formation from damage
Note: Drill-in fluids should be considered as the kill fluid in situations where brine
leak-off is anticipated.
1.1 Definitions
1.1.1 Workover Fluids are the general-purpose fluids such as:

• Kill fluids to control the well while it is open to wellbore pressures
• Milling and fishing downhole equipment or sidetracking
• Displacement of cement for zonal isolation or plugging old
perforations
• Well suspension
1.1.2 Drill-in Fluids are specially designed drilling fluids used to:
• Minimize formation damage
• Allow for efficient displacement
• Allow for easy clean-up
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1.1.3 Completion Fluids are used for downhole applications such as:
• Perforating
• Wellbore cleanout
• Displacement of treating chemicals (surfactants, acids, and
solvents)
• Gravel packing, and fracturing
• Cement and sand consolidation
• Packer fluids
1.2 Selection of Fluids
Several factors must be considered before a decision is made on the type of

well servicing fluid to be used. Selection of fluid should be a logical solution
based on operational necessities and formation characteristics. The workover
engineer should communicate between the different departments (geological,
petrophysical, reservoir, drilling and workover operations and the
laboratories) to gather information, conduct the necessary studies and
laboratory tests. The proper fluid system can be selected based on the data
obtained. In most cases, this selection process requires compromises to be
made. Usually, formation damage cannot be totally prevented, but certainly it
can be minimized by optimizing the favorable aspects of the fluids to be used.
Applying the technology available today, we can remove most of the "guess
work" in designing the best fluid.
1.2.1 Procedure
• Define the operational objectives.
• Identify the environment under which the fluid must perform
(bottomhole pressure and temperature, location, rig equipment,
water supply and surface temperature).
• Evaluate performance of previous fluids used and any problems
encountered in the field.
• Study the reservoir rock and reservoir fluid chemical
characteristics.
• Examine possible reactions between candidate fluids, rock
minerals & formation fluids.
• Analyze field results and assess the fluid performance after the
job. Recommend changes or modifications for future work.
Understanding of the physical and chemical reservoir characteristics

by all personnel involved will ensure good planning, help in identifying
problems and improvement of field practices. A reservoir rock
sensitivity study may be required along with measurements of the
residual damage caused by different fluids. Such a study will
determine the degree of damage caused and the effectiveness of the
remedial measures.
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RESERVIOR SENSITIVITY STUDY
RESERVOIR FLUID RESERVOIR ROCK
Water analysis & fluid compatibility Mineral analysis & clay fraction
Scaling tendencies Grain & pore size distribution
Emulsion tendencies Porosity & permeability
1.3 Fluid Functions
1.3.1 Well Control

The fluid must be heavy enough to create the required hydrostatic
pressure to stop the well from flowing. The fluid density determines
the hydrostatic head and it should be no higher than necessary to
minimize the fluid invasion into the subsurface formation. Fluid density
is the mass per unit volume and may be measured as pounds mass
per cubic foot or pounds mass per gallon. Density may also be
expressed in terms of specific gravity or pressure gradient. Specific
gravity is the mass of fluid at a given temperature relative to the mass
of an equal volume of water at the same temperature. The pressure
gradient is the hydrostatic pressure created by the fluid per unit of
vertical depth.
Fluid densities decrease with increasing temperature. The amount of

decrease depends on the fluid composition. For example, 86.77 pcf
(11.6 lb/gal) CaCl 2 brine at 70 °F decreases to 83 pcf (11.1 lb/gal) at
230°F. Entrapped gases will also affect the measurement of fluid
density on the surface. If gas entrapment is a problem, a pressurized
mud balance or deaerator to measure the fluid density should be
used. Two instruments generally used in the field are a mud balance,
typically used for solids laden fluids, and Hydrometers for solids free
brines (API RP13J).
Three different types of materials are commonly used in the oil field to
increase the fluid density:
• Water soluble salts
• Acid soluble minerals
• Insoluble minerals
Saudi Aramco's recommended practice is not to use insoluble

minerals in well servicing fluid formulations.
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1.3.2 Wellbore Cleanout

Wellbore cleanout is another major function. Drilled cuttings, produced
sand, drilling mud residue, rust, scale, paint chips, Iron shavings and
debris must be removed from the well. Solids left in the wellbore can
enter the perforation restricting the flow capacity of the well. After the
well is completed, these solids can fall on the downhole dynamic seal
assembly causing leaks and the potential need for an expensive
workover. The effectiveness of any fluid used in the well cleanout
operations depends on its carrying capacity, which is largely a
function of fluid viscosity. Rotating the workstring will improve the
removal of solids from the well while circulating. Chemical washes
(water wetting surfactant, mutual solvent in acidic water, high pH or
detergent pills) will remove organic and inorganic residue when
circulated downhole followed by high viscosity sweeping pill.
Examination of tubing recovered from wells shows that corrosion in
the annulus could be avoided had solids been effectively removed
through proper displacement.
1.3.3 Milling Fluid

When the program requires milling out liners then milling fluids are
used. These fluids will typically have yield points > 50 and low shear
rheology (6/3 rpm) of 40/30 minimum for optimum hole cleaning.
1.3.4 Drilling Fluid

When it is required for drilling of new formation and to provide all the
functions of a typical drilling fluid to optimize typical drilling
parameters, then drillings are required. For drilling of the reservoir,
special design parameters are required for minimizing formation
damage. The fluid used to drill new hole can be oil or water based.
1.3.5 Corrosion Protection

Corrosion protection is an important function of all well servicing fluids
which will remain in the well for an extended period of time. Corrosion
inhibitors are added to reduce the fluid corrosion rate to acceptable
level. Oxygen scavengers, film forming amines, high temperature
inorganic inhibitors and pH buffers are effective chemicals at low
concentrations. The simplest and most common method of corrosion
control is to use a highly alkaline fluid. Static testing in the lab for thirty
days at the desired temperature and pressure, is sufficient to
determine the long term corrosivity of the fluid
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1.3.6 Formation Protection

Formation protection is a function of any fluid that may become in
contact with a producing formation. The fluid allowed to leak off to the
formation should not contain damaging solids, such as clays, silt,
barite, paraffin, asphalt, rust, pipe dope etc. The fluid or fluid filtrate
should be chemically compatible with the formation fluids and should
not allow the clay minerals to hydrate, swell or move. Surfactants,
such as the oil wetting corrosion inhibitors, oil-based mud emulsifiers,
and lubricants will cause emulsion blockage when introduced into a
producing formation. If excessive fluid losses are expected, water-
wetting surfactant should be included in the fluid formulation to
prevent or remove water blocking.
1.3.7 Treating Chemical Displacement

Treating chemical displacement is a very important function of the well
servicing fluids. To pump acid, mutual solvent, clay stabilizer, injection
water, etc. into the reservoir rock a workover fluid is usually employed.
It must be clean and compatible with the treating chemicals and the
formation fluids. The wellbore must be also cleaned with properly
designed spacers and chemical washes.
Electrical logging is greatly affected by the wellbore fluid. Materials

and chemicals which adversely affect the quality of the logs should be
avoided. Reservoir Engineering should be involved in the selection of
the type of workover fluid to be used. Some logs require low chlorides
content and others will produce erroneous data in the presence of
small amount of barite. Saudi Aramco's recommended practice is to
maintain the chlorides below 50,000 mg/l and not to use any barite in
the fluids while drilling and completing the payzone section.
2.0 TYPES OF FLUIDS
Completion fluids are used in well operations during the process of establishing
final contact between the productive formation and the wellbore. They may be
water-based mud, nitrogen, an invert emulsion, solids-free brine, or an acid soluble
system. The most significant requirement is that the fluid is not damaging to the
producing formation. Packer fluids are used in the annulus between the production
tubing and casing. They must provide the required pressure, must be non-toxic and
non-corrosive, or allow solids to settle out of suspension over long periods of time,
and must cause minimal formation damage. Various types of fluids may be utilized
for completion and workover operations.
Current literature relating to completion and workover fluids reveals different

approaches to classifying such fluids. One such industry classification is as follows:
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a) Oil Fluids:
• Crude oil
• Diesel oil
b) Clear Water Fluids:

• Formation salt water
• Seawater or bay water
• Prepared salt water
c) Solid Laden Fluids
d) Conventional Water-Base Muds
e) Oil-based or Invert Emulsion Muds
Following one classification, a description of the different types of completion and

workover fluids follows:
2.1 Oil Fluids
As the name indicates, oils of different origin are sometimes used to complete
the well. Depending on availability, crude or diesel oil may be used as the
completion fluid.
2.1.1 Crude Oil

Crude oil is a logical choice where its density is sufficient to control
formation pressure. The fluid has very low viscosity, limited carrying
capacity and no gel strength. The loss of fluid to the formation is not
harmful from the point of view of clay hydration and migration. Since it
has no fluid loss control, fine solids may enter the formation. Crude oil
always has to be checked for presence of asphaltenes and paraffins
that can damage the formation. The possibility of emulsion forming
with the formation water should be checked before it is used. If
forming of emulsion is possible, a surfactant should be added to
prevent it.
2.1.2 Diesel Oil

Diesel oil is used when a clean and low-density fluid is necessary for
a completion and workover operation. Always check the diesel for a
possible solid contamination in order to avoid formation damage.
Emulsion and wettability problems will be avoided if the diesel is
obtained from the refinery before fuel additives are added. Diesel oil
will offer a non-corrosive environment, which makes it attractive as
packer fluid. Low toxicity mineral oil may also be used if
environmental issues exist.
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2.2 Clear Water Fluids
This group includes waters of diverse origin with different salts in solution.
These waters may contain solids, although the concentration is usually very
low. Based on the origin of the water, the clear water fluids may be divided as
follows:
2.2.1 Formation Water

Formation water is the produced reservoir water. It is a common
workover fluid, since its cost is low. Clean formation water is ideal
from the point of view of compatibility with the reservoir fluids and
minerals. Before using produced formation water as a completion and
workover fluid, a compatibility study with the reservoir rock exposed in
the wellbore should be run. Also, the Calcium content and the scaling
tendencies should be determined. Although formation water is taken
into consideration as a clean, ready to use fluid, it many times will
contains fine solids, treating chemicals, paraffins, asphalt or scale.
All these compounds, if not controlled, may cause serious formation

damage. The water should be cleaned or filtered before use according
to turbidity and solids content specification.
2.2.2 Abqaiq Pit Brine

Abqaiq pit brine is a natural brine available in the Abqaiq field with a
density of about 77.5 pcf. This brine has high concentrations of
Sulfate and Bicarbonate ions. It can be used as a kill fluid to plug and
abandon a well and must not be used for preparing any other salt
solutions such as KCl or CaCl 2 . Any additions of Calcium Chloride will
precipitate Sodium Chloride, Calcium Sulfate, and Carbonates which
will cause plugging downhole.
Note:
Abqaiq pit brine should not be used for well completion or acid
stimulation operations. It is not chemically compatible with other fluids.
If used, Calcium Sulfate scale will precipitate, the producing zones
around the wellbore will be permanently damaged and the well may
then have to be plugged and abandoned.
Abqaiq pit brine analysis ( + 77.5 pcf )
Na 69,409 mg/l Cl¯ 154,425 mg/l

Ca 480 mg/l SO 4 62,790 mg/l
Mg 32,000 mg/l HCO 3 683 mg/l
S.G. 1.242 gm / cc pH 7.2
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2.2.3 Seawater
Seawater is never recommended for mixing brines but may have to be
used in certain circumstances due to logistics. Depending on salinity,
it may be necessary to add NaCl or KCl to avoid formation clays or
shale swelling. Calcium Chloride brines should not be prepared with
seawater. Calcium Sulfate and Carbonate will precipitate downhole
and cause plugging.
2.2.4 Brines
Clear brines can be mixed from NaCl, KCl, CaCl 2 , CaBr 2, ZnBr 2,
NaCOOH or KCOOH salts. These products are packaged in dry or
liquid form depending on type of salt and Saudi Aramco requirements.
Such so-called clear and clean fluids can be damaging if proper steps
are not taken because:
a) They do not contain sized, well-balanced bridging particles, or

fluid-loss additives that will bridge and seal the formation to assure
minimal fluid losses.
Properly sized bridging particles minimizes fluid invasion

into permeable formations.
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b) They usually contain both dissolved and undissolved solids which

can be carried deep within the formation and can damage it
beyond economical repair.
c) Sea and bay water contains living microorganisms like bacteria

and plankton, which also acts as plugging material.
SEM photo for material (diatoms) filtered out of seawater.
d) Seawater usually has a high sulfate concentration (2,600 ppm)

which can, in the presence of Calcium or Barium, plug the well
with solid Calcium and / or Barium Sulfate for which there is no
economically feasible treatment.
e) Many crude oils, when produced, drop out heavy hydrocarbons

like asphaltenes and waxes in myriad of small particles which are
easily injected into the formation and cause severe plugging.
f) Freshwater is quite damaging to many formations containing

appreciable clay content such as the Unayzah reservoir.
2.3 Oil and Water Emulsions
Oil and water are incompatible fluids but can be mechanically mixed under
high shear to form emulsions where one phase exists as small droplets
(dispersed phase) in the other phase (continuous phase). Invert emulsions
consist of water droplets in a continuous oil phase (water-in-oil) and normally
contain higher volumes of oil. Direct emulsions or true emulsions consist of oil
droplets in a continuous water phase (oil-in-water) and normally contain
higher volumes of water.
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The stability of the emulsion can be drastically improved by the addition of

chemicals called surfactants (emulsifiers). They have the special ability to
concentrate between the oil and water phases and so stabilize the emulsion.
Surfactant molecule
Water loving group
Oil loving group
Oil-in-water emulsion
Whether an oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsion is formed depends on the

relative solubility of the emulsifier in the two phases. A preferentially water
soluble surfactant, such as Sodium Oleate, will form an oil-in-water emulsion
because it lowers the surface tension on the water side of the oil-water
interface, and the interface curves towards the side with the greater surface
tension, thereby forming an oil droplet enclosed by water. On the other hand,
Calcium and Magnesium Oleate are soluble in oil, but not in water, and thus
form water-in-oil emulsion.
Stabilization of invert emulsion with surfactant emulsifier
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3.0 MILLING FLUIDS
Fluid used for milling operations typically has a higher Yield Point and Low Shear
Rheology in order to lift the milled steel cuttings from the well. Milled cuttings have
a specific gravity of 7.0 – 8.0 compared to common drilled cuttings S.G. of 2.5.
Mud density can be increased using salts, ground marble or Barite depending on
mud type and requirements. Yield Points of 50 – 90 and low shear rheology (6/3
rpm) of 40/30 minimum are typical required specifications for optimum efficiency.
3.1 Milling Fluid Types and Formulations
3.1.1 Bentonite Based Mud
Typical bentonite based drilling mud enhanced with XC Polymer for

increased Yield Point and 6/3 rpm rheology for hole cleaning. It can
be used after milling to drill to next casing point depending on critical
mud properties required for the section to be drilled and can be
discarded after use.
3.1.2 LSND Polymer Drilling Fluid
Viscous milling fluid can be used for drilling ahead if filtrate control is
acceptable. YP of the fluid can be reduced to the range of 20 to 30
lb/100ft2 after milling is finished and the hole is clean. Optional to
circulate and condition mud to accepted properties with
dilution/thinners prior to drilling ahead. If more than a casing window
is milled, it usually is not recommended to continue drilling in the
reservoir due to fine Iron solids generated during milling remaining in
the mud increasing potential for formation damage.
3.1.3 Specialized Milling Fluids
Mixed Metal Hydroxide or Mixed Metal Silicate muds are considered

good milling fluids due to high carrying capacity. For example, two
muds of this type are available from vendors (Baroid’s (Max-Dril) and
Baker Hughes Drilling Fluids’ (PolyVis)). Specific formulations and
guidelines can be requested from the vendors. These muds are very
sensitive to chemical contamination which can cause them to lose
rheology.
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3.1.4 Oil Based Mud (OBM)
OBM is not recommended for milling operations due to high lubricity

which reduces friction of the mill. If OBM is required due to logistics,
cost, etc., maintain typical critical drilling properties during milling
operations with elevated Low Shear yield point by addition of extra oil
mud gellant and low shear rheology modifiers. Circulate and condition
mud to drilling parameters prior to drilling ahead.
BENTONITE MUD designed for Milling:
Water bbl As needed Target Properties

Defoamer gal 0.01 – 0.02 Funnel Vis Sec/qt. 60 – 100
Soda Ash lb 0.5 – 1.0 YP lb/100ft2 35 – 70
Bentonite lb 30 – 40 6 rpm lb/100ft2 40 – 50
XC-Polymer lb 2–3 3 rpm lb/100ft2 30 – 40
Lime lb 0.25 – 0.5 Filtrate ml/30min 4–6
CaCO 3 Fine lb As required pH 9 – 10
Barite lb As required MBT lb/bbl <6
TYPICAL LSND POLYMER DRILLING FLUID design for Milling:
Water bbl As needed Target Properties

Defoamer gal 0.01 – 00.2 Funnel Vis Sec/qt 60 – 100
XC-Polymer lb 2-4 YP lb/100ft2 35 – 70
Starch lb 4-6 6 rpm lb/100ft2 40 – 50
NaCl lb As required 3 rpm lb/100ft2 30 – 40
KCl lb As required Filtrate ml/30min 4–6
Caustic lb 0.2 – 0.4 pH 9 – 10
CaCO 3 Fine lb As required MBT lb/bbl <6
MILLING FLUID MIXING PROCEDURES:
a) Pre-hydrated bentonite to be prepared in a separate tank:
Formulation and order of addition Average Fluid Properties:

Fresh water, bbls: 200 - 300 Density, lb/ft3 : 67-68
Soda Ash, lb/bbl: 0.50 - 1.00 Funnel viscosity, Sec/qt: 150
Bentonite, lb/bbl: 40.00 - 50.00 pH, : 10
Caustic Soda, lb/bbl: 0.25 - 0.50
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b) Prepare a salt saturated brine / XC-polymer slurry, 75 pcf for the

active system:
Formulation and order of addition (one Average Fluid Properties:
barrel)
Density, lb/ft3 : 75
Funnel viscosity, Sec/qt: 60
Fresh water, bbl: 0.88 PV, cp: 18
2
Defoamer, gal: 0.01 YP, lb/100ft : 25
2
XC-polymer, lb: 2-3 10 sec gel, lb/100ft : 8
Salt (NaCl), lb: 110 10 min gel, lb/100ft2 : 22
pH, : 10
Cl¯, mg/l : 189,000
Add small stream of the pre-hydrated bentonite from (A) to the active
system (B) through the mixing hopper to achieve recommended
properties below. Maintain 12 – 15 lb/bbl active clay in the system per
MBT. Add barite to increase the mud density as needed:
Formulation and order of addition (one Average Fluid Properties:

barrel)
Density, lb/ft3: 90-95-100 105
Pcf: 90 95 100 105 PV cp : 30-34 38 40
2
YP lb/100ft : 40-45 50 60
2
Slurry (75 pcf), bbl: 0.92 0.89 0.87 0.84 10 S gel lb/100ft : 20-25 28 30
10 M gel lb/100ft2 : 38-40 45 50
Barite, lb: 118 158 197 237 Fann-35 6 rpm: 40-45 40 50
Fann-35 3 rpm: 30-35 50 60
pH : 10 10 10
Cl¯ mg/l : 189,000
3.2 Milling Fluid Practices and Guidelines
Circulate and condition mud to achieve recommended properties prior to

starting milling operation. Monitor properties on a regular basis. Calculate
and monitor hole cleaning parameters including cuttings slip velocity, annular
velocities and sweep results and report daily. Adjust fluid properties as
needed to ensure hole good cleaning.
Monitor shaker returns for milled cuttings returns to evaluate hole cleaning
performance. Monitor and clean ditch magnets placed in the trough below the
shakers on a regular basis. Hole sweeps should be pumped at least every 6
– 8 hours unless the hole conditions or hole angle dictates greater frequency.
See Hole Sweep section for sweep formulations. Sweep volume should be
large enough to cover 200 – 500 ft of largest annular volume. Run additional
back to back sweeps to achieve desired results when hole cleaning problems
are indicated. One sweep will probably not be sufficient to remedy an existing
problem.
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Pump a sweep with pipe rotation while circulating bottoms up before tripping
and another when back on bottom. Pipe rotation and reciprocation greatly
assist in mechanically agitating sweeps for better removal.
Synthetic Polypropylene Fiber enhanced sweeps are highly recommended for

milling operations. Synthetic Fiber at 0.25- 0.5 lb/bbl in a sweep covering 200
– 00 feet of the largest annulus is recommended.
When milling is complete, mix and pump a sweep recommended for your
hole angle and follow with a different sweep when the first is out of the hole,
(fiber sweep is recommended), with pipe rotation and monitor shakers for
results. Report all sweep results on the attached Sweep Sheet.
Use the table below when circulating bottoms-up prior to tripping. Complete
removal of a sweep and associated cuttings from a well is dependent on hole
size and inclination.
Deviation Circulation Factor

17-1/2″ and 16 ″ 12-1/4″ 8 1/2″ - 3 7/8”
Vertical 1.5 x Bottoms Up 1.3 x Bottoms Up 1.3 x Bottoms Up
10- 30° 1.7 x Bottoms Up 1.4 x Bottoms Up 1.4 x Bottoms Up
30 - 60° 2.5 x Bottoms Up 1.8 x Bottoms Up 1.6 x Bottoms Up
60 - 90° 3.0 x Bottoms Up 2.0 x Bottoms Up 1.7 x Bottoms Up
Notes:
• Hole sweeps can unload high volumes of cuttings from a well during
milling and cause packing off or flowline plugging. Monitor pump pressure
and slow pump rate as needed when circulating out a sweep.
• Utilizing salt as a water-soluble weighting material up to 75-pcf will reduce
the amount of the insoluble barite needed to reach the 100-pcf mud
density needed. Minimizing the suspended solids will allow faster milling
rate.
• In water based mud, the viscosity and yield point can be reduced with
water dilution or thinners if required to maintain acceptable pump
pressure.
• No oil or mud lubricants should be added to the system to insure
maximum friction and milling action.
• Utilize the finest shaker screens possible to handle the thick mud.
• Maintain annular velocities of 100 - 150 ft/minute in the annulus. Monitor
hole cleaning hydraulics with the best available software or calculate the
slip velocity of average cuttings and adjust annular velocities accordingly.
• Plan tubular design to allow for minimal pressure drops and annular
clearance to assist in achieving high annular velocities.
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• Consider utilizing tools with bypass valves if necessary, which will allow
higher pump rates at casing tops and will allow pumping of sweep
enhancing products such as Synthetic Fibrous materials.
• It is advantageous to use milling tools that produce relatively small, thin,
plate-like swarf with a low weight and large surface area to weight ratio.
Spiral cut swarf has a lower settling velocity and is thus easier to clean
out of a well, however, problems can occur with ‘birds nesting” of this cut
of swarf.
• Utilize “ditch magnets” with regular cleaning maintenance to trap metal
shavings that pass through the shakers. Ditch magnets must be placed
downstream of the shakers not in the possum belly.
• Hole angles above 40° can cause milled cuttings to settle rapidly to the
low side of the well. Hole angles from 40 - 60° are the most difficult to
clean effectively.
• Milling fluids are relatively inexpensive and can be discarded after use or
saved for 2 – 3 months for re-use in future milling operations with addition
of corrosion inhibitors before storage.
3.3 Guidelines for Hole Cleaning Sweeps
High Viscosity Pills – Recommended for hole angles < 35°.
High Density Pills – Usually mixed at 15 -30 pcf above circulating system
mud weight. The buoyancy effect of the higher density will increase the
carrying capacity of the mud. Do not use a high density pill alone if it is likely
to cause lost circulation. Consider formations, ECD and frac gradient.
Normal to slightly decreased pump rates are recommended for pumping
weighted sweeps. As a rule of thumb, if the end of the sweep is less than 4
pcf over the original mud weight (at the flowline), the sweep was probably too
short or too light or both.
Tandem pill consisting of 30 – 50 bbls base fluid (water, oil, or synthetic),

followed by a weighted pill (weighted to 15 – 30 pcf over the active mud
weight). The weight should be as high as feasible, taking into consideration
rig limitations and formations exposed. The pills must be pumped in
transitional or turbulent flow for maximum benefit and to prevent high-side
channeling by the low viscosity pill. Prior to pumping, the effect on the
hydrostatic head and the resultant well bore stability should be carefully
examined. The low viscosity pill in turbulent flow will scour cuttings into the
main annular flow path. The weighted pill with its increased buoyancy will
help in lifting the disturbed cuttings out of the hole when they fall out of the
low viscosity pill.
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Pills enhanced with ‘Fiber’ – Fibrous materials are strongly recommended

for milling operations. They function by the process of particle interference or
entangling the milled cuttings for more efficient removal. Amine treated wood
fibers and shredded nylon are two common products in use. The Synthetic
Polypropylene Fiber has been used and accounted for over 200% increase in
cuttings removal per sweep compared to sweeps without the material. Use at
concentrations of 0.1 – 0.5 lbs/bbl in a pill of active mud.
a) Utilize Sweep Sheets for Performance Evaluation
SWEEP SHEET
Date / Time:
Depth:
Hole angle:
Reason for sweep:
Average ROP:
Sliding / Rotation:
Active mud density:
Active mud PV/YP:
Active mud 6rpm/3rpm:
MWD tool in hole (type/company):
Circulating sub in hole (yes/no):
Pump rate during sweep:
Pipe rotation during sweep (Yes/No):
Bbls Density PV YP
High Vis only
High Density only
Tandem Sweep
Lo-vis
Hi-vis
Fiber-enhanced Sweep
Before After Remarks
Pump Pressure (psi)
Torque (off btm)
String Weight:
Up:
Down:
Sweep Effects: (% cuttings increase, pump pressure increase during sweep,

cuttings size/appearance, etc.)
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4.0 SPECIALIZED FLUID SYSTEMS
4.1 Overbalanced Drilling Fluids
• Drilling through depleted zones of relatively high permeability creates a

higher risk for differential sticking.
• Drilling through multiple zones of different pressure regimes over one

interval, e.g. Arab-A, B, C and D reservoirs creates a higher risk for
differential sticking.
• How much differential pressure is considered high overbalance? It

depends on: permeability, inclination, formation type, etc. Generally
speaking, normal mud can handle up to 500 psi without special efforts.
Prevention Mechanism
These systems utilize mud pressure isolation technique by creating an ultra-

low permeable, finely packed and slick filter cake across zones of different
pressure regimes. The mud additives used to build this filter cake will be
selected based on whether we are drilling in the reservoir or not.
Particle packing
• Sized synthetic graphitic additives (RGC (resilient graphitic carbon)) are

able to seal large pore throats and remain in place with changing
pressures in the well. The particles deform with increased pressure and
return to original size as pressures reduce, such as with surge and swab
pressure changes. Not recommended for reservoir drilling.
• Sized and flake CaCO3 (fine and medium) – pack and bridge small pore
throats (ok for reservoir drilling).
• Micronized fibre – fibre micelles seal small pore throats. Not
recommended for reservoir drilling.
Polymers
• Starch, Modified Starch, PAC and sealing Latex.

• Deform and seal in small pore-throats.
• Coat well bore.
System Example - Non Reservoir Applications
The system consists of:

• Resilient Graphitic Additives
• Sealing polymers
• Sized Calcium Carbonate
• Micronized Fibers
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Reservoir Applications
WBM or OBM can be used in high overbalance reservoir applications without

graphitic additives. Special care is required in managing a properly bridged
particle size relative to the formation pore throats and appropriate filtration
polymers to achieve a thin, impermeable cake during the entire drilling
operation. Proper cake management is more critical without the aid of
graphite and sealing polymers.
Examples (Reservoir Applications – WBM or OBM)

Polymers (Premium Modified Starches)
Sized and Flake Calcium Carbonate
4.2 High Performance Water Based Mud Technology
Definition: Water Base Mud system that can emulate Oil Base or Synthetic
Oil Base Fluid performance while meeting environmental regulations.
Characteristics
• Highly inhibitive
• Primarily Polymeric
• High cost per barrel
• Engineering intensive
• Lower dilution rates due to increased cuttings inhibition
Chemistry
• Shale/Hole Stability & Clay Inhibition by unique chemistry, e.g. silicates,
aluminates and polyamines
• Cuttings encapsulation polymers.
• ROP enhancing, minimal bit balling, lower torque & drag by utilizing
synthetic oil and surfactant mixture
Vendor Examples – HPWBM SYSTEM
PERFORMAX TM Baker Hughes Drilling Fluids

ULTRADRIL TM M-I SWACO
TM
HYDRO-GUARD Baroid Drilling Fluids
TM
HYPR-DRILL SCOMI
4.3 Low Density (Oil-In-Water or Brine) Emulsions
For low pressure reservoirs requiring workover, drill-in and completion fluids
lighter than water (62.4 pcf), two alternatives are available:
• Direct emulsions, oil-in-water.

• Invert emulsions, water-in-oil.
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4.3.1 Direct emulsions
Low density direct emulsions are made with water as the continuous
phase and dispersed oil (as fine drops) which is the internal phase.
This emulsion is recommended when formation wettability change to
oil-wet is undesirable. The emulsifier used is a water wetting
surfactant for maintaining the drilled cuttings and solids water wet
allowing easy hole cleaning. Viscosity and suspension are developed
with small concentrations of water soluble polymers such as XC-
polymer. It is much cheaper than the invert. The water phase can
contain KCl for inhibiting sensitive clays in the reservoir rock. This
emulsion is not chemically stable and requires mechanical shear
(good agitation) to prevent oil separation.
Under static conditions and downhole temperature, the emulsion will

break after sometime. With a high viscosity external phase (water)
the emulsion can stay stable for longer periods in the hole. Fine solids
such as CaCO 3 (10 microns) will stabilize the emulsion and makes a
suitable drill-in fluid. Emulsions should never be injected into the
reservoir even if they are solids-free. Forcing a thick emulsion into the
reservoir will create blockage which will require treatment with mutual
solvents, surfactants and / or acids to remove.
Example of a Direct Oil Emulsion (DOE) mud
Formulation and order of addition Average fluid properties

Make-up water bbl: 0.5 Density lb/ft3 : 57
XC-Polymer lb: 1 Plastic viscosity cp : 18
2
Starch lb: 6 Yield point lb/100 ft : 25
2
Caustic lb: 1 10 sec gel lb/100 ft : 4
2
Oil bbl: 0.5 10 min gel lb/100 ft : 6
DOE Emulsifier gal: 0.06 Filtrate cc/30 min : 4
CaCO 3 fine lb: 5 pH : 9
4.4 Oil-Based Fluids and Invert Emulsions
Oil-based well servicing fluids are generally a form of invert emulsion, with
some type of oil as the external or continuous phase. Crude oils are used
occasionally, but their application usually is limited to depleted formations.
The use of oil-based fluids offers several advantages. These include:
a) High temperature stability for deep high pressure wells.
b) Wide density range up to 157 pcf.
c) Maximum inhibition for clays.
d) Non-corrosive to the tubular and downhole equipment.
e) Stable in most subsurface environments.
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Example of an Oil Based Mud
Formulation & order of addition Average fluid properties

(one barrel)
3
Oil bbl : 0.5 Density lb/ft : 85
Invermul lb : 6.0 Viscosity sec/qt : 45
Lime lb : 4.0 Plastic viscosity cp : 25
2
Duratone lb : 6.0 Yield point lb/100ft : 20
2
Water bbl : 0.2 Gels lb/100ft : 4/8
Geltone V lb : 2.0 Filtrate (200ºF/500psi) ml : 2 all oil
EZ-Mul lb : 2.0 Electrical stability volts : 800
CaCl 2 (78%) lb : 61 Oil/Water ratio : 70/30
CaCO 3 fine lb : 113
Invermul, EZ Mul, Duratone and Geltone V are example of OBM additives

from vendor.
Invert emulsions originally were developed as drilling fluids, specifically for

use in deep, hot holes. The oil-based fluids can be designed for working
temperatures in excess of 500°F and densities from 56 to 157 pcf.
Since oil is the external phase, the fluid invading the formation will be all oil
which should have no effect on the clays in the formation. This minimizes the
concern for clay migration or clay swelling.
These fluids are non-corrosive and resistant to most contaminants which

affect water-base fluids. Formation damage studies with various oil-base
fluids consistently show minimal damaging characteristics. Oil-base fluids
being the ideal well servicing fluid. They do, however, have some
disadvantages including that they may:
• be restricted in environmentally sensitive areas.

• contain high solids and damage dry gas sand payzones.
• will change the formation wettability and cause emulsion blocks.
Stricter environmental regulations are making it difficult to use oil-base fluids

without the use of expensive handling equipment and high disposal costs.
This is especially true offshore. Higher density oil muds contain a high
percentage of solids. The majority of these solids are incompressible, but the
fluid could contain a certain percentage of compressible solids, such as
organophilic clays or drilled solids. Oil-base fluids contain oil wetting
surfactants designed to make the solids dispersed in them preferentially oil
wet. These wetting agents could cause the formation to become preferentially
oil wet, lowering the relative permeability to oil. Should this occur, the
condition is usually temporary.
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The emulsifiers in the oil-base fluids could form emulsions in the formation,
causing emulsion blocks. Mutual solvents and water wetting surfactants will
remove the damage and restore productivity (Zuluf, Marjan and Safaniyah
horizontal wells is a good example). Exposure of a formation containing only
gas and water to an oil-base fluid can result in a reduction of the relative
permeability to gas by the introduction of a third immiscible fluid. Oil filtrate
invasion will occur. When gas production begins, some of the oil filtrate will
back flow and clean up, but some of the filtrate will remain as irreducible or
immobile, hence lowering the gas productivity of the well.
4.5 Air / Mist / Foam
The use of dry air, mist, stiff foam, or aerated mud as the circulating fluid is
rarely used. Dry air or dust drilling is used when the formation is completely
dry or when there is only a slight water influx. Air is ideal to reduce formation
damage. Since there is no liquid phase, there is no fluid loss and no invasion
of particles. The use of foam as a well servicing fluid should be considered
with low bottom hole pressure wells.
4.6 Gypsum Mud
A gypsum (gyp) mud system is designed to drill anhydrite (CaSO 4 ) by using

gypsum (CaSO 4 •2H 2 O) as the source of Calcium to inhibit the anhydrite,
preventing washouts. By increasing the concentration of soluble Calcium in
the fluid, the inhibitiveness of the fluid is increased. Gypsum muds can also
be used to provide inhibition while drilling water-sensitive shales, (although
not typically the case with Aramco) but would require the addition of
lignosulfonate to effectively neutralize the clay particles.
To maintain a sufficient amount of soluble Calcium, the pH should be kept

low (9.0 to 10.5). The normal concentration of soluble Calcium in this system
is in the 600 to 1,200 mg/L range. Since the solubility of Calcium is affected
by pH and salinity, the actual level will depend on these properties.
Below is a typical Gypsum Mud Formulation for drilling anhydrite:
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Formulation and Material Concentration Target Fluid Properties
Material Unit Quantity Property Unit Value

75 pcf 80 pcf
Water bbl 0.84 0.77 Density pcf 78 - 80
XC Polymer lb 0.5 – 1.5 0.5 – 1.5 PV cp ALAP
Starch lb 4–6 4–6 YP lb/100 ft2 18 - 25
CaCl2 lb 85 135 6 RPM lb/100 ft2 7-9
Lime lb 0.25 – 0.5 0.25 – 0.5 Gels 10s/10m lb/100 ft2 5-8 / 8/12
Gypsum lb 5–8 5–8 API Filtrate ml/30 min <5
CaCO3 Fine lb 15 15 HPHT @200F ml/30 min <14
CaCO3 Med lb 15 15 pH 8.5 - 9.5
H2S Scav lb 2–4 2–4 Chlorides mg/l 120 - 200K
De-Foamer lb As Req As Req Excess Gyp ppb 2-6
The mud engineer must ensure sufficient excess gypsum of 2 – 6 ppb. This
estimate can be calculated as follows:
Excess ppb gypsum = 0.48 x [V M – (V F x F W )] or (V M – V F ) / 2
V M is the ml of versanate from the hardness test on the whole mud

V F is the ml of versanate from the hardness test on the filtrate
F W is the water fraction
5.0 RESERVOIR DRILL-IN FLUIDS
5.1 Overview – All Areas
5.1.1 Reservoir Drill-In Fluid Components
Reservoir Drill-In Fluids are the most important muds we use because
they have direct impact on how much production or injection we
achieve from a well.
“The completion starts when the bit hits the reservoir.”
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• Brine: Brines are defined as an aqueous solution at any

concentration of any combination of typical salts generally used to
achieve solids free density or shale inhibition.
• Brines can be composed of a single salt or a combination of 2 or 3
different salts.
• Salt: Defined, not just as Sodium Chloride (NaCl), but as any type
of salt used to build drilling or completion fluids.
There are 2 classes of salts commonly used in our industry:
a) Inorganic Salt – Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, or Ammonium

Chloride; Sodium, Calcium or Zinc Bromide.
b) Organic Salt – Sodium, Potassium or Cesium Formate; Potassium
Acetate
Oil Base Reservoir Drill In Fluid
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5.1.2 Reservoir Drill-In Fluid - Design of Bridging Materials
Bridging the production zone is the key to minimizing formation

damage. CaCO 3 blend must be calculated to properly bridge the pore
throats of the reservoir and build an external filter cake with low lift off
pressure. The big challenge is in maintaining this blend while drilling.
A rule of thumb for estimating an unknown pore diameter is to use the
square root of the permeability of the zone in millidarcies.
5.1.3 Reservoir Drill-In Fluid Maintenance
a) Run PPA (Particle Plugging Apparatus) twice a day when drilling

the reservoir. Maintain PPA values =/< the original newly mixed
mud.
b) If available, monitor the active drilling mud with a Particle Size
Analyzer at least once a day while drilling with onsite equipment or
by sending samples to the Aramco Lab for maximum 24 hour
turnaround on results.
c) Control ROP when in the reservoir to no faster than needed to
maintain the designed properties of the Drill-In fluid. Typically this
is around 80 ft/hr.
d) Maintain continuous additions of larger CaCO 3 while drilling to
counteract the continual grinding down of the CaCO 3 to fine,
zone-damaging sizes by the BHA. Typically this addition is about
300 lbs to as much as 2000+ lbs added per hour required to
maintain the designed Particle Size Distribution (PSD) of the mud.
e) Utilize centrifuges and dump and dilute practices as necessary to
help maintain the PSD.
f) Use Premium Modified Starches in the reservoir for fluid loss
control. They can be degraded by enzymes and acids. They are
known to cause less formation damage than polyanionic cellulose
(PAC).
g) Do not use asphaltic products Sulfonated Asphalt or Gilsonite in
the reservoir and avoid or minimize bentonite or barite if possible
in the mud.
h) Avoid typical grease pills containing diesel, mineral oil, bentonite,
and barite in the reservoir. Glycol pills are preferred first step in
freeing the pipe along with reducing mud weight if possible to
minimize formation damage.
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5.2 Acid Soluble (CaCO3) Bridging and Weight Material

5.2.1 Fluid Formulations (Example)
Fluid loss control for these special brine / polymer systems is

achieved by solids and polymers. The key to sealing off a production
zone is a proper mixture of bridging solids, colloidal solids, and sub
colloidal particles. This combination creates an impermeable bridge
across the face of the production zone (or as close as possible to the
wellbore) for minimizing the fluid or fluid filtrate invasion into the
formation. Coarser particles bridge on the pore spaces around the
wellbore. This reduces the porosity and permeability at the wellbore
surface. This bridge is then sealed by smaller particles, which plug the
fine inter-particle spaces of the bridging solids. The bridge or wall
cake allows only a very small amount of liquid to filter into the
formation. The colloidal and sub colloidal particles are normally a
combination of polymers, modified starches, and sized Calcium
Carbonate.
The formation of tight, impermeable bridges requires some knowledge

of the particle size distribution of the bridging solid and the average
size of the formation pore opening. Particles which are one-third of the
average pore size of the formation will get trapped in the pore and
initiate a bridge. Smaller particles will pass through the formation,
while larger ones will pack on the surface and not seal properly. The
average pore size can be calculated by taking the square root of the
permeability (in millidarcies) of the formation. This number is the
average pore size in microns. For example, if the formation has a
permeability of 100 millidarcies, the average pore size is 10 microns.
To seal this formation, the bridging material must then contain a
percentage of particles in the 3.5 micron range. Designing a bridging
material is a delicate process. Care must be taken to see that this
material contains enough different size particles to seal production
zones.
Should a production zone have an extremely high or extremely low

permeability, the bridging material may have to be altered to
compensate for the abnormal pore sizes.
Do not use just any available material for bridging and expect to get a
tight seal on the formation.
The most commonly used bridging materials are Calcium Carbonate

(ground marble). It is the primary bridging agent in the acid soluble
brine / polymer systems. This material is totally soluble in 15%
hydrochloric acid. Calcium Carbonate is used as a weighting agent in
the drilling fluids for all the Carbonate reservoirs development wells
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(Arab-D, Hanifa, Hadriyah etc.). In most cases, the fine grind (average
particle size is 10 microns) which is used as weight material will not
work as a bridging agent in zones with more than 100 md
permeability.
a) Ground marble ( fine - 10 microns )

b) Ground marble ( medium - 150 microns )
c) Ground marble ( coarse - 600 microns )
d) Ground marble ( chips - 2000 microns )
Typical Formulation
(one barrel)
Fresh, clean water bbl : 0.92 Density lb/ft³ 71
Defoamer gal : 0.01 Plastic viscosity cp 12
XC-Polymer lb : 1 Yield point lb/100 ft² 15
Modified starch lb : 4-6 Gels lb/100 ft² 2/6
MgO lb : 0.5 Filtrate ml/30 min 8
CaCO 3 (fine) lb : 10 pH 9
Salt (NaCl) lb : 75 Cl¯ mg/l 130K
If Low Chlorides is Preferred (Example)

( one barrel )
Fresh, clean water bbl : 0.93 Density lb/ft³ 71
Defoamer gal : 0.01 Plastic viscosity cp 25
XC-Polymer lb : 1 Yield point lb/100 ft² 15
Modified starch lb : 4-6 Gels lb/100 ft² 2/6
MgO lb : 0.5 Filtrate ml/30 min 6
CaCO 3 (fine) lb : 75 pH 9
Cl¯ mg/l < 10000
5.3 Brine Based Drill-In Fluids
Drill-In Fluids designed to drill the reservoir and minimize formation damage
often use brine (salt and water) to provide density without using insoluble
weighting material. This formulation minimizes the damaging effect solids
can cause to producing formations as well as minimizing the effects of solids
content on ECD (equivalent circulating density) yielding lower pressure
losses downhole which contributes to drilling efficiency.
Brine types for drill-in fluids typically used in Saudi Aramco operations can be
based on:
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• KCl (Potassium Chloride)

• NaCl (Sodium Chloride)
• CaCl 2 (Calcium Chloride)
• NaCOOH(Sodium formate)
• KCOOH (Potassium formate)
Other specialized brines can be used for these formulations such as NaBr
(Sodium bromide) or CsCOOH (cesium formate) but are typically not used yet
in Saudi Aramco.
5.4 Formate Based Drill-In Fluids
These fluids are used extensively in Gas Drilling in Saudi Aramco and have
significant advantages for drilling such as:
• Enhance temperature limitations of polymers to 300° +

• Excellent inherent lubricity
• Minimize corrosion potential
• Formate brines have excellent compatibility with reservoir fluids and
minerals, and outperform traditional brines by reducing formation damage
and increasing well productivity.
• Able to reach base brine densities of 93 pcf, up to 100 pcf +/- with
addition of CaCO 3 .
• Lower ECD (equivalent circulating density).
Formate based fluids require special attention and maintenance primarily due
to the high cost of the formate brines.
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Formate Fluids Field Guidelines:
Mixing:
• Potassium Formate is brought to location as sack salt (25 kg s) or as

liquid in 1 m3 IBC’s (6.3 bbl) @ 97 - 98 pcf.
• Sodium Formate is brought to location as sacked salt (25 kg s).
• Check your make up water available on rig, and then start to mix base
fluid as program. Weigh the brine before anything is added, use
pressurized mud balance. The order of addition should be followed to avoid
foaming problems. Add defoamer to base fluid (a defoamer designed for
brines is best). Viscosifiers and fluid loss reducing polymers are added to
base fluid slowly by hopper (Premium Modified Starch is the
recommended fluid loss reducer).
• The polymer is added slowly (sack every 30-60 minutes) with maximum
shear.
• Add first fluid loss reducer(in case of using Premium Modified Starch, mix
only half of quantity required and leave other half after displacing hole
with formate fluid for better shearing and rheology control).
• As little as 0.2 ppb XC Polymer in Potassium Formate and 0.5 ppb in
Sodium Formate will eventually shear and produce twice as much Yield
as in seawater.
• Formate brine is, itself, viscous and aids in suspension.
• Some of the XC Polymer required by the formulation can be added at a
later stage rather than in the initial mix, depending on operations.
• After adding the polymer, the pH is raised to >10.5 using 3.34 ppb Soda
Ash, 2 ppb Sodium Bicarbonate, always keep ratio 1.67 Soda Ash : 1
Sodium Bicarbonate.
• Add required Marble fine for bridging. As well as weighting the mud,
Marble combines with the Fluid Reducing polymer to give better Filter
Cake and work as Bridging material. For this reason, it may be necessary
to first reduce the brine weight to accommodate enough Marble in the
formulation. It is recommended to use metamorphic, sized Calcium
Carbonates.
• 45-60 ppb Calcium Carbonate is considered sufficient to help make an
effective bridging.
• More Calcium Carbonate will be needed in case of higher Mud weight
(never reach saturation with formate salts, always leave free water
available for polymers to act).
• The mud greatly benefits from shearing. Marble Fine will remain in
suspension with agitation. Marble Fine will thicken the mix. Adding Marble
Fine to viscous brine may block the hopper.
• Approx. 12.5 ppb Marble raises M.WT. by 1 pcf.
• Keep the mix pumps running for as long as possible and maximise
agitation.
• Separate shear pumps and /or mud guns are recommended.
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• The mix might appear thin when first mixed but will thicken with raised pH
and shear, yielding of polymers in saturated formate systems takes more
time and heat to achieve than in fresh water ones.
• The coarser Marble should be added while drilling.
Displacement
Formulate spacer and sequence as follow:
• Pump 50 bbl of Fresh water with 2% detergent to remove oil, or grease

inside casing.
• Mix and pump a viscosified/weighted spacer (old mud, if logistic is
possible)
• Mix and pump a viscosified spacer (30 bbls of clean formate brine and 1 –
2.5 ppb XC-Polymer, at least 2 time the rheology of the previous mud)
• Follow this spacer with Formate System
Once displacement begins, do not stop the pumping operation. Rotate

and reciprocate the drill pipe at least one joint every 15 min after spacer
have cleared the bottom of the DP. The circulation rates during the
displacement should be the maximum allowable GPM; all this action is to
reduce channeling.
Treatment:
• While drilling it is always better to mix Soda Ash and Sodium Bicarbonate
in chemical barrel for pH control.
• Up to 12 ppb of Soda Ash combined with Sodium Bicarbonate may be
needed to achieve desired fluid buffering i.e. 7.5 ppb Soda Ash and 4.5
ppb Sodium Bicarbonate, always keep ratio 1.67 Soda Ash : 1 Sodium
Bicarbonate.
• It is not recommended to use NaOH or KOH for buffering formate fluids
(could be used if absolutely necessary for immediate pH increase), mud
is easier to handle using the softer alkalis. KOH can only be used in case
of large gas influx resulting in rapid decrease in pH; KOH will allow faster
regain of pH than Soda Ash.
• Soda Ash may come in 50 kg sack and the Bicarbonate in 25 kg sx.
• Foaming occurs in all brines and De-foamer is required. Care should be
taken not to over treat with De-foamer.
• Over-treatment can cause foaming and then further additions become
counterproductive. Foam may take a while to settle down after the De-
foamer is added. Some foam will always remain.
Tank Fluid levels should be high enough to prevent air entering the pumps.
Avoid mixing on suction tank, mix on intermediate tank or use pre-mixed pills
and transfer slowly to suction to prevent foams and pump pressure
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fluctuation, because aeration/foaming is present in the mud, only a pressure

balance will give a true weight.
If needed to increase the weight, Use dry formate salt without buidling large
fluid volumes( big quantity and costly) or utilize the heavy fluids made from
the existing fluids in Shedgum plant. Use 80 /100 mesh shale shaker screens
for the first 16 hours drilling to allow the polymers to shear. Then, utilize the
finest mesh shaker screens compatible with the circulation rate used (a
combination of 200 and 265 mesh screens are recommended).
Utilize a high speed centrifuge (two sets) on the active system (up to 3400
rpm) to remove the ultra-fine solids, replace fine discarded solids with fresh
sized CaCo3 for better bridging and lower PPA value.
Use Mud bucket and air pumps in order to recover mud losses during drilling
and completion operations. It is recommended to add 1-2 bbl/hour water to
active system to replace evaporated water. Premium Modified Starch should
be used as fluid loss reducer. Addition should be slowly 1 sack in 30 min. to
prevent sudden increase in rheology.
Blending of Na+ Formate & K+ Formate Brines for Cost & Performance
By blending together solutions of Sodium Formate and potassium Formate in

the ratio necessary to produce the required final density, both the cost of the
final brine and the properties can be optimized. Note the formulation
crystallization temperatures when blending - 14°F blends are for the winter
months and the 50°F formulations are used for the rest of the year.
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SODIUM/POTASSIUM FORMATE FLUIDS

Winter grade: TCT = 14 0 F. (-10 0 C.)
Formulation Table
96.3% SODIUM FORMATE, 13.1 ppg POTASSIUM FORMATE and water
quantities to prepare 1 bbl of fluid
Dens ity Dens ity Dens ity Sodium Potas s ium 96.30% 13.1 ppg Water
(pcf) (ppg) Formate Potas s ium
content Formate
(SG) Formate (% w/w) Sodium (bbl) (bbl)
content Formate
(% w/w) (lb)
74.1 9.9 1.188 29 0 125.2 0 0.83
74.8 10 1.2 26.8 1.6 116.9 0.016 0.84
75.5 10.1 1.212 23.9 6.5 105.3 0.067 0.806
76.3 10.2 1.224 21.5 10.9 95.6 0.113 0.773
77.0 10.3 1.236 19.6 14.9 88 0.156 0.739
77.8 10.4 1.248 17.9 18.4 81.2 0.195 0.71
78.5 10.5 1.261 16.6 21.6 76 0.231 0.68
79.3 10.6 1.273 15.6 24.3 72.1 0.262 0.654
80.0 10.7 1.285 14.9 26.8 69.5 0.292 0.627
80.8 10.8 1.297 14.4 28.9 67.8 0.317 0.603
81.5 10.9 1.309 14.1 30.8 67 0.341 0.579
82.3 11 1.319 13.7 32.7 65.7 0.366 0.557
83.0 11.1 1.331 13.5 34.5 65.4 0.39 0.533
83.8 11.2 1.343 13.4 36.1 65.5 0.411 0.51
84.5 11.3 1.355 13.7 37.4 67.5 0.43 0.487
85.3 11.4 1.367 14 38.5 69.6 0.446 0.467
86.0 11.5 1.379 14.4 39.4 72.2 0.461 0.449
86.8 11.6 1.391 14.9 40.3 75.4 0.475 0.429
87.5 11.7 1.403 15.4 41.2 78.6 0.49 0.409
88.3 11.8 1.415 15.9 42 81.8 0.504 0.39
89.0 11.9 1.427 16.3 42.9 84.6 0.519 0.37
89.8 12 1.439 16.5 43.9 86.4 0.536 0.351
90.5 12.1 1.451 16.7 45.1 88.1 0.555 0.328
91.3 12.2 1.463 16.6 46.4 88.3 0.576 0.306
92.0 12.3 1.475 16.3 48 87.4 0.601 0.282
92.8 12.4 1.487 15.7 49.8 84.9 0.628 0.258
93.5 12.5 1.499 14.8 52.1 80.7 0.662 0.228
94.2 12.6 1.511 13.5 54.7 74.2 0.701 0.198
95.0 12.7 1.523 11.8 57.7 65.4 0.745 0.166
95.7 12.8 1.535 9.7 61.2 54.2 0.797 0.129
96.5 12.9 1.547 7.1 65.2 39.9 0.855 0.089
97.2 13 1.559 3.9 69.8 22.1 0.923 0.046
98.0 13.1 1.571 0 75 0 1 0
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5.5 Water Soluble Bridging Material
In brine / polymer systems, it is possible to use sized Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

as bridging particles. However, this can only work in a fluid which is near or
already saturated with respect to Sodium Chloride. Therefore, the minimum
mud weight is above 75 pcf. Sizing Sodium Chloride to the small sizes
needed is fairly difficult and should be done in a zero humidity envIronment.
The NaCl bridge will dissolve in under saturated solutions (or fresh water)
usually associated with production. This system is relatively expensive and
can be justified for dry gas wells.
5.6 Lost Circulation Solutions for the Reservoir
Rules for Treating Losses in the Reservoir

• For lost circulation in reservoirs to be completed open hole, only acid
soluble materials are allowed. This allows clean-up of the LCM residue
by acid stimulation.
• If casing is to be run across the reservoir and perforated, the lost
circulation materials do not have to be acid soluble. Perforations
typically will penetrate past any damage from mud products.
Recommended Acid Soluble Products for cutting Lost Circulation in the

Reservoir
• CaCO 3 Fine, 10 micron – SAP # 1000021813 (2,200 lbs/big bag)
• CaCO 3 Medium, 150 micron – SAP #1000021819 (2,200 lbs/big bag)
• CaCO 3 Coarse, 600 micron – SAP #1000021815 (2,200 lbs/big bag)
• Acid Soluble Fiber–one size – SAP # 1000757582 (30 lbs/sack)
• CaCO 3 Flake fine, 420 micron – SAP #1000813534 (50 lbs/sack)
• CaCO 3 Flake medium, 1,000 micron – SAP #1000813690 (50 lbs/sack)
• CaCO 3 Flake coarse, 2,800 micron – SAP #1000813535 (50 lbs/sack)
Rule of Thumb: The LCM formulation with the best chance of success is a
combination of particles, fibers and flakes.
Recommended Pill Formulations
a) Seepage: up to 10% - losses (Sweeping Pill)

• Transfer 30 - 50 bbls of mud from the active system to the slug tank.
• Mix a combination of the following products through the hopper.
Concentration and product mix can be adjusted depending on
availability:
i. 10 ppb Acid Soluble Fiber.
ii. 5 ppb fine CaCO 3.
iii. 5 ppb CaCO 3 Flake fine.
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• Sweep the hole with this pill and take it back into the system. Repeat
this procedure as required.
• If sweeping the pill is unsuccessful, spot and soak the pill for 1 – 2
hours.
b) Moderate: up to 30% losses – (Spotting Pill - this formulation can be

pumped through motors)
• Transfer 50 - 100 bbls of mud from the active system to the slug tank.
availability:
i. 20 ppb Acid Soluble Fiber.
ii. 5 ppb CaCO 3 Flake fine.
iii. 5 ppb CaCO 3 Flake medium.
iv. 10 ppb medium or coarse CaCO 3
• Spot the pill across the suspected loss zone and allow to soak for 1 –
4 hours. Pump additional pills as required.
• With prior approval from the directional company and the Saudi
Aramco engineer, concentrations greater than 40 ppb of LCM can be
pumped through various downhole tools.
c) Severe: up to 100% losses – (Spotting Pill - Lower concentrations can

be pumped through a bit, higher concentrations should be pumped
open-ended)
• Transfer 100 - 200 bbls of mud from the active system to the slug
tank.
availability:
• 30 – 40 ppb Acid Soluble Fiber.
• 15 – 20 ppb medium CaCO 3
• 15 – 20 ppb coarse CaCO 3 (150 micron)
• 15 – 20 ppb CaCO 3 Flake medium
• 15 – 20 ppb CaCO 3 Flake coarse
• Spot the pill in the loss zone and soft squeeze or allow to soak for 1 –
4 hours. Mix and pump additional pills as required.
5.7 Reservoir Drill-In Fluids – Important Points
Lab and field results strongly suggest that the use of specially designed
brine/polymer systems, with properly sized bridging particles, are among the
best well servicing fluids. These systems form external bridges on the surface
of the borehole and seal off production zones with minimum invasion of fluid.
The bridge can be removed by mechanical action or it can be solubilized.
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These systems are inhibitive, and offer a wide range of densities, lifting
capacity, and suspension qualities. Compared to clear brines, polymer
systems are economical at higher densities.
The formation of a good, tight, external bridge is the key to the success of
these fluids. This bridge is especially effective in depleted zones which
cannot hold the pressure gradient of water or oil. Specially designed
brine/polymer systems can effectively control fluid loss at overbalance
pressure.
Removal of the external bridge is usually accomplished by flushing or

bringing the well back on production. If further clean up is necessary, an acid
soluble bridge can be removed with a 15% hydrochloric acid wash, a Sodium
Chloride bridge can be removed with a low salinity water wash, and an oil
soluble resin bridge with diesel, crude oil, xylene wash, surfactants or
solvents.
Remember
a) High shear mixing is very important to allow the polymers to perform and
to eliminate fisheyes and polymer lumps which may reach the
perforations downhole and cause plugging problems.
b) Foaming is almost always a problem while mixing brine-based fluids.
Defoamers should be available on location. Follow the recommended
order of addition in the initial mix, and mix defoamer with any salt or
water required for system maintenance. Avoid injecting air into the
slurry with a mixing hopper, guns and pumps.
c) Corrosion can be excessive, but maintaining the pH with Magnesium
Oxide, using Oxygen Scavenger (Sodium Sulfite) and corrosion
inhibitors can control this. Be sure the corrosion inhibitor used is not
going to be injected into the payzone. All corrosion inhibitors are
damaging to the reservoir.
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6.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUIDS ADDITIVES
6.1 Acid Soluble (CaCO3) Weighting Material
Conventional Water base muds (composed of bentonite, barite and

lignosulfonates, etc.) should ideally not be used except in zones to be
abandoned. These muds may contain high concentrations of dispersed fine
solids and clays that can cause irreversible formation damage. Also, the
filtrate of these muds can cause dispersion, movement and swelling of the
formation clay minerals. Fluid densities up to 100 pcf can be specially
designed and achieved with finely ground marble (5-25 microns) and various
concentrations of organic or inorganic salts.
Typical Physical and chemical constants for sized marble

Hardness (Mohr's Scale)
Specific Gravity
Bulk density, lb/ft3
Total Carbonates (Ca, Mg)
Total impurities (Al 2 O 3 , Fe 2 O 3 , SiO 2 , Mn) 2.0 % (Max.)
To minimize the high viscosities associated with large solids content, the
Calcium Carbonate should be ground in such a way that 93% will go through
a 325 mesh screen. Both Calcium Carbonate are soluble in hydrochloric acid
(HCl 15 %). Calcium Carbonate used has a specific gravity of 2.7 g/cc and
should be at least 97 % acid soluble. One gallon of HCl 15% dissolves 1.84 lb
of Calcium Carbonate. These solids may be left to plug the formation or may
be flushed out depending on the size and distribution of the formation pore
channels. A combination of hydrochloric acid and hydrofluoric acids (HF or
mud acid) should not be used with Calcium Carbonate. The hydrofluoric acid
reacts with the Calcium to precipitate insoluble salts. Calcium Carbonate
(ground marble) is locally produced and commonly used in drilling fluid.
6.2 Characteristics of Polymers
The most suitable viscosifiers for non-damaging completion and workover

fluids are XC-polymer (xanthan gum) and HEC (Hydroxy Ethyl Cellulose).
These polymers are effective in salt brines and the thickening action can be
stabilized at temperatures as high as 275°F. Other viscosifiers such as
bentonite, polyacrylamide and guar gum are not degradable and should not
be used in the reservoir. When choosing a viscosifier, determine the
product’s generic name or chemical composition and whether or not it is
degradable. Some polymers should not come in contact with reservoir rocks.
In most applications of these systems, it is necessary to add polymers to
control filtration and to provide carrying capacity and suspension. After
examining the characteristics of all available polymers, the industry preferred
polymers to be used are HEC, XC-Polymer and Modified Starch. In
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applications where a high carrying capacity is required, suspending

properties (gel strength) can be only achieved with XC-Polymer (xanthan
gum). HEC does not suspend solids while fluid is static because it does not
produce gel strength. Also, it should be kept in mind that for stabilizing the
suspension and minimize settling, MgO (Magnesium Oxide) should be used.
It buffers pH up to 10.
Characteristics of water soluble polymers used for viscosity, suspension and
filtration control
Viscosity Filtration Suspension Acid Brine

Polymer Type * Development Control Properties Solubility Tolerance
HEC NI Excellent Poor Poor Excellent Excellent

HEMC NI Excellent Poor Poor Good Excellent
CMC A Good Good Fair Poor Poor
XC-Polymer A Excellent Poor Excellent Good Good
PAC A Poor Good Poor Poor Poor
Starch NI Poor Good Poor Poor Good
Guar Gum NI Excellent Poor Poor Fair Good
NI Non Ionic
A Anionic
6.3 Viscosity and Suspension
It is necessary to assure that solids are suspended in the fluid. Suspended

solids should not rapidly separate from the fluid when circulation is stopped or
remains in tanks for some period of time. Calcium Carbonate "fine" should
have particles in the range of 5 - 50 microns which is fine enough to remain in
suspension by imparting gel strength to the well fluid. In drilling fluids, gel
strength is derived from the interaction of clay particles. In workover fluids gel
strength is usually provided by XC-polymer (not HEC). Gel strength of only 2
to 4 lb/100 ft² is sufficient to suspend the Barite used in drilling muds. More
gel strength is required to suspend larger particles or denser particles.
If the suspending fluid has no gel strength then the particles will settle out
with time. Particle settling can be drastically slowed, but not eliminated by
providing the fluid with increased viscosity. This is usually accomplished in
well fluids by adding XC-polymer to the fluid. When gel strength is used to
give particle suspending properties to a fluid, one must be concerned not only
with the ability of the resulting gel to suspend solids, but also with the
pressures required to reinitiate fluid flow. Depending on the location of gelled
fluid within the tubulars, undesirable pressure may develop at the surface or
bottomhole before the gel breaks and flow is reinitiated. The gel strength
determines the pressure required to break circulation.
For example, consider the removal of a gelled packer fluid from an annulus. A
concern in this case might be whether or not exposed formation will be
fractured before circulation is broken and packer fluid removal begun. In this
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case, if a 0.57 psi/ft packer fluid with a gel strength of 50 lb/100ft² were to be
circulated from a 3 1/2" x 7" annulus with a 0.54 psi/ft workover fluid in a
10,000 ft well, the pressure required to break circulation would be 840 psi.
The 840 psi increase in the surface pressure will be reflected by a similar
increase in the overbalance at the perforations. Such an increase may not be
tolerable. Circulating fluids are those working fluids used to move things
around within a well. These fluids may be required to transport solids into or,
more typically, out of the well. They may be required to suspend solids for
various lengths of time when circulation ceases. They may also be required
to displace treating fluids to the formation and in some cases to over displace
the treatment fluids out into the formation. Excessive loss of the circulating
fluid to the formation often cannot be tolerated.
In a workover involving solids transport or washing operations, the workover

fluid should be able to carry solids to the surface. In this application, viscosity
is the most important fluid property. As the viscosity of the fluid increases, the
carrying capacity increases.
There are three main factors which determine the magnitude of effective
viscosity required for solids transport in washing operations. These factors
are:
• Well temperature
• Size and weight of solids to be transported
• Shear conditions (flow rates and tubular dimensions) in the tubing or
annulus in which the solids are to be transported.
6.3.1 Temperature
The viscosity decreases more-or-less exponentially as temperature
increases. To be conservative it is appropriate to design using the
maximum expected circulating temperature thereby providing more
than sufficient viscosity for transport at all other temperatures. The
fluid temperature profile in a well depends upon wellbore geometry,
flow rate, flow direction, elapsed time and geothermal gradient.
Accurate estimation of the flowing temperature profile requires a
computer simulator.
The maximum circulating temperature is always less than the static

bottomhole temperature and always greater than the return fluid
temperature.
6.3.2 Solids to be transported

The second factor affecting the desired viscosity of a fluid is the
nature of the solids to be transported. As a rule, a higher viscosity is
required to transport larger and heavier particles. For example,
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removing cuttings from milling out a packer will require a viscosity

greater than that required to wash sand from the well.
6.3.3 Shear Condition

The third factor affecting the desired viscosity is the shear conditions
to which the fluid is exposed. The shear rate is determined by the fluid
flow rate and wellbore geometry at the point of interest. Shear
conditions have an effect similar to the effect of temperature on the
fluid viscosity. Most polymer viscosifiers, which are added to brines to
increase viscosity, are shear thinning (i.e., their viscosity drops as
shear increases). The shear rate through the tubing is significantly
greater than shear rate through the tubing casing annulus. Depending
on the type of operation, method of fluid circulation, and other well
conditions, the shear rate may be lesser or greater.
Typical shear rate ranges include:
Tanks, Pits 0 - 5 sec–1

Annulus 10 - 500 sec–1
Tubing, Workstring 100 - 3000 sec–1
The relationship between these three factors will determine the range
of viscosities that may be achieved with a particular fluid, and the
desired concentration of polymer required to achieve a particular
viscosity. The effect of particle size on required viscosity is illustrated
in the following table:
Particle Circ. Fluid Tubing Casing Required

size rate density viscosity
(BPM) (pcf) (inch) (inch) (cp)
40 mesh 5 67.3 3.5 Tubing 0.25

40 mesh 5 67.3 3.5 7" annul. 0.7
20 mesh 5 67.3 3.5 Tubing 1.0
20 mesh 5 67.3 3.5 7" annul 2.8
10 mesh 5 67.3 3.5 Tubing 5.8
10 mesh 5 67.3 3.5 7" annul 16
1 cm 5 67.3 3.5 Tubing 150
1 cm 5 67.3 3.5 7" annul 400
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7.0 SELECTING A COMPLETION FLUID
Some conditions must be satisfied when making a completion fluid selection from
all available systems. The fluid must have the necessary density required to control
the subsurface pressure. This may narrow the choice considerably. If a non-solids
or solids-free fluid is to be used, density limitations before precipitation of the solute
will dictate limitation of a particular fluid. For example, if Sodium Chloride is the
solids-free system of choice, then 75 pcf would be the density limit. If a higher
density is needed, then Calcium Chloride can be used to a limit of 86 pcf. After
inspecting what fluid would fit the hydrostatic head requirement, a cost comparison
should be made. Overall cost, however, should be included at this point, not just
the cost per bbl.
7.1 Solids - Free High Density Fluids
Brine Type Maximum Density, pcf

NaCl 75
NaCOOH (Sodium Formate) 83

CaCl2 87
NaBr 95
KCOOH (Potassium Formate) 98
CaBr2 106
CaCl2 / CaBr2 113
CaCl2 / CaBr2 / ZnBr2 144
CaBr2 / ZnBr2 151
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Brines used in completion and workover applications may be a single-salt

brine, two-salt brine, or a brine blend containing three different salt
compounds.
7.1.1 Single Salt Brines

Single salt brines are those made with clean fresh water and one
water soluble salt such as Potassium Chloride, Sodium Chloride and
Calcium Chloride. They are the simplest brines used in completion
and workover fluids. Because they contain only one salt, their initial
composition is easily understood. Their density is adjusted by adding
either salt or water. Crystallization point must be considered when
using these brines. These values are specific to the density of each
specific brine.
7.1.2 Two Salt Brines

Two salt brines are made with combination of two salts in fresh water.
They required accurate measurement of the starting volume of water
and the quantities of salts required for the specific density. Excess salt
will precipitate the less soluble salt. Crystallization points can be
specifically designed by varying the ratios of the salts.
7.1.3 Three Salt Blends

There salt brines are made with a combination of three salts in fresh
water. They require a specialist to blend in the field due to the
complex nature of the blends and several tests required during the
preparation of these blends. CaCl 2 / CaBr 2 / ZnBr 2 are example of
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these blends. Crystallization points can be specifically designed by

varying the ratios of the salts.
7.2 Sodium Chloride Brines
The most commonly used brine in the oil field is Sodium Chloride (NaCl). The
maximum density of a Sodium Chloride brine is 74.5 pcf at 60°F. The
preparation of brines up to 73 pcf is fairly easy. From 73 pcf to 74.5 pcf,
additional Sodium Chloride dissolves very slowly. Corrosion rates are fairly
low for the saturated brine (74.5 pcf) and high for the lower density brines.
Corrosion inhibitor is required for NaCl saturated packer fluids. Material
requirements for NaCl brines are provided in the formulation charts.
Sodium Chloride - Mixed From Dry
Fresh 99%
Den. Den. Sp. TCT ppm ppm mg/l mg/l % by
Water, NaCl,
ppg pcf Gr. deg F NaCl Cl NaCl Cl Wt.
bbl lbs
8.4 62.8 1.008 0.998 4.04 31 11,338 6,878 11,413 6,924 1.1%
8.5 63.6 1.020 0.993 9.09 29 25,210 15,293 25,680 15,579 2.5%
8.6 64.3 1.032 0.986 16.16 27 44,297 26,872 45,654 27,695 4.5%
8.7 65.1 1.044 0.981 22.22 26 60,208 36,525 62,774 38,081 6.1%
8.8 65.8 1.056 0.976 28.28 24 75,758 45,958 79,894 48,467 7.7%
8.9 66.6 1.068 0.969 35.35 22 93,633 56,801 99,868 60,584 9.5%
9.0 67.3 1.080 0.962 41.41 19 108,466 65,800 116,988 70,970 11.0%
9.1 68.1 1.092 0.955 47.47 17 122,972 74,600 134,108 81,355 12.4%
9.2 68.8 1.104 0.948 54.54 14 139,752 84,779 154,082 93,472 14.1%
9.3 69.6 1.116 0.940 61.61 11 156,170 94,739 174,055 105,589 15.8%
9.4 70.3 1.128 0.933 68.68 9 172,239 104,487 194,029 117,706 17.4%
9.5 71.1 1.140 0.926 74.74 6 185,464 112,510 211,149 128,092 18.7%
9.6 71.8 1.152 0.919 81.81 3 200,893 121,870 231,123 140,208 20.3%
9.7 72.6 1.164 0.910 88.88 -1 216,004 131,037 251,096 152,325 21.8%
9.8 73.3 1.176 0.902 95.95 -5 230,807 140,017 271,070 164,442 23.3%
103.0
9.9 74.1 1.188 0.895 2 5 245,310 148,815 291,044 176,559 24.8%
110.0
10.0 74.8 1.200 0.888 9 25 259,524 157,438 311,017 188,675 26.2%
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The effects of temperature change on NaCl density
lb / ft2 = 7.48 X lb / gal
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7.3 Potassium Chloride Brines
Potassium Chloride (KCl) brines are excellent completion fluids for water-
sensitive formations where densities over 72.5 pcf are not required. Corrosion
rates are reasonably low and can be reduced even more by keeping the pH
of the system between 8 and 10 using KOH. Material requirements for
preparing KCl brines are given in the formulation charts.
Potassium Chloride - Mixed From Dry
TC
Fresh 98%
Den Den Sp. T ppm ppm mg/l mg/l % by
Water KCl,
ppg pcf Gr. deg KCl Cl KCl Cl Wt.
, bbl lbs
F
8.4 62.8 1.008 0.995 4.1 31 11,338 5,392 11,413 5,428 1.2%
8.5 63.6 1.020 0.986 11.8 29 32,493 15,453 33,099 15,741 3.3%
8.6 64.3 1.032 0.976 19.3 28 52,326 24,884 53,929 25,647 5.3%
8.7 65.1 1.044 0.969 26.6 26 71,429 33,969 74,473 35,417 7.3%
8.8 65.8 1.056 0.960 34.1 25 90,368 42,976 95,303 45,323 9.2%
8.9 66.6 1.068 0.950 41.5 23 108,882 51,781 116,132 55,229 11.1%
9.0 67.3 1.080 0.943 48.9 22 126,720 60,264 136,676 64,999 12.9%
9.1 68.1 1.092 0.933 56.3 20 144,427 68,685 157,506 74,905 14.7%
9.2 68.8 1.104 0.924 63.6 18 161,491 76,800 178,050 84,675 16.5%
9.3 69.6 1.116 0.917 71.1 16 178,443 84,862 198,880 94,581 18.2%
9.4 70.3 1.128 0.907 78.4 14 194,782 92,632 219,424 104,351 19.9%
9.5 71.1 1.140 0.898 85.9 18 211,028 100,358 240,254 114,257 21.5%
9.6 71.8 1.152 0.890 93.3 40 226,935 107,923 261,083 124,163 23.1%
9.7 72.6 1.164 0.881 100.7 60 242,268 115,215 281,627 133,933 24.7%
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7.4 Calcium Chloride Brines

Calcium Chloride (CaCl 2 ) brines are easily mixed at densities up to 86 pcf.
Generally, dry CaCl 2 is available in two grades 94-97% and 77-80% pure. A
considerable amount of heat is generated when dry CaCl 2 is mixed with
water. Corrosion rates for CaCl 2 brines are approximately the same as for
KCl and NaCl brines; i.e., reasonably low between the pH of 7-10. Material
requirements for preparing CaCl 2 brines are given in the formulation charts.
Calcium Chloride - Mixed From Dry * 77- 78% Purity
Fresh 77-78%
Den TCT ppm ppm mg/l mg/l % by
Den pcf Sp. Gr. Water, CaCl 2 ,
ppg deg F CaCl 2 Cl CaCl 2 Cl Wt.
bbl lbs
8.4 62.8 1.008 0.999 3.5 31 7,809 4,990 7,861 5,023 1.0%
8.5 63.6 1.020 0.997 10.0 30 21,821 13,943 22,228 14,204 2.8%
8.6 64.3 1.032 0.994 16.3 29 35,244 22,521 36,323 23,211 4.5%
8.7 65.1 1.044 0.991 22.8 27 48,618 31,067 50,690 32,391 6.2%
8.8 65.8 1.056 0.987 29.5 25 62,202 39,747 65,599 41,918 8.0%
8.9 66.6 1.068 0.984 35.9 23 74,719 47,746 79,695 50,925 9.6%
9.0 67.3 1.080 0.980 42.8 21 88,214 56,369 95,146 60,798 11.3%
9.1 68.1 1.092 0.977 49.4 19 100,667 64,326 109,783 70,152 12.9%
9.2 68.8 1.104 0.972 56.4 17 113,587 72,582 125,234 80,025 14.6%
9.3 69.6 1.116 0.968 63.4 15 126,472 80,816 140,956 90,071 16.2%
9.4 70.3 1.128 0.963 70.5 12 139,083 88,874 156,679 100,118 17.9%
9.5 71.1 1.140 0.959 77.3 9 150,952 96,459 171,858 109,818 19.4%
9.6 71.8 1.152 0.954 84.5 6 163,281 104,337 187,852 120,037 21.0%
9.7 72.6 1.164 0.949 92.0 3 175,822 112,350 204,387 130,603 22.6%
9.8 73.3 1.176 0.944 99.4 0 188,107 120,201 220,922 141,169 24.2%
9.9 74.1 1.188 0.939 106.6 -4 199,687 127,600 236,915 151,389 25.6%
10.0 74.8 1.200 0.934 113.7 -8 210,810 134,707 252,637 161,435 27.1%
10.1 75.6 1.212 0.929 121.1 -13 222,383 142,103 269,173 172,001 28.6%
10.2 76.3 1.224 0.923 128.6 -18 233,730 149,354 285,708 182,567 30.0%
10.3 77.0 1.236 0.918 135.8 -23 244,417 156,183 301,701 192,787 31.4%
10.4 77.8 1.248 0.912 143.5 -29 255,769 163,437 318,778 203,699 32.8%
10.5 78.5 1.261 0.908 150.7 -36 266,043 170,002 334,772 213,919 34.2%
10.6 79.3 1.273 0.902 158.4 -43 276,977 176,988 351,849 224,832 35.6%
10.7 80.0 1.285 0.895 166.3 -51 288,129 184,114 369,469 236,090 37.0%
10.8 80.8 1.297 0.891 173.2 -59 297,399 190,038 384,920 245,964 38.2%
10.9 81.5 1.309 0.885 180.9 -40 307,744 196,648 401,997 256,876 39.5%
11.0 82.3 1.321 0.878 189.1 -22 318,723 203,664 420,159 268,481 40.9%
11.1 83.0 1.333 0.872 196.8 -11 328,689 210,033 437,236 279,394 42.2%
11.2 83.8 1.345 0.866 204.5 0 338,478 216,287 454,314 290,306 43.5%
11.3 84.5 1.357 0.859 212.4 13 348,493 222,687 471,933 301,565 44.8%
11.4 85.3 1.369 0.853 220.1 27 357,937 228,721 489,011 312,478 46.0%
11.5 86.0 1.381 0.846 228.0 35 367,609 234,902 506,630 323,737 47.2%
11.6 86.8 1.393 0.840 235.7 44 376,724 240,727 523,708 334,649 48.4%
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Note: The chart below is for 94% – 97% Purity Calcium Chloride
Calcium Chloride - Mixed From Dry * 94 - 97% Purity
Fresh 94-97%
Den Den TCT ppm mg/l mg/l % by
Sp. Gr. Water, CaCl 2 , ppm CaCl 2
ppg pcf deg F Cl CaCl 2 Cl Wt.
bbl lbs
8.4 62.8 1.008 0.999 2.9 31 7,809 4,990 7,861 5,023 0.8%
8.5 63.6 1.020 0.997 8.2 30 21,821 13,943 22,228 14,204 2.2%
8.6 64.3 1.032 0.994 13.4 29 35,244 22,521 36,323 23,211 3.5%
8.7 65.1 1.044 0.991 18.7 27 48,618 31,067 50,690 32,391 4.9%
8.8 65.8 1.056 0.987 24.2 25 62,202 39,747 65,599 41,918 6.2%
8.9 66.6 1.068 0.984 29.4 23 74,719 47,746 79,695 50,925 7.5%
9.0 67.3 1.080 0.980 35.1 21 88,214 56,369 95,146 60,798 8.8%
9.1 68.1 1.092 0.977 40.5 19 100,667 64,326 109,783 70,152 10.1%
9.2 68.8 1.104 0.972 46.2 17 113,587 72,582 125,234 80,025 11.4%
9.3 69.6 1.116 0.968 52.0 15 126,472 80,816 140,956 90,071 12.6%
9.4 70.3 1.128 0.963 57.8 12 139,083 88,874 156,679 100,118 13.9%
9.5 71.1 1.140 0.959 63.4 9 150,952 96,459 171,858 109,818 15.1%
9.6 71.8 1.152 0.954 69.3 6 163,281 104,337 187,852 120,037 16.3%
9.7 72.6 1.164 0.949 75.4 3 175,822 112,350 204,387 130,603 17.6%
9.8 73.3 1.176 0.944 81.5 0 188,107 120,201 220,922 141,169 18.8%
9.9 74.1 1.188 0.939 87.4 -4 199,687 127,600 236,915 151,389 20.0%
10.0 74.8 1.200 0.934 93.2 -8 210,810 134,707 252,637 161,435 21.1%
10.1 75.6 1.212 0.929 99.3 -13 222,383 142,103 269,173 172,001 22.2%
10.2 76.3 1.224 0.923 105.4 -18 233,730 149,354 285,708 182,567 23.4%
10.3 77.0 1.236 0.918 111.3 -23 244,417 156,183 301,701 192,787 24.4%
10.4 77.8 1.248 0.912 117.6 -29 255,769 163,437 318,778 203,699 25.6%
10.5 78.5 1.261 0.908 123.5 -36 266,043 170,002 334,772 213,919 26.6%
10.6 79.3 1.273 0.902 129.8 -43 276,977 176,988 351,849 224,832 27.7%
10.7 80.0 1.285 0.895 136.3 -51 288,129 184,114 369,469 236,090 28.8%
10.8 80.8 1.297 0.891 142.0 -59 297,399 190,038 384,920 245,964 29.7%
10.9 81.5 1.309 0.885 148.3 -40 307,744 196,648 401,997 256,876 30.8%
11.0 82.3 1.321 0.878 155.0 -22 318,723 203,664 420,159 268,481 31.9%
11.1 83.0 1.333 0.872 161.3 -11 328,689 210,033 437,236 279,394 32.9%
11.2 83.8 1.345 0.866 167.6 0 338,478 216,287 454,314 290,306 33.8%
11.3 84.5 1.357 0.859 174.1 13 348,493 222,687 471,933 301,565 34.8%
11.4 85.3 1.369 0.853 180.4 27 357,937 228,721 489,011 312,478 35.8%
11.5 86.0 1.381 0.846 186.9 35 367,609 234,902 506,630 323,737 36.8%
11.6 86.8 1.393 0.840 193.2 44 376,724 240,727 523,708 334,649 37.7%
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The effects of temperature change on CaCl 2 density
lb / ft³ = 7.48 X lb / gal
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7.5 Sodium Chloride/Calcium Chloride Brines
For densities between 75.5 and 83 pcf, a combination of Sodium Chloride

and Calcium Chloride brine can be mixed, although blending of these two
salts is not recommended due to the high potential for salt precipitation.
Any excess salt (NaCl) will precipitate and plug the perforations, the pipe etc.
Theoretically, these 2 salts can only be blended in the range below without
precipitation of the NaCl but must be pilot tested at the well site with local mix
water.
Sodium Chloride/Calcium Chloride Brines mixing table
Brine Density
O To make 1 bbl (42 gal)
at 70 F
Water 100% NaCl 95% CaCl2
pcf
bbl lb lb
75.5 0.887 88 29
76.3 0.875 70 52
77.0 0.875 54 72
77.8 0.786 41 89
78.5 0.871 32 104
79.3 0.868 25 116
80.0 0.866 20 126
80.3 0.864 16 135
81.5 0.862 13 144
82.3 0.859 10 151
83.0 0.854 8 159
Notes:
a) It is crucial to accurately measure the starting volume of water needed

and the quantities of salt required for each specific density to avoid
precipitating NaCl.
b) Pilot testing with the makeup water at the rig site is necessary to adjust
the above concentration or change fluid densities.
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7.6 Field Operations Utilizing Brine (Compatibility)
Spot-checks of field operations have revealed that most of the so-called clean
fluids used in well killing, completion are dirty enough to cause severe, and
often irreparable, formation damage. All fluids used in well servicing
operations must be analyzed. Brine type and density proposed for a well
operation should be tested in the laboratory for compatibility with produced
formation fluid samples. A clarity test for purity and solids content should be
carried out and adjusted by filtration operations during closed loop circulation
during well operations. Such field tests consist of measurements by a
turbidity meter for clarity and solids measurement by a field spin out kit.
Solids particles capable of plugging the formation are picked up from most
types of equipment used in the field. Vacuum trucks, dirty tanks, pump tanks,
check valves, swivel joints, and tubular goods are the main sources of
contamination. Major contamination comes from Iron, mud, cement, pipe
dope, oxidized crude, sludge, bacteria, chemical additives, and other
materials pumped or produced previously through the system. Tanks used for
drilling and cementing will have dried mud, sand, silt, crude oil, and partially
set cement deposited in suction lines and mixing boxes, on walls, etc. Such
sediments and rust do not adversely affect the drilling mud, but when clean
fluids are placed in the tanks and agitated, these sediments are entrained.
Injected dissolved ferrous ions are converted in most formations with oxygen
into iron hydroxide, a voluminous floc which helps consolidate the bridged
solids (clay and silts) within the pores.
Often less than a teaspoon of such "dirt" can plug a perforation!
8.0 DISPLACEMENT TECHNOLOGY
The proper displacement technique has a dramatic impact on the operation.

However, the basic displacement format remains the same, regardless of all other
conditions. It is a simple two-step formula:
a) Condition the mud before displacing it.

b) Displace the mud.
8.1 Conditioning the Mud
The actual conditioning of the mud must be done before the mud is removed
from the well. This phase is the key factor that determines how clean the well
will be after displacement. The purpose of mud conditioning is to disperse
and evenly distribute all of the solids from the casing inner walls, the
wellbore, tanks, pipes, etc., into the mud. The rheology of the mud is then
adjusted to make it flow more easily during displacement. The mud is
conditioned using both mechanical and chemical methods. The first step to
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distribute the solids in the well is, obviously, to circulate the mud in the hole. If
the mud has remained in fairly good condition, it will circulate easily and
evenly distribute the solids. If the solids have packed at the bottom of the well
or annulus, they will have to be washed over or drilled to be dispersed into
the mud. The second step is to remove the wall cake. Once the mud can be
circulated and the bottom of the hole or the required depth is reached, the
mud cake must be removed from the walls. Mechanical scrapers have proven
to be the most effective tools to remove these solids from the casing wall. A
scraper run should be made for each casing diameter. Circulate the mud
through all available solids removal equipment to remove as many solids
contaminants as possible.
Rotating the workstring will improve the removal of solids from the wellbore
while circulating the mud. Most wells are not true vertical holes and some
corkscrewing of the hole is assured as the well is drilled. The workstring will
lie against the low side of the casing / liner wall at various points. Fluid flow is
restricted or virtually nonexistent at these points and solids will collect unless
the workstring is rotated. Rotation of the workstring distributes the fluid flow
path across the entire hole section.
Once the solids are evenly dispersed throughout the mud system, the mud
rheology can be adjusted. Thin the mud as much as possible while it still
retains its ability to hold the solids in suspension. Usually, adding water to a
water-base mud or oil to an oil-base mud is all that is required. Do not use
packaged thinners or build density unless well conditions require this.
8.2 Displacement Spacers
After the mud is conditioned a displacement pad to separate the mud from
the brine can be as simple as single viscous spacer or as complex as several
different pills, each designed to perform one specific function. Let's briefly
look at the intended functions of these pills.
8.2.1 Displacement of Pads/Spacers
Spacers may be solids free or solids-laden. Their sole function is to

separate two incompatible fluids. To do this, the spacer must be more
viscous than either of the fluids it separates. The greater viscosity
helps to retain the integrity of the spacer by enabling the spacer to
stay in plug or laminar flow at higher pump rates than the other fluids.
However, some intermingling with the other fluids is probable.
Therefore, the spacer must also provide enough distance between the
two other incompatible fluids to keep them from contacting each other.
Each spacer should cover at least 500 feet of the annulus at its
largest diameter.
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8.2.2 Chemical Washes
Chemical washes provide a polishing action to remove those solids

that remain in the well. These washes usually have a combination of
surfactants that remove organic contaminants as well as inorganic
contaminants. Coarse materials such as 60/80 frac sand or coarse
CaCO 3 can be added as scouring agents.
8.3 Special Techniques
8.3.1 Water Flushes
When well conditions permit, the mud can be displaced and the well
cleaned by circulating water downhole. This technique has certain
restrictions. You must be able to answer "yes" to all of the following
questions to successfully use a water flush.
• Is water readily available and inexpensive?

• Is the wellbore isolated from the casing?
• Will the casing, tubing, and cement bonds withstand the difference
in pressure between the formation pressure and the hydrostatic
head of the water?
• Can the water and some of the mud be easily, inexpensively, and
safely disposed of?
If the answer to all of these questions is yes, the well can be flushed
with water. A water flush cleans the well better than any other method.
Rig time is the greatest cost factor. The chemical cost is essentially
nothing. A viscous pill such as 50 barrels of HEC or XC Polymer
seawater with a viscosity of 150-200 sec/qt should separate the water
and the mud if the mud is to be saved. Another viscous pill should
separate the water and the brine when the water is displaced.
8.3.2 Reverse Circulation
The density of the brine and the density of the fluid that it is displacing
will determine the flow path of the fluid during displacement. The fluid
should be pumped down the annulus and up the tubing or wash pipe
when the brine is lighter than the fluid that is being displaced. The
reason for this flow direction follows. Under static conditions, heavier
fluids will sink through lighter fluids due to the force of gravity. Even
though a spacer may separate the two fluids, commingling of the
fluids can occur. When the fluids are pumped down the annulus, the
heavier fluid must be below the lighter weight fluid to help prevent
commingling. Commingling may occur in the tubing, but this poses
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little problem to keeping the annulus clean. Conversely, the flow

direction should be down the tubing and up the annulus when the
brine is heavier than the fluid it is replacing. Pressure drop values
should be calculated and compared to tubing burst strengths before a
final decision is made.
8.3.3 Staging Spacer Densities
The densities of each spacer should be gradually adjusted. If more

than one spacer is used in line between two fluids of dissimilar weight,
use the spacer with the recommended highest density for the spacer
that is next to the heaviest fluid, and adjust to the lowest density for
the spacer that is next to the lightest fluid. For example, when three
spacers are used in line to displace a 100 pcf mud with an 80 pcf
brine, each spacer should be adjusted to a different density. The
spacer next to the 100 pcf mud should weight slightly less than 100
pcf. The middle spacer should be in the neighborhood of 90 pcf and
the spacer next to the 80 pcf brine should be between 80 and 90 pcf.
The reasoning is the same as that used on determining the best flow
direction. A lighter weight fluid should be above the heavier fluid in the
annulus to help prevent or retard commingling.
8.4 General Displacement Procedures
A general procedure to displace the drilling mud with a well servicing fluid is
usually performed when a bit and scrapper, properly sized for the casing, is
run in the hole on a workstring to PBTD. Four displacement procedures are
listed below as a general guideline for a displacement system. The specific
displacement procedure must be adjusted to fit individual well requirements.
8.4.1 Displacement of Water-Based Mud Using Seawater Flush
This following general procedures for the displacement of a water

base mud using a seawater flush is intended to highlight relevant
points and state some recommended practices.
a) Circulate and condition the mud to obtain the minimum acceptable

yield point before the displacement.
b) Displace the water base mud with a viscous HEC/seawater spacer
between the mud and the seawater. This spacer should have a
funnel viscosity of 150-200 sec/qt. The spacer volume is usually
equal to about 500 feet of workstring annulus at its largest
diameter. Circulate the seawater until contaminants are less than
50 Nephelometer, Turbidity Units (NTU)
c) Add a chemical wash and circulate two workstring volumes.
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d) Add another viscous HEC/seawater spacer between the seawater

and the brine. The funnel viscosity should be 150-200 sec/qt and
the spacer volume is usually equal to about 500 feet of workstring
annulus at its largest diameter.
e) Follow with clean filtered brine.
f) Filter the brine to a turbidity of 50 NTU.
8.4.2 Displacement of Oil - Based Mud Using Seawater Flush
This general procedure for the displacement of an oil base mud using
a seawater flush is intended to highlight relevant points and state
some recommended practices. Notice that oil-base systems using
highly aromatic oils will leave an oil sheen on the seawater.
a) Condition the mud before the displacement.

b) Displace the oil-base mud with an oil pad. The volume should be
+500 feet of the annulus at its widest diameter.
c) Follow the pad with a viscous HEC/seawater spacer between the
oil pad and the seawater. The spacer should have a funnel
viscosity of 200-250 sec/qt. The spacer volume is usually equal to
about 500 feet of workstring annulus at its widest diameter.
d) Circulate the seawater until the seawater has less than 50 NTU of
solids. Circulate continuously or once through, depending upon
pollution control requirements.
e) Add a chemical wash for oil mud and circulate two full workstring
volumes.
f) Add a viscous HEC/brine spacer between the seawater and the
brine. The funnel
g) Viscosity should be 150-200 sec/qt and the spacer volume is
usually equal to about 500 feet of workstring annulus at its largest
diameter.
h) Displace with clean filtered brine.
i) Filter the brine to a turbidity of 50 NTU.
8.4.3 Balanced Displacement of Water-Based Muds
This following general procedure for the balanced displacement of a

water base mud without using a water flush is intended to highlight
relevant points and state some recommended practices.
a) Condition the mud before displacement.

b) Displace the water base mud with a single pass down hole of the
following spacers:
Spacer 1 must be compatible with the drilling mud and must have
a yield point greater than that of the drilling mud. The spacer
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should be pumped at a high enough rate so it remains in turbulent

flow. The spacer volume is usually equal to about 500 feet of
workstring annulus at its largest diameter. This spacer should be
displaced with weighted brine at least equal to the volume of the
spacer. Note the brine following the spacer will be very dirty and a
significant portion will probably be lost.
Spacer 2 is a cleaning spacer. This fluid should contain caustic,

surfactant or a cleaning compound that will remove the drilling
fluid from the casing. This spacer should be weighted if
necessary to help prevent an influx of formation fluid, or the
returns should be choked. Sand can be placed in this spacer as
an abrasive to clean the casing walls. More than one cleaning
spacer can be pumped, if desirable. This spacer should be
displaced with weighted brine.
Spacer 3 is the last spacer is intended to separate the clean

filtered well servicing fluid from the cleaning spacer. It is usually a
viscosified pill of the well servicing brine similar to Spacer 1.
c) Circulate the clean filtered brine into the well to displace the
spacers.
d) Circulate and filter until the brine's turbidity is less than 50 NTU.
8.4.4 Balance Displacement of an Oil-Based Mud
This general procedure for the displacement of an oil-base mud

without using a water flush is intended to highlight relevant points and
state some recommended practices.
a) Condition the mud before displacement.

b) Displace the oil-base mud with a single pass downhole with the
well on choke to control pressure of the following spacers:
Spacer 1 must be compatible with the drilling mud and must have
a yield point greater than that of the drilling mud. The spacer
should be pumped at a high enough rate so it remains in turbulent
flow. The spacer volume is usually equal to about 500 feet of
workstring annulus at its largest diameter. This spacer should be
displaced with weighted brine at least equal to the volume of the
spacer. Note the brine following the spacer will be very dirty and a
significant portion will probably be lost.
Spacer 2 is a cleaning spacer. This fluid should contain caustic,

surfactant or a cleaning compound that will remove the drilling
fluid from the casing. This spacer should be weighted if
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necessary to help prevent an influx of formation fluid, or the

returns should be choked. Sand can be placed in this spacer as
an abrasive to clean the casing walls. More than one cleaning
spacer can be pumped, if desirable. This spacer should be
displaced with weighted brine.
c) Circulate the clean filtered brine into the well to displace the
spacers.
d) Circulate and filter until the brine's turbidity is less than 50 NTU.
8. 5 Spacers and Pills
A spacer is a neutral fluid designed to separate two other fluids without

contaminating either. Spacers are used when changing from one fluid system
to another and are usually used in a cased hole situation. The selection of a
spacer depends upon the fluid in the hole and the fluid that will be used for
displacement. The selected spacer(s) must be compatible with adjacent
fluids. To select a spacer first, determine what type of fluid will be placed in
the hole. Next, decide how the fluid in the hole will be conditioned. Then
select a spacer that will not contaminate the fluid in the hole. The second
spacer should not contaminate the first spacer. The second, or third spacer
should not contaminate the fluid used for displacement. When a spacer is
used to help scour the casing, it should not contaminate either of the adjacent
spacers. Some of the most commonly used spacers are viscous spacers,
water, weighted spacers, diesel spacers, and frac-sand spacers. General
information about each of these spacers is provided on the following pages.
This chapter is intended to provide guidelines for the use of spacers, but does
not include all available alternatives. Flexibility and judgment will be
necessary when using this information.
8.5.1 Viscous Spacers
The spacer is formulated with XC Polymer or HEC and the brine to be

used. The general guidelines to formulate and use the spacer are:
a) Use 1 - 3 ppb XC Polymer or HEC, depending upon the type of

salt in the fluid.
b) The viscosity will range from 35 to 500+ sec/qt depending on
concentrations and type of make-up fluid. The viscosity is
determined by the types of fluids separated by the spacer. The
spacer should have greater viscosity than the preceding fluid.
c) The volume is determined by rig and hole conditions, and the
method of pumping, i.e., long way or short way. (The long way is
through the tubing or drill pipe and up the casing. The short way
is down the casing or annular space and up the tubing or drill
pipe.)
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The purposes of the spacer are:
• To separate two fluids, thereby preventing contamination.

• To completely displace the fluid in the hole.
• To clean the casing and not allow debris to collect on the walls.
• To serve as a marker fluid to distinguish between two fluids.
The spacer is pumped following one fluid and preceding another, and
then dumped at the surface. Viscous spacers are compatible with
other fluids in use, are less expensive than other spacers, and
perform effectively. They also contain a minimum of solids.
8.5.2 Water Spacers
As the name indicates, water spacers are composed of water in an

amount sufficient to separate the two fluids. The main purposes of the
spacer are:
a) To separate two fluids.

b) To move fluid out of the wells.
c) To serve as a marker fluid.
The spacer is pumped following one fluid and preceding another, and
then dumped at the surface. The rationale for its selection and use is:
• Cheap and quick.

• Usually used with lightweight completion fluids.
• Water spacers are used as a buffer in conjunction with more
elaborate spacers.
8.5.3 Weighted Spacers
Based on the type of mud that will be displaced, there are two types of
weighted spacers:
a) A filtered, fresh water, weighted spacer may be used when there

is fresh water mud in the hole. Its contents are as follows:
• Fresh filtered water

• Caustic to adjust pH - 0.2-0.5 ppb
• XC Polymer to provide suspension, 0.5 - 1.5 ppb
• Calcium Carbonate, to a maximum density of 105 pcf. If
greater densities are required, use Iron Carbonate. For
additional density, use Barite.
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b) A seawater weighted spacer contains the following ingredients:
• Seawater treated with Soda Ash to remove Calcium

• Sodium Chloride, 10.0 ppb
• XC Polymer, 0.5 -1.5 ppb
• Calcium Carbonate, to a maximum density of 105 pcf.
Greater densities (up to 127 pcf) require Iron Carbonate.
For additional density, use Barite.
The main purposes of the spacer are:
• To maintain the hydrostatic pressure, thereby keeping the

casing from collapsing.
• To separate two fluids.
• To serve as a marker fluid.
The spacer is pumped following one fluid and preceding another.
Weighted spacers are used when formation pressure requires that a
high hydrostatic head is maintained and/or when water cannot be
used to flush out the casing because of differential pressure.
8.5.4 Diesel Spacers
Diesel spacers are emulsified oil spacers. The purposes of these

spacers are:
a) To wash or clean the pipe.
b) To separate water from an oil fluid.
Usually diesel spacers are used in conjunction with other weighted

spacers.

Then, it is placed in a holding tank to avoid pollution. Diesel spacers
are used when changing from water-base to an oil-base systems or
the reverse. The diesel spacer has a tendency to channel when used
alone.
8.5.5 Emulsified Spacers
Contents and Concentrations
a) Emulsified oil.
b) Water, to control viscosity. (The more water, the higher the
viscosity.)
c) Calcium Carbonate to reach desired density.
d) Diesel.
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The purposes of these spacers are:
• To separate oil muds from brines during displacement.

• To serve as a marker fluid.
Spacer is held in a special tank upon return to avoid pollution.
The emulsified oil spacer prevents oil mud from becoming thick. Once
pumping is started, make sure to continue pumping until all spacers
are out of the well.
8.5.6 Frac-Sand Spacers
Frac-sand spacers can be used in conjunction with other spacers. The

basic formulation of the spacer should include the following:
a) Fresh water, approximately 5 barrels.
b) XC Polymer or HEC, to viscosity of 200 sec/qt.
c) Frac-sand, 40-50 ppb.
The main purposes of the spacers are:
• To scour the casing and pipe before displacement.

• To reduce filtering time by achieving a cleaner displacement,
and therefore, preventing the brine from being contaminated by
drilling fluid solids.
• To separate two fluids.
For a more effective application:
a) Follow with water.

b) Then follow with approximately 2 barrels of viscous brine fluid.
c) Finally, follow with brine.
The frac-sand spacer is selected for its ability to scour the hole. It is
usually used in a hole that has contained fluid over a long period, or a
hole where excessive filter cake has formed.
8.6 Pills
A pill is a mixture that is different from the fluid that is in the hole. Pills are
used to provide viscosity, to carry debris out of the hole, to prevent lost
circulation, or during perforation. They are usually used in an open-hole
situation.
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Some of the most commonly used pills are viscous pills and Carbonate pills.
While this presentation material provides some guidance in the use of pills, it
does not represent all available alternatives. Therefore, flexibility and
judgment will be necessary when using these recommendations.
8.6.1 Viscous Pills
The viscosity of the pill can range from 35 to 400+ sec/qt depending,
upon the concentration of XC Polymer or HEC (0.5 to 5.0 ppb). The
viscosity required depends upon the type and severity of the problem.
(Most pumps will not pump fluids with funnel viscosities greater than
500 seconds.). When a pill is used to carry sand and cuttings out of
the hole, a small amount of xanthan gum (0.1 to 1.0 ppb) may be
added to the HEC for additional carrying capacity.
The purposes of these pills are:
• To prevent seepage loss to the formation.

• To carry sand and cuttings out of the well.
When used to prevent seepage loss, the viscous pill is spotted and
sometimes squeezed into the formation. When used to carry sand and
cuttings out of the well, the viscous pill is circulated and dumped at
the surface.
HEC is less damaging to the formation than Carbonate pills. The

viscous pill can be produced out of the well instead of having to be
acidized.
8.6.2 Carbonate Pill
Contents: Calcium Carbonate (fine, medium and coarse), make-fluid,

XC Polymer or HEC.
Concentration:
a) For seepage: 5-10 ppb CaCO 3 plus 0.5 - 1.0 ppb HEC.
b) For medium loss: 20-30 ppb CaCO 3 plus 0.5-1.5 ppb HEC.
c) For severe loss: 50-150 ppb CaCO 3 plus 1.0-2.0 ppb HEC.
d) Xanthan gum can be used for suspension in brine. It
requires high shear and good mixing to allow the polymer to
yield and suspend the sized CaCO 3 . If you plan to use 50-
150 ppb of bridging agent in the fluid and spot across
perforations for two hours or more, or if the fluid is to be left
in the well over an extended period of time, Xanthan gum is
required to prevent the settling of CaCO 3 particles.
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8.7 Clear Brine Completion Fluid Displacement
The most important step in preparation for brine displacement is cleaning the
wellbore. Proper procedures should be applied to remove solids and "dirt"
from the well and rig equipment. The casing must be cleaned with a bit and
scraper or hydraulic jets to free mud solids, scale deposits...etc. Tubing must
be scraped and cleaned, inside and out, before being run into the well. If the
wellbore is in communication with producing zones, care must be taken to
avoid losing into the formation the solids and "dirt" freed during well cleanup.
This means a minimum overbalance and the use of sweeping pills. Thick
spacers should be used to separate the clean brine from dirty fluid while
pumping i.e., avoid contaminating the clean brine with drilling mud or packer
fluid already in the hole.
In some cases, the hole could be displaced with clean water, mechanically
scraped and circulated until all solids are removed from the wellbore. The
following spacers are recommended:
a) Scrubber Pill (Volume 10-30 bbl) for displacing water base mud.
• Fresh water
• Caustic Soda, 1-1.5 lb/bbl
• 20-40 mesh fracturing sand, 20-30 lb/bbl
b) Scrubber Pill (Volume 10-30 bbl) for displacing oil base mud.
• Fresh water
• Metaphosphoric acid, 2-4 lb/bbl
• Non-ionic surfactant, 25% by volume
• Degreaser, 2-3% by volume
• 20-40 mesh fracturing sand, 20-30 lb/bbl
The frac-sand will serve as scouring agent to remove mud cake and scale
from the casing and tubing.
In the case of displacing oil base mud, it is advisable to pump an emulsified

oil pill first (10-30 bbls) having a density of 0.2 pcf higher than the displaced
oil mud density. This pill will be followed by diesel oil (10-30 bbls) with frac-
sand (20-30 lb/bbl) then the scrubber water base pill described above.
c) High viscosity brine pill volume (10-30 bbls) composed of:

• The clean completion brine
• HEC, 1 - 2 lb/bbl
This pill is to be followed by the clean, filtered brine to complete the

displacement. Once displacement is completed, continue circulating the brine
and start filtering if required.
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Lost circulation pill (viscous brine pill with the suitable degradable bridging
material) should be prepared and kept on hand before displacement starts.
This pill should be spotted at the perforated interval to minimize fluid losses
into the zone. Proper displacement procedures should always be followed by
the removal of solids and "dirt" from the wellbore and rig equipment. Avoid
contaminating the clean filtered brines with drilling or packer fluids previously
in the hole by using proper spacers.
Following are common contaminants to be separated from completion brines:
a) Iron (Iron Oxide, Iron Carbonate, Iron Hydroxide and Iron shavings) Iron
is the most serious contaminant for heavy brines. Some Iron can give a
dark green gelatinous precipitate and can cause filtering problems. The
Fe++ sometimes changes to Fe+++ (dark reddish brown precipitate)
which is easier to filter because of its loose crystal nature. Some

filtration service companies use HCl to keep the Iron in solution and
avoid plugging the filter media. This way they filter the brine easier and
faster. Using HCl will increase the brine acidity and aggravate the
situation. In many cases, leaving the filtered brine in storage tanks a few
days will allow the Iron to precipitate out. Adding HCl or any other acid
to the brine or to the filter media should not be allowed.
b) Pipe Dope: Analysis of downhole plugging materials indicated that Iron

compounds and pipe dope were the major constituents.
c) Mud Additives: Bentonite, Barite, illmenite, Iron Carbonate, Iron-Oxide,

polymers (CMC, starch, lignosulfonate, etc.) Calcium Carbonate,
asphalt, waxes, etc.
d) Mica, fibers, cotton seed hulls, walnut.
e) Other Lost Circulation Materials (LCM): shells, cellophane, shredded

rubber, etc.
f) Drilled Solids: Sand, Shale, Clay, Limestone, Dolomite, Anhydrite,

Gypsum, Salt, Lignite, plant remains, Iron Oxide, Iron Carbonate, Mica,
Pyrite, etc.
g) Crude Oil: Asphaltenes and waxes.
h) Plankton and Bacteria: From seawater or bay water.
There are two different displacement procedures used today. They are
indirect displacement and direct displacement. The choice of procedure
depends on casing-tubing strengths and cement bond log results.
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If the bond logs and casing strength data indicate that the casing will
withstand a calculated pressure differential, the indirect displacement
procedure should be used. (Pressure differential = bottom hole pressure -
hydrostatic head due to salt water.) This procedure uses large volumes of
seawater to flush the well, resulting in a clean, solids-free displacement,
reduced spacer costs and lower filtration costs. When applying the indirect
method (reverse circulation) we have to be sure that the pumping pressure
will not exceed the collapse or burst strength of the casing.
If the bond logs indicate that the casing will not withstand the differential
pressure, the direct displacement procedure should be used. This method
does not obtain a clean displacement and expensive filtering will be
necessary. However, undesirable pressure situations are eliminated because
this procedure maintains a constant hydrostatic head.
Both direct and indirect displacement procedures make use of pills and
spacers for effective hole cleaning and spacers for effective hole cleaning
and separation of fluids.
The primary purpose of a spacer is to provide a complete separation of two

incompatible fluids. The spacer must be compatible with both the displaced
fluid (fluid coming out) and the displacing fluid (fluid going in).
Cleaning pills are used to sweep debris out of the hole. Two types of cleaning
pills may be used. A basic cleaning pill is composed of brine viscosified with
HEC. A scouring pill, used to remove mud cake from the inside of the casing,
consists of water, and coarse sand. The scouring pill must be preceded and
followed by a viscous spacer to prevent mixing with other fluids.
8.7.1 Indirect Displacement Procedure
a) Run bit and scraper.

b) Condition and thin the mud as much as possible while
maintaining correct rheological properties. Circulate the mud
and reciprocate the tubing during this process.
c) Pump seawater down the annulus and up the tubing no faster
than 2 bbl/min. Spot the displaced mud into the desired reserve
tank. The reverse circulation reduces intermingling of the mud
and seawater. Pumping fluid faster than 2 bbl/min creates
turbulent flow and increases intermingling of the mud and
seawater.
d) Prepare a 50 barrel pill of fresh water and caustic Soda with a
pH of 12 to 13. Circulate this pill slowly through the entire
system for two circulations, rotate and reciprocate the pipe while
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circulating. The high pH helps dissolve the wall cake from the
casing.
e) Chase the pill with clean saltwater and flush until the seawater is
clear.
f) Prepare a 20 barrel spacer of filtered seawater and HEC with a
funnel viscosity of 150 to 200 sec/qt. Reverse circulate the
spacer, pumping at 1 to 2 bbl/min. Follow with the completion
fluid.
g) Pump until the density pumped in equals the density in the flow
line. Dump the spacer.
h) Place the filtration unit on line.
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Direct displacement
(Heavy brine in / light oil mud out)
B
R
I
N
E
Light oil mud ( 68 pcf )
MUD MUD
Spacer - 1 High viscosity oil mud with ( 69 pcf )

500 ft additional Geltone
Spacer - 2 XC- Polymer / mutual solvent ( 69 pcf )

500 ft detergent / barite
Spacer - 3 Brine / water wetting surfactant ( 68 pcf )

500 ft caustic / frac sand
Spacer - 4 High viscosity clear brine ( 70 pcf )

500 ft
B ( 70 pcf )
Heavy brine
BRINE R BRINE
I
N
E
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Indirect displacement (reverse circulation)

(Light brine in / heavy water-based mud out)
M
U
D Clear brine ( 70 pcf )
BRINE BRINE

500 ft
Spacer - 3 Brine / caustic / frac sand ( 70 pcf )

500 ft
Spacer - 2
XC- Polymer / detergent / barite ( 73 pcf )
500 ft
Spacer - 1 High viscosity mud ( 74 pcf )

500 ft
MUD
M MUD ( 75 pcf )
U Heavy mud
D
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Indirect displacement (reverse circulation)

(Light brine in / heavy oil-based mud out)
M
U Clear brine ( 70 pcf )
BRINE BRINE
D

500 ft
Spacer - 3 Brine / water wetting surfactant ( 70 pcf )

500 ft caustic / frac sand
Spacer - 2
XC- Polymer / mutual solvent ( 73 pcf )
500 ft
detergent / barite
Spacer - 1 High viscosity oil mud with ( 74 pcf )

500 ft additional Geltone
M ( 75 pcf )
MUD MUD Heavy oil mud
U
D
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Direct displacement
(Heavy brine in / light water-based mud out)
Light mud ( 68 pcf )
Spacer - 1 High viscosity mud ( 69 pcf )

500 ft
Spacer - 2 XC- Polymer / detergent / barite ( 69 pcf )

500 ft
Spacer - 3 Brine / caustic / frac sand ( 68 pcf )

500 ft

500 ft
( 70 pcf )
Heavy brine
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8.7.2 Direct Displacement
Direct displacement is a somewhat tedious procedure which involves

using five spacers in line. Each spacer has a specific use.
Spacer No. 1 is 20 bbl viscosified mud used as a plug to displace the

mud. Spacer No. 2 and 4 separate the spacer with degreaser from
organic additives in the mud and from the brine. Spacer No. 3 is a
combination scouring-dissolving spacer. The frac-sand is used to
scrape mud off casing walls while the degreaser caustic dissolves the
mud. Spacer No. 5 is used to separate the solids laden fluids from the
solids free.
a) Pump 20 bbl of mud into slugging pit and increase funnel

viscosity to 80 sec/qt.
b) Run a bit and scraper on the drill string assembly. Circulate the
mud and reciprocate the pipe.
c) Condition and thin mud as much as possible while maintaining
the proper rheological properties.
d) Pump the 20 bbl pill into the annulus. (Spacer No. 1)
e) Follow with a 20 bbl pill of fresh water, XC Polymer (0.5 lb/bbl)
and Barite to desired density. (Spacer No. 2)
f) Follow with a 10 bbl pill of fresh water, 1 drum of degreaser 500
lb coarse frac sand and caustic Soda to a pH of 12.5. (Spacer
No. 3)
g) Follow with 10 bbl pill of fresh water, XC Polymer (0.5 lb/bbl) and
Barite to desired density. (Spacer No. 4)
h) Follow with a 10 bbl pill of the completion fluid viscosified to 150-
200 sec/qt. (Spacer No. 5)
i) Follow with clean brine.
Note: Reverse circulate during steps D through I.
j) Discard all pills. Filter for at least one full circulation after
displacement.
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9.0 PACKER FLUIDS
9.1 Functions
The primary function of a packer is to seal off the tubing-casing annulus, and
allow production from below the packer, through the tubing. Packer fluids are
placed in the casing-tubing annulus to provide a hydrostatic head necessary
to control the well in case of packer failure or leaks. Also, to reduce the
pressure differential between the inside of tubing and the annulus, the outside
of the casing and the annulus, and the perforated interval below the packer
and the annulus. The packer fluid performs these functions mainly by
protecting the steel in the tubing-casing annulus from corrosion. Since the
packer fluid may remain in the annulus for an extended period of time, it is
necessary to properly inhibit the fluid to prevent or minimize annular corrosion
and enhance retrievability of tubing and packers.
A worldwide review of workover operations indicated extremely high costs

associated with recovery of tubing stuck in settled mud solids. High density
water-base or oil-base muds are not stable suspensions when left static in a
well for a long time. High temperatures and/or contamination of these muds
with the produced gas and oil destroys the initial suspension properties and
allow mud solids and weighting materials to settle on top of the packer and
around the tubing. Expensive washover and fishing operations are then
performed. During the washover, more costly complications such as twist off,
stuck washover pipes, casing leaks, blowouts and formation damage could
develop. When such complications occur many wells have to be plugged and
abandoned. Most of these problems could be eliminated by utilizing solids-
free packer fluids.
9.2 Characteristics and Properties of Packer Fluid:
• Must be chemically and mechanically stable under downhole conditions,

i.e. no settling of suspended solids and no chemical precipitates if
mixed with produced fluids or gases
• Must not degrade by time or temperature
• Must not deteriorate packer elastomers
• Must remain pumpable during the life of the well, i.e. no high gelation or
solidification to be developed by time
• Must not cause corrosion (inside casing, outside tubing)
• Must not damage the producing formation because they may contact
these producing zones during completion or workover operations
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Fluid Properties:
• Diesel is used as packer fluid for various operational reasons.

• A packer fluid should ideally be solids-free. If a packer fluid must be
weighted with solid materials, they should not settle out over the period
of fluid use. Solids-weighted packer fluids must have gel strength to
prevent the solids from settling.
• The gel strength should not be so great as to prevent initiation of
circulation or tubing movement should a workover become necessary. If
solids do segregate out and fall to the bottom, a retrievable packer or
the tubing may get stuck, resulting in a long and expensive fishing job.
9.3 Packer Fluid Types
9.3.1 Diesel As A Packer Fluid
Clean oil/Diesel with proper corrosion inhibitor (oil soluble film forming
amine) is an ideal packer fluid. Clean oil/Diesel is non-conductive,
stable and in case of casing leaks and water influx, the inhibitor will
provide protection for some time.
9.3.2 NaCl Brines
In the presence of entrained Oxygen, Sodium Chloride can be major

contributor to corrosion. The activity of the electrolyte is accelerated
by the dissolved salt. The corrosion rate decreases below that of
water when the salt concentration exceeds 12%. Use Sulfite based
Oxygen Scavenger (Sodium Sulfite) at 0.2 – 0.5 lbs/bbl for corrosion
control.
9.3.3 CaCl2 Brines
In laboratory tests, it was demonstrated that the corrosion rate

increases dramatically with an increase in temperature. CaCl 2 at
250ºF has a rate of 5 mpy but at 400ºF increases to 55 mpy.
However, these high rates will decrease with longer exposure time.
This phenomenon indicates the consumption of the active corroding
elements in the brine. Remember that Sulfite Oxygen Scavenger
cannot be used in Calcium based completion fluids as they will
precipitate out and perform no function. Special Oxygen Scavenger
such as Sodium Erythorbate must be used for Calcium based
completion fluids. The recommended dosage is 0.15 lbs/bbl.
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Important Points To Remember
a) Based on the laboratory observations, the thirty days static test is a

sufficient test period to determine the long term corrosivity of the
inhibited brines.
b) Commonly used film forming amine corrosion inhibitors degrade

between 250ºF and 300ºF and therefore are ineffective for high
temperature wells. Also many film forming amines are insoluble in
heavy brines.
c) Calcium brines should not be treated with Oxygen Scavenger
containing sulfites. These types of chemicals could precipitate
Calcium scale and have caused stuck packers on several occasions.
d) In the field, drilling mud should be properly displaced from the
wellbore with the clean brine. Residual mud materials in the annulus
must be cleaned out mechanically and chemically (scraper,
surfactants...etc.). Mud residue adhering to the metal surfaces can be
sites for under deposit corrosion. The brine should be filtered, solids
content less than 100 mg/l achieved in the field.
e) If CO 2 ingress into the annulus is expected, low Calcium or a Calcium

free brine should be considered to minimize chances of precipitating
Calcium scale. As a rule in CO 2 environment, use KCl, NaCl, and
NaBr for brine densities up to 92 pcf.
f) Fluids of low inherent corrosivity are generally hydrocarbon based.

The low electrical conductivity of these fluids suppresses corrosion
currents. In low pressure wells the hydrocarbon may be diesel or
lease crude. Oil-base or invert-emulsion mud may be used in higher
pressure wells. The clay dispersants and emulsifiers in oil muds keep
water emulsified and metal surfaces oil wetted, thus, further
minimizing conductivity and corrosivity. Both oil soluble and brine
dispersible corrosion inhibitors are sometimes added to hydrocarbons
to insure corrosion protection when inefficient displacement of water-
base mud or brine is anticipated.
g) Corrosion inhibitors may be added to electrically conductive fluids to
reduce the corrosion rate. Typically, corrosion inhibiting agents
function by scavenging oxygen, electrostatically passivating the metal
surface, or, more commonly by forming a hydrophobic film on the
metal surface that prevents the entrance of corrosion currents into the
surface. Corrosion inhibitors function well in brines. Film forming
corrosion inhibitors do not provide much protection in water-base mud
since they tend to adsorb strongly on the mud solids. Bactericides act
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as corrosion inhibitors by killing bacteria that generate corrosive by-

products.
h) Control of pH is the primary method of reducing corrosion in water-

base mud. When a brine can tolerate a high pH, elevated pH can also
control corrosion in brines. High pH controls sweet and sour corrosion
by preventing the oxidation of Iron by Hydrogen ions and by
preventing the growth of Sulfate reducing bacteria. A pH greater than
9.5 significantly reduces corrosion of Iron. Water-base mud pH should
be adjusted to a stable value between 10.5 and 11.5 prior to
installation of the mud as a packer fluid. The pH of the mud should
remain unchanged following circulation for 48 hours before it is
considered stabilized. This is necessary because mud components
tend to reduce the mud pH with time.
9.4 Corrosion Inhibitors
A water soluble corrosion inhibitor, such as O-3670R (or equivalent film

forming amine) for solids - free brines provides excellent protection under
subsurface conditions. A concentration of 1% by volume is generally
recommended when saltwater is used as a packer fluid or will be left in the
wellbore for extended periods of time. Corrosion inhibitor is not usually
necessary for salt waters that will be circulated out of the well after
completion or workover operations are finished.
Most corrosion failures attributable to packer fluids are observed to occur

below circulating valves and between packers in multiple completions and in
other areas from which mud and fluids are not removed by normal circulating
methods. When such possibilities exist, only inhibited fluids should be used.
For clean oil packer fluid, Coat 415, an oil-soluble film forming amine is
recommended to provide corrosion protection in Arab "D” wells. In case of
casing leaks across the Wasia, the inhibitor should give some protection.
Contamination of the clear packer fluid to be used or left in a well can be

lessened by displacing the drilling fluid with clear untreated fluid, discarding
the returned interface between the fluids, and then circulating the clear fluid
again after the addition of required corrosion inhibitor and biocide additives.
Wastage of corrosion inhibiting chemicals is avoided by delaying their
addition until after the first purge of the well with clear fluid.
Packer fluids which contain water can support the growth of bacteria.
Bacterial life processes often generate corrosive by-products and bacterial
bodies can plug and damage formation rock. A bactericide should be added
to packer fluids to prevent the growth of bacteria. Increasing the fluid salinity
to saturation and the pH to 10.5 - 11 will prevent growth of bacteria. The
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common bactericides used for packer fluid systems contain

paraformaldehyde or glutaraldehyde.
Bacteria can cause sulfide corrosion in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic

conditions). Anaerobic bacteria are able to use hydrogen formed by
electrochemical corrosion to reduce Sulfate ions, forming Hydrogen Sulfide.
This anaerobic process accelerates the electroch0emical corrosion, and the
resulting Hydrogen Sulfide also attacks the steel, forming black Iron Sulfide
scale and pitting corrosion. lron Sulfide scale has caused plugging in injection
wells. The Hydrogen Sulfide formed can cause tubular goods to fail through
Sulfide-Stress-Cracking/Hydrogen-embrittlement under certain conditions.
If untreated packer fluids come in contact with the formation, the bacteria may
damage the formation (bio-fouling). This can occur following a period of
bacterial colony growth if the packer fluid is subsequently used as a workover
fluid, or if the packer fails and the fluid leaks into the producing tone.
10.0 HANDLING COMPLETION FLUIDS
The proper handling of well servicing fluids is important to the overall success of
the operation and the safety of the rig personnel. The objective is to safely handle
all fluids while maintaining the volume, density, and clarity or cleanliness of the
fluid to control formation damage.
10.1 Transportation (Trucks and Boat Hold Tanks)
The key to all successful completion fluid applications is that the fluids are
maintained clean and contain no particulate matter considered damaging to
the formation. If handling and mixing equipment are not clean, then the
expense and effort used to secure clean, uncontaminated fluid or brine are
wasted.
Visually inspect each tank before any fluid is mixed. Tanks that are not clean
or have any water or other liquid in the bottom must be cleaned and dried.
lnspect the hoses on the water truck to make sure that they are clean. Boat
hold tanks must be visually inspected before any fluid or brine is pumped on
board. If the tanks are dirty, they must be scrubbed clean and dried. If this
cannot be done, they must be rejected. Tank hatches must be resealed and
the hatch-to-tank gasket area should be caulked to help prevent fluid
contamination should the deck become awash. Be sure that the boat crew
knows not to pump into or out of the fluid tanks when the boat is underway.
Other tanks must be used to even the keel.
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10.2 Rig Preparation
One of the most important, but least acknowledged, aspects of using clean
completion fluids or brines is the preparation of the rig before taking or mixing
the fluid into the pits. Most muds are not compatible with brines. Every piece
of equipment that will come into contact with the clean completion fluid must
be meticulously cleaned of muds and other additives. Pits, lines, and valves
that have leaks must be repaired to eliminate loss of expensive brines. Small
pinhole leaks that are plugged by a drilling mud will not be plugged with the
brine. The following recommendations are guidelines for preparing a rig to
use clean fluids:
• Isolate all tanks, pumps, and equipment that will be used to carry or
transport the clean fluid or the solids-free brine.
• Scrub all tanks, circulate detergents and/or surfactants through the
entire system to remove contaminants. Rinse the system with water and
dump the water until it is clean. While the water is circulating, check for
leaks. Remove any additives or other materials in the mixing areas and
store them at some other location.
• Cover all the open pits if rain is expected and keep sack materials dry.
• Store brine in closed tanks to help prevent moisture from being drawn
into the brine and lowering the density.
10.3 Clear Brines
The high cost of brines makes it imperative that inspections be accomplished

in order to ensure the fluid being mixed is the correct volume, density and
clarity. The initial inspection should be performed at the mixing tanks.
Subsequent inspections should be performed whenever brines are
transferred from tanks or vessels.
• Check the Volume: this can be done by a flow meter when transferring or
by simply checking the tank. Although this may seem simple, costly errors
may be made.
• Check the Density: the density must be checked with hydrometer .
• Check the Clarity: the clarity of the brine should always be checked when
the brine is transferred or mixed to ensure that it did not pick up any
contaminants.
Samples can be sent to the lab for atomic absorption test to determine the
quantity of cations. Anion chromatography will determine the quantity of
anions. Total suspended solids and particle size distribution can be also
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measured. Testing on site can be arranged specially if fluid filtration is

required for water injection tests or gravel packing etc.
10.4 Fluid Maintenance
A solids-free system results in less formation damage and higher productivity.

The continued care and maintenance of the fluid in the system is critical
during well servicing operations. The following steps should be followed:
a) Mixing and storage tanks should be thoroughly cleaned and

visually inspected before each use. All lines and pumps should
be cleaned and inspected.
b) The drilling mud in the casing should always be displaced with a
clean, preferably filtered well servicing fluid.
c) The wellbore should be cleaned to remove as much of the drill
solids from casing walls and fluid system as possible. Over-
displacement with water is the recommended practice. A spacer
of at least 500 feet weighted to the necessary density should be
used when displacing mud.
d) All tanks should have bottom baffles in order to contain settlings.
e) Tank agitators should never be used if clear, solids free fluid is
being used. Tanks should be checked often for settlings and
should be cleaned when needed.
f) A mud cleaner with a 325 mesh screen can be used to remove
solids larger than 44 microns. The brine can then be filtered
through 2 micron filters.
g) Tubular goods should be free of rust, scale, and pipe dope.
h) An Oxygen Scavenger or corrosion inhibitor should be added if
necessary to help prevent the formation of Iron Oxide particles.
11.0 CLEAN FLUID FILTRATION
Filtration technology centers on the need to remove undesirable solids from

fluids primarily to minimize the potential for formation damage. Research and
experience have shown that filtration prevents much of this formation
damage. A second important function is to minimize the potential for solids
settling on top of downhole completion tools, packers, ceramic disks which
can create significant problems and costs when completing or working over
the well in the future.
The main concern in the area of filtration of completion and workover fluids
is the size and quantity of particles. Since these particles are not uniformly
sized, various methods of removal must be used.
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Particle Plugging
Size Counts
Particle size Effect
Bridge instantly on the throat and do on penetrate

the formation
Solution: Filter fluids to remove particles +/> 1/3 the
> 1/3 the diameter pore diameter.
of the pore throat Hydraulic fracture the well and blow the particles
from the perforated tunnels, by perforated washing
tools or by acid.
Invade the formation and bridge on the pore throat

deeper in the formation.
1/3 and 1/10 pore With the pore throats plugged and no permeability,
throat diameter acid cannot be injected into the formation to clean
the pore throats.
Solution: Filter fluids to a level less than 10% of the
pore diameter
< 1/10 the

Considered normally not damaging to the formation
diameter
< 2 microns Considered non-damaging in most cases
11.1 Benefits of Filtration
Solids contamination to the formation reduces production and shortens the

productive life of the well. Contamination of workover and completion brines
can occur during perforating, fracturing, acidizing, workover, water- flooding,
and gravel packing as well. Any time fluid is put into the well bore with
undesirable solids content, no matter how slight, there is a chance of
damaging the well. A fluid contaminant can come in many sizes and forms.
Drilling operations produce cuttings, rust, scale, pipe dope, paraffin,
undissolved polymer, and other material on the casing or pipe string. All
these materials contribute to the amount of solids in the fluid.
Techniques for estimating solid content and fluid clarity are important. The
gravimetric method (centrifuge) for determining the quantity of non-biological
particles, and turbidity measurements to estimate the total amount of
undissolved solids are the most reliable quantitative measurements being
used today. However, even with methods to remove undesirable solids, no
fluid is entirely clean, regardless of how much filtering is performed. Little can
be done about detecting sub-micron particles.
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Example of Solids Plugging
If there are only 5% solids in a fluid – how many perforations can be lost with
only 50 bbls lost to the formation 
2,419 in3 solids ÷ 1.96 in3 per perforation = enough to plug 1,234 perforations
39,755 cc ÷ 32.16 cc per perforation = enough to plug 1,234 perforations
“Clean Fluids Improve Completion Results”; SPE 9752; March 1981; J.L. Rike / T.M. Pledger
Consider that even if the fluid were 10 times cleaner, there would still be
enough solids in the 500 ppm completion fluid to plug 123 perforations!
With the wide range of formations exposed to completion fluids, filtration

services must be tailored to each well. No two wells are ever exactly the
same. The nature and chemistry of the reservoir rock need to be
characterized. Effective filtration service requires a cooperative effort on the
part of all those involved in drilling and production, so that formation damage
and downhole solids settling can be minimized.
In the past, Oil Companies have generally tried to have clean, solids-free
fluids in the well bore before perforating intervals. Now, Oil Companies want
the same kind of “clean” fluids in the well before drilling the production
interval. Porous and permeable rock acts like a deep bed filter for suspended
particles, and even a solids-free fluid may damage a formation if not
chemically compatible with the formation rock.
The Cost of Lost Production: an example.
If damage is caused that reduces productivity to 85% of the original

productivity (or potential productivity), then consider a well that produces 250
bbl/day:
250 ÷ .85 = 294 bbl/day
At $60/bbl, the daily loss is $2,640/day – over a year, a well that produces
350 days/year loses $924,000 per year.
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A minor amount of damage can cause extreme amounts of lost revenue one
might not even be able to identify up front.
Filtration has evolved from old surface filtering systems with low flow volume
to highly sophisticated systems. Although filtering can be expensive and time
consuming, a case for filtering fluids can be made for every completed or
worked over well where the net production has been increased more than
enough to pay for the difference in filtering costs.
The total suspended solids present in completion/workover fluids should be

reduced to less than 0.01% solids, and the majority of these particles should
be less than 2 microns.
11.2 Diatomaceous Earth (DE) Filter Press Unit
DE units are designed for use on

a range of fluids, from the
heaviest sludge to the purest in
clarity. The DE unit features a
versatility and ruggedness that
make it attractive for filtering oil
field completion / workover fluids.
By selecting the appropriate
grade of diatomaceous earth, the
press filter can solve almost any
filtration problem.
Horizontal DE units are

economical and easy to use. They have the lowest volume to surface area
ratio and are the most efficient because the plates break apart for easy
cleaning. DE units are loaded with a diatomaceous earth filter aid. These
units can reduce average particle size in a fluid to less than 1 micron with
high flow rates and high solids loading. Normal flow rates are between 1 to 6
bbl/min of brine.
Diatomaceous (DE) Filtration Media

Filter media are made of various substances. The most frequently used filter
media in completion/workover operations is diatomaceous earth (DE).
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Filter Media Characteristics
Filter media should:

• Be chemically inert. They should not affect the fluid being filtered.
• Form a very porous cake. The particle structure must be such that instead
of packing together, it forms cakes of 85 to 90 percent porosity.
• Provide correct particle size distribution. The particle size should be in a
narrow range to provide optimum flow rate and proper fluid clarity. Each
grade should contain enough coarse particles to enable a good precoat
without affecting flow.
• Be available in various grades. Choice of grade allows the proper balance
between surface area, clarity, and solids removal requirements.
Diatomaceous Earth (DE)
Diatomaceous earth is composed of the fossil skeletons of diatoms

(microscopic water plants.) This fossil material tends to pack well and form a
stable, highly permeable incompressible filter cake. The composition of DE is
mostly silica, insoluble in anything except hydrofluoric acid. Diatomaceous
earth is available in different grades and median sizes.
The DE filtration process introduces a filter medium, which provides a surface

area and builds a cake on each press plate to collect suspended particles
from the fluid as it passes through. As filtering continues, the DE mixed with
the collected suspended solids, forms a depth filter. Thus, a new filtering
surface is continuously formed during filtration. The DE provides microscopic
channels to trap suspended solids, but allow clear fluid to pass through the
center of each press plate; the clear fluid exits the corners of the plate’s inner
chamber. The process continues until a filter cake of sufficient thickness
forms, resulting in clogging or “blinding off” and terminating the cycle. The
filter press is cleaned and pre-coated again.
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11.3 Pod Cartridge Filter Unit
The recommended method of assuring

clean, non-damaging character in
completion fluids is final polishing
filtration with disposable cartridge filter
units. Two factors influence cartridge
filter economics: a) The size of the
smallest particles to be removed, and b)
The concentration of the particles in the
fluid.
Cartridge filter units are used downstream of the large filter press to prevent
material that bleeds through the dressing medium of the DE unit. They also
remove passed particles from faulty or eroded DE pre-coat, and provide
backup fail-safe filtration. Only cartridge filters can assure absolute particle
size filtration efficiency.
Note: The pod/cartridge filter unit is also called “the guard pod unit” because
it prevents pass-through particles from reentering the clean fluid.
Pod/Cartridge filter units can be used alone, in series, or in parallel. If

thoroughly washed and cleaned prior to use, conventional solids control
equipment can be used as pre-filters. This is especially effective when large
particles or high solids concentrations are detected. The use of a
pod/cartridge filter unit alone is only recommended for seawater or
baywater, not brine systems.
Classification of Cartridges
Cartridge filters can be classified as:
• Nominal
• Absolute
Nominal Rating − an arbitrary rating assigned
by the manufacturer based on the weight
percent removal of solids.
• Arbitrary micron rating
• Efficiency based on Wt% removal
• Non-reproducible fluid quality
• Non-fixed pore construction
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Absolute Rating − the diameter of the largest hard spherical particle that will
pass through a filter under specified test conditions
• 100% removal • Reproducible fluid
• Largest pore opening in quality
filter medium • Fixed pore construction
Beta Rating − B x is the ratio of the number of particles by count of a given

size and larger in the influent compared to those of the same size and larger
in the effluent
Therefore, % removal efficiency = B x -1 x 100
Bx
• Reproducible fluid quality • Beta values define the
• Fixed pore construction performance efficiency of
• Distinct particle size cutoff a filter
• Rating is an accepted
standard
Relationship of Beta Values to Absolute Rating − a Beta ratio of 5,000 (B x =

5,000) operationally defines a filter’s absolute rating due to the limitation of
the test apparatus.
Using Beta Values to Compare Filters

Filter # of Particles per ml ≥ 2 Beta Ratio % Removal
microns (B2) Efficiency
Influent Effluent
A 10,000 5,000 2 50%
B 10,000 100 100 99%
C 10,000 10 1,000 99.9%
D 10,000 2 5,000 99.98%
Note: Filter “D” is 50 times more efficient than filter “B”
Nominal cartridge
Nominally rated filter cartridges can be categorized as:
• Fiber mass – can be spun ,wound, rolled or resin bonded around a hollow
core
• Extended surface area - are usually paper, cloth or porous metal pleated
around a hollow core
Note: These cartridges must be carefully evaluated because removal

efficiency and integrity under differential pressure vary with type and
manufacture. Also there is some ambiguity of nominal ratings.
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Absolute cartridge
Absolute rated filter cartridges can be categorized as:
• Fiber mass – can be spun, wound, rolled or resin bonded around a hollow
core
• Extended surface area – are usually paper, cloth, or porous metal pleated
around a hollow core
Note: Absolute rated filter cartridges are harder to attain than the nominally
rated types. They also usually have a higher initial cost, and are used in
situations where fluid quality cannot be compromised.
High efficiency cartridge filters must provide a low-cost, long-life filter medium
specifically suited for today’s completion and workover demands. Typical high
efficiency cartridges are of rigid construction for high flow rate applications.
These cartridges have been developed to withstand high operating
procedures (125 psi at 70 F) and maintain high solids load removal.
When selecting a specific cartridge filter for a completion/workover project,

the following should be considered:
• Solids load of the fluid • Desired particle

• Fluid viscosity/Density removal range
of fluid • Allowable initial
• Maximum flow rate of pressure drop
the system
11.4 Choosing a Filter Unit Type and Layout at the Wellsite
In the decision-making process, the use of a pod/cartridge unit, or a DE filter

press unit, should be based on the type and weight of fluid.
DE Filter Press Unit

Use a DE unit:
• When less than a 5-micron fluid is required
• In gravel pack operations
• If there is a possibility of polymer contamination
• With heavier fluids due to their viscosity
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Pod/cartridge Unit Alone

Use a pod/cartridge unit:
• When ≤ 5-micron fluid • When slower rates are
is required acceptable
• if the unit will be • In older well
operated by rig completion/workover
personnel operations
• When a flow rate of ≥4
bbl/min is needed
Filter press & pod/cartridge filter combinations

Cartridge filters used downstream from the filter press guard against the
accidental release of DE material into the completion fluid system. If absolute
rated cartridges are used for guard filters, the increased amount of surface
area and superior filter medium provide not only a guard, but also a polish
that ensures more efficient particle removal.
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11.5 Wellsite Fluid Quality Measurement
Turbidity
Turbidity is defined as the "expression of the optical property that causes

a light beam to be scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in
straight lines through a solution that contains suspended particle matter."
Turbidity Meter
A turbidity meter is an instrument used for measuring the loss in intensity

of a light beam through a solution that contains suspended particle
matter.
The scattering and absorption of light is caused by the interaction of a

light beam with suspended particles in the fluid, which results in a
Nepholemetric Turbidity Unit (NTU) reading. However, the scattered light
beam can also be affected by the color of the fluid, which may result in an
erroneous reading. It should be noted that there is no correlation between
NTU's and percent solids in fluid. The turbidity meter should only be used
as an instrument for monitoring fluid clarity.
Hand Crank Centrifuge
A hand centrifuge is a device for the mechanical separation of high

specific gravity solids from a fluid to determine the content of
contaminants, which is expressed as percent solids.
1.0% solids = 10,000 ppm * ppm (parts per million)

.5% solids = 5,000 ppm
.1% solids = 1,000 ppm
.01% solids = 100 ppm
The hand centrifuge is a more reliable tool for determining the cleanliness
of the fluid. However, the turbidity meter and the hand centrifuge should
be used in conjunction with each other to determine the overall quality of
the fluid.
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12.0 DRILLING FLUID PRACTICES, PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
12.1 Hole Cleaning
Hole cleaning is of the utmost importance to the success of any drilling

operation. Regular size bit cuttings to fine, packed cuttings beds, to large
“rocks” from unconsolidated formations that have caved into the well must
be
effectively removed. The results of ineffective hole cleaning can vary from
packing off to high ECD’s and resultant mud losses to stuck pipe.
There are various procedures and techniques used to ensure and

enhance hole cleaning. While flow rate (annular velocity) and mud weight
are the biggest factors, hole angle will dictate the mud design for sweeps
and even the active mud. High viscosity sweeps are recommended for
sections from vertical to 35˚, where high density sweeps are proven to be
the most effective in sections greater than 35˚. The most critical mud
parameters to achieve consistent hole cleaning in highly deviated
sections are the low shear rheology values (6/3 rpm; low shear YP). As is
often said and proven, sweeps are not even necessary for effective hole
cleaning if the mud is in good shape and flow rate and pipe rotation are
optimized.
Rule of Thumb: For optimum hole cleaning sweeps, use High

Viscosity Pills for <35° hole angles; High Density Pills or Tandem Low
Vis/High Density for > 35° hole angle.
Critical parameters: The list below identifies variables that need to be

optimized to have effective hole cleaning:
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Hydraulics Well Profile and Well Geometry

Annular velocity Hole angle and doglegs
Annular velocity profile casing/hole and drill pipe diameters
Flow regime drill string eccentricity
Drilling parameter Cutting and Bed characteristics
bit type specific gravity
penetration rate particle size and shape
pipe rotation reactivity with mud
Mud Properties Mud properties
mud weight
Viscosity, especially
at low shear rates
gel strengths
inhinitiveness
12.1.1 Indicators of hole cleaning problems
• The first and most important source of information is to visually

evaluate cutting returns, the observed amount of cuttings has to
reflect the relative hole size and ROP. Rounded cuttings indicate
long residence time downhole and poor cleaning.
• Torque and Drag: Erratic increases or higher than expected
upward trends.
• Pick‐Up and Slack‐Off weights: Reduction in down weight can
indicate cuttings bed buildup.
• Connections: fill after connections; higher rotary torque;
pressure surges while breaking circulation indicates cuttings
accumulation.
• Pressure trends: can indicate annular obstructions due to a
higher amount of cuttings in annulus.
Tripping: Higher drag; improper hole fill up on trips; and increased

pressure when breaking circulation can be an indicator of poor
hole cleaning.
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Position of Drill String
In horizontal or highly deviated wells, the pipe is typically on low

side of the hole which means the path of least flow resistance is
on the high side of the hole. This is why high viscosity pills have
poor performance in horizontal wells since the thick mud will favor
the path of least resitance.
12.1.2 Performance of High Density vs High Viscosity Sweeps
Transport efficiency is a modified slip velocity approach that

analyses the average fluid velocity in the narrow gap region of an
eccentric annulus and is compared to the settling velocity of
individual cuttings particles. The output from this model is given as
transport efficiency.
High density pills (15 – 30 pcf > active mud weight) have proven to
be much more effective in effectively flushing a horizontal hole
clean due to buoyancy effects, reduced cuttings settling velocity
and the ability to stay more intact than high viscosity pills during
high flow rate.
In industry flow loop and field studies since 1979, mud weight
always proved to have a stronger effect on hole cleaning than
mud rheology.
A 200 ft annular sweep, 30 pcf higher than the active mud weight
in a 10,000 ft. well increases hydrostatic less than 0.6 pcf
equivalent.
Rule of Thumb: High Density Sweeps should be 15 – 30 pcf >
Active Mud Weight, used alone or preceded by a Low Vis Pill.
High Density Pills should never be of a higher viscosity than the
active mud weight. Sweeps should be 200-500 annular feet in
size depending on ECD impact.
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12.1.3 Rotation of Drill String & Rheology is Critical!

Low Rheology High Rheology
High Velocity Fluid Low Velocity Fluid
GOOD!
BAD!
Area of high velocity shrinks and

areas of low velocity flow increases
No Rotation With Rotation

Low Velocity Fluid
High Velocity Fluid
BAD! GOOD!
Cuttings on low side will not be disturbed by fluid With rotation, cuttings pulled up into high velocity
unless stirred by pipe rotation or higher velocity fluid mechanically and due viscous coupling
or turbulence effect
Tools to improve hole cleaning
• Increased flow rate – Most effective

• Increased mud density
• Changes in rheological properties (Improve low shear rheology in
deviated wells)
• Increased DP rotation
• Drilling fluid sweeps (<35° - Use high viscosity; >35° - Use Low vis /
High density)
• Increased DP size [for ECD and AV]
• Cuttings bed impellers [CBI]
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12.1.4 Best Practices for Highly Deviated or Horizontal Holes
Ensure high enough flow rate [Q] to give adequate AV in open

hole
Hole Size, in Annular Velocity, Comment
ft/min
Even with these AV’s, hole cleaning
Larger problems can be expected. The use
125-140
diameters of specially designed sweeps is
mandatory
13 ½ +/- 200
12 ¼ +/- 180
9½ +/- 170-175
8½ +/- 150-165
These AV values assume you are rotating the drill pipe at a 'normal' rpm
speed (100-120 rpm). For Transport efficiency, use 40% (2.5 bottoms up to
remove cuttings from the hole) as a minimum.
Optimize flow rate, DP rotation and mud parameters for consistent

Hole Cleaning.
Rule of Thumb: For horizontal/highly deviated wells, the 6 RPM

rheology reading should be 1.2 – 1.5 X the Hole Size. Example: For
an 8-1/2” hole, 6 RPM should be 10 – 13.
Recommendations:
a) If annular velocity is inadequate, consider increasing pump rate
or even changing DP size.
• 5-in to 5.5-in
• 5-in to 5.875-in [special string]
• 5.5-in to 6.625-in
b) Avoid backreaming as hole cleaning tool because it causes the
following effects:
• Excessive pressures on wellbore wall
• Damage to filter cake on borehole wall
• Wellbore instability issues
• Increases incidents of pack-offs and stuck pipe
• Complicates PWD interpretation
Rule of Thumb: If backreaming is required, always backream to at

least a <35° section and circulate the hole clean.
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c) Use of sweeps as hole cleaning tools

• Best hole cleaning tool is flow rate/velocity
• Sweeps are purely secondary tools, not primary tools Tandem
sweeps are not recommended when wellbore stability
problems are expected. The low viscosity portion of sweep can
be easily put in turbulent flow and scour wall cake off the
borehole wall, thus allowing more fluid to be pushed into the
rock matrix. However, in stable hole, tandem sweeps have
been used successfully.
• High viscosity for vertical / near-vertical wells < 35 deg
• High density for high-angle wells – Recommended 15 – 30 PCF
above fluid density
• DP rotation enhances sweep performance
Detrimental Effects of Too Many Sweeps:
• Viscosity increase in system

• Density increase in system
• Additional cost to control mud
• Additional rig time required
Rule of Thumb: For deviated wells, a single bottoms up is never

enough. Up to 2.5 times bottoms- up are required to clean the well.
Minimize or eliminate sliding
d) Causes of Poor Hole Cleaning while Sliding

• Poor cleaning with no DP rotation
• DP lies against low side of hole
e) Possible solutions for Hole Cleaning while Sliding

• Drill with rotary steerable assemblies
• Control ROP
12.1.5 Tripping Procedures
• Assume tight hole caused by cuttings bed first. Avoid back-

reaming and pumping out to help clean hole. Take the time to
properly clean the hole before beginning the trip out.
• Back-reaming should be avoided so that pack-offs associated
with Boycott settling are not induced or the drill string is not
dragged through a cuttings bed accumulating cuttings across
tool joints, the BHA or the bit.
• Determine over-pull limit before pulling out of hole.
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• If back-reaming is performed, do not stop backreaming until

the BHA is in a section with less than 35° deviation.
• Watch torque and drag trends as these can be an indication of
cuttings loading in the annulus. Stop and circulate hole until
hole clean (Minimum 2.5 bottoms up).
12.1.6 Circulation Prior To Tripping
Due to the fact that cuttings move more slowly than the circulating
mud, it is essential that sufficient bottoms-up are circulated prior to
tripping, especially in a highly deviated/horizontal hole. A single
bottoms-up is never enough!
The minimum on bottom circulation time prior to tripping will be

influenced by hole size, inclination and flow history (i.e. mud
properties and flow rate). These factors will affect the height of
any residual cuttings beds. Industry studies show that the volume
of cuttings left behind during normal drilling operations can be
considerable. Studies recommend selection of bits/BHA’s with
large bypass areas to facilitate tripping out of the hole.
Before tripping, monitor the shakers to ensure the cuttings return
rate is reduced to an acceptable background level. Refer to the
table in page 14 of this chapter for circulation time prior to tripping.
Rotation is a Key Factor to disturb the cuttings beds
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12.2 Wellbore Stability
Drilling in complex geological environments, such as faults, joints,

fractures, layered formations, weak bedding planes, etc., usually leads to
expensive borehole stability problems. Here, a deep understanding of the
mechanics and mechanisms of rock fracture becomes a key element in
solving such problems involving geotectonic structures.
Wellbore instability can occur as a result of mechanical effects, chemicals

effects or a combination of both.
In simple terms, mechanical effects are usually related to mud weight

(too high or too low) or drilling practice (Rate of penetration, vibration
effects, torque and drag and frequency of trips), whereas chemical
effects are mud type related (inappropriate mud type or inhibition level
for the problematic formation being drilled).
12.2.1 Misconceptions about Wellbore Stability
“Many people in our industry believe that well control purposes

alone dictate the required mud weight. They often also assume
that the hole collapse is simply a result of drilling with insufficient
mud weight”
“It is common to assume that increasing mud weight is always the

answer to hole instability problems. This is not always correct.
Sometimes, increasing it can make the problem worse.”
“Many people believe that the use of an oil based mud will prevent
any problems occurring while drilling in shales. Hole instability can
still occur particularly if mud weight or water phase salinity is
inappropriate.”
12.2.2 Signs Of Wellbore Instability
• Hole washout / hole enlargement

• Tight hole or creep
• Altered, damaged, or plastic zones
• Unusual hole calipers
• Formation fracturing / lost circulation
• Wellbore breathing (losses followed by gains)
• Bedding plane slippage
• Stable wellbore while drilling, unstable while preparing to run
and cement casing
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12.2.3 Rock Failure Mechanisms
Exceeding tensile strength (fracture gradient): This event occurs

when the tensile strength of the rock is exceeded due to high ECD
(Equivalent Circulating Density), high surge pressures while
tripping or running casing or when the well is strongly shut down
for a well control situation.
Lost Returns Fracture Process is

Identical to LOT Fracture Process
3. Stable Crack Growth 4. Stop Pump

Continued increase due to
pressure drop down crack 5. Initial Shut-in
Initial fracture pressure
2. Leak-Off
Small, stable 6. Width Declines
crack opens Fracture closes due to filtrate
P re s s u re
ISIP losses in fracture face
7. Minimum Stress
Final pressure at crack
closed on mud solids 8. Pressure Declines
Filtrate losses continue
1. No Open Crack after fracture closure, but
Linear drilling fluid compression. only into the smaller area
exposed in the borehole
V o lu m e SI Time
Drilling fluid Lost is experienced when the tensile strength of the

rock is exceeded. The figure below shows a fracture process
(Similar to a LOT)
12.2.3.1 Prevention
• Be aware of the mud density limitation (Based on

LOTs data from offset wells, historical mud losses
or rock data analysis).
• When drilling in fractured formations, the weakest
point in the hole section is not below the casing
shoe. You have to rely on the mud losses history. A
good MW /ECD tracking of the mud losses
scenarios is very important.
• Do not rely just on surface density, the ECD
(Equivalent Circulating Density) is the one affecting
the formation while drilling. In OBM, the difference
between the surface and bottom hole density is
considerable due to the compressibility effect.
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• When drilling long horizontal sections, the

difference between the mud density and the ECD is
much bigger than drilling vertical wells. Plan to
reduce this ECD to a minimum by controlling the
flow rate, ROP and fluid rheology.
12.2.4 Exceeding Compressive Strength (Hole Collapse)
This event occurs when the compressive strength of the rock is

exceeded which can occur when lower fluid densities than
required for rock stability are used.
Other scenarios can lead to wellbore collapse, like swabbing while

tripping out or a sudden rig pump shut down. All of the above
should be avoided to minimize wellbore collapse.
12.2.4.1 Effects of Compressive Failure

• Hole size reduction due the plastic flow of the rock
into the borehole, which causes excessive reaming,
difficulties running in and pulling out or stuck pipe.
• Hole enlargement due to rock failing in a brittle
manner and falling into the borehole (break-out),
which results in poor directional control, poor
cementing jobs, poor logging and formation
evaluation
“Highly deviated wells require higher mud

densities to maintain wellbore stability”
12.2.4.2 Prevention
• Use the recommended mud density based on

wellbore stability analysis or offset wells. If the
recommended mud density for wellbore stability
cannot be used for well control issues or potential
down hole losses, be prepared for wellbore
collapse and packing off events. Efficient hole
cleaning and ROP control are mandatory in this
scenario.
• Treat the well gently, especially when tripping or
shutting pumps down to minimize the swabbing
effect.
• Condition the drilling fluid prior to running casing
and control pipe speed while tripping.
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• Do not make drastic mud density reductions, since

this may cause a wellbore collapse (especially in
unconsolidated or weak formations).
12.2.5 Bedding Plane Slippage
This event occurs in certain formations that once they are drilled,
the rock will slip on a defined plane. Blocky cavings are typical of
this bedding plane slippage scenario.
12.2.5.1 Prevention
• Use bridging material in the drilling fluid to fill the

cracks presented in these formations and have
good filtration control. This formation will try to fall
as soon it is drilled and it is recognized by blocky
type cavings on the shakers.
• Maintain a good hole cleaning efficiency and ROP

control to minimize the risk of pack off.
12.2.6 Chemical Instability
Chemical wellbore instability is due to chemical interaction

between the rock being drilled and the drilling fluid. The water
phase of the drilling fluid reacts with the formation (especially
shale) and weakens it. When shales react with water, they can
soften, disperse, swell and crack. These effects can cause a wide
range of operational problems such as tight hole, hole
enlargement, ledging, bit balling and caving.
12.2.6.1 Prevention
• Use inhibitive drilling fluids that minimize the
amount of water going into the shale. Good
filtration control is required. Low HTHP values
dependent on many variables (BHT, mud type,
overbalance, etc.). Cake Thickness - 1 - 4/32” for
WBM; <2/32” for OBM.
• For oil base muds, the salinity of the water phase

should be minimum in balance or higher than the
formation water salinity. Higher salinity in the OBM
will prevent the shale to get water, swell and
slough.
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• The interfacial film surrounding the emulsified water

droplets in an oil mud act as a semi-permeable
membrane and provide a mechanism for osmosis.
Osmosis is the flow of water from a less
concentration salt solution into a more concentrated
solution through a semi-permeable membrane. This
is why Oil Based Mud (OBM) is the best option for
shale inhibition.
• For WBM (Water Based Muds), the shale inhibition

mechanism is achieved by:
i. Salinity of its continuous phase (water). NaCl,

KCl are commonly used in our operation. KCl
brine (3 – 5% by wt) is preferred, especially
when drilling shales which have a high
Smectite/Illite content.
ii. Polymers as filtration control agents (PAC and

Starch, etc). These polymers delay (through
their viscosity) the water flow from the mud
filtrate to the shale.
iii. Encapsulation: It is a chemical and physical

interaction with the clays surfaces. Long chain
polymers such as PHPA and modified
carboxymethylcellulose, are believed to wrap
around the clay particles. This aids in control of
surface hydration and reduces the tendency to
disperse and disintegrate.
iv. Physical plugging, in some of the brittle shales,

ionic inhibition and encapsulation may not
sufficiently reduce shale instability. Even a
slight hydration of micro-fractures will make the
formations unstable. Asphaltenes have been
used effectively to seal micro-fractures.
Gilsonite is another mineral product used to
maximize shale stabilization. Sulfonated
Asphalt and Gilsonite/Polyglycol Suspension
are commonly used in our operation for this
purpose for non-payzones.
v. PolyGlycols are also used as clay inhibitor due

to their ability to retain water. MEG and TEG -
typical Aramco glycols, are not effective as clay
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inhibitors and should not be used for this

purpose.
12.3 Stuck Pipe
Stuck Pipe events are one of the highest causes of downtime in all drilling
and workover operations. They can range from minor incidents
increasing costs slightly, to major, catastrophic complications, such as
loss of drill strings and expensive down hole equipment to even complete
loss of the well.
Industry studies reveal the following information concerning stuck pipe:
Vertical and Low Angle holes have the best success

Hole Angle:
rates for freeing stuck pipe.
Success rate for freeing stuck pipe was slightly
Hole Size:
higher for larger than smaller holes.
The chance of freeing stuck pipe is higher in wells
Mud Weight:
requiring lower mud weights.
The quicker the spot is applied, the higher the
Spotting Time:
chance of success. Delay reduces success rapidly.
Open hole length does not consistently affect the
Open Hole:
success rate for freeing stuck pipe.
Reaming/Backreaming: Operation during 60% of stuck pipe incidents.
Effective Soaking time 24 hours for directional wells; 30 hours for vertical
for Pills wells
36% of stuck pipe incidents typically occur within the
first 2 hours of crew change
 People are the critical element to prevention
People Factor of stuck pipe – proper training, awareness of
the goals, attention to detail and best
practice application are the best insurance
for success.
12.3.1 Causes of Stuck Pipe
Drill strings or casing strings can become stuck by two basic

mechanisms:
• Mechanical sticking
• Differential sticking
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12.3.1.1 Mechanically Stuck Pipe
Causes of Mechanically Stuck Pipe – 2 Categories
Hole Packoff and Bridges caused by:

1. Settled Cuttings and Cuttings Beds
2. Shale Instability
3. Unconsolidated Formation
4. Cement or junk
5. Tectonics
Well bore Geometry Interferences caused by:
1. Key Seats
2. Under gauge Hole
3. Stiff Drilling Assembly
4. Mobile Formation
5. Ledges and Doglegs
6. Casing Failures
12.3.1.2 Differential Sticking
Many incidents of stuck pipe are caused by differential

pressure effects. Excessive differential pressures
across lower-pressure permeable zones can cause the
drill string, or casing, to pull the drill pipe into the filter
cake. Differential Sticking should be properly
addressed in the pre-planning stage and proper
preventive measures should be taken to avoid
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substantial cost penalties. Preventive measures

include pre-treatment to prevent sticking and a pre-
agreed action plan should sticking occur. Experience
has shown that differential sticking can occur with a
minimum overbalance and should always be
considered a hazard when drilling permeable
formations such as sandstone and/or limestone.
Differential Sticking is a 2 Part Problem
• High overbalance across a permeable zone

• Filter cake “grows” as filtration continues to “glue”
the pipe in place
Causes of Differential Sticking
A major cause of differential sticking is excessive

overbalance in a permeable zone. The overbalance
may be necessary because of an open hole section
containing reactive, pressurized shales that require a
high mud weight to impart stability.
This may be further complicated where wells are

deviated, requiring higher mud weights (compared to
vertical wells) to stabilize the shales combined with an
increase in equivalent circulating density (ECD) and in
most cases a lower fracture gradient.
Differential sticking may result when the specific

requirements for casing design expose sands to
excessive overbalance, e.g. deep high temperature -
high pressure (HTHP) wells or development wells
where the formation changes from shales to reservoir
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sands. A pressure reversal or depleted zones may

cause differential sticking.
Excessive overbalance can be a result of poor hole

cleaning and/or excessive rates of penetration (ROP)
resulting in an increase of annular mud weight. Other
causes include poor quality filter cake, excessive fluid
loss, poor hydraulics and rheology resulting in high
ECD’s and poor drilling practices such as leaving drill
string stationary in a permeable zone.
12.3.2 Prevention
12.3.2.1 General
• Well Planning is Key – Identify zones with high

probability of stuck pipe
• Training – Hold team/well site Stuck Pipe
Prevention meetings
• Design BHA’s for minimum wall contact
• Design/drill with optimum trajectories to minimize
dogleg severity (tortuosity)
• Minimize mud overbalance
• Keep the pipe moving
• Optimize mud to maintain thin, impermeable mud
cakes
• Minimize reaming/backreaming
• If backreaming, continue to a vertical section to
ensure good hole cleaning
• Develop trend charts of torque/drag and pipe pick
up/slack off
12.3.2.2 Mud Condition

• Maintain good hole cleaning rheology and
minimize annular cuttings loading
• Control ROP – do not out-drill the capability of
maintaining mud quality.
• Ensure low filtrates and thin, tough, impermeable
filter cakes.
• Use lubricity agents (lubricants, plastic beads) as
necessary
• Maintain <5% by volume low gravity drill solids
• Employ specialty Overbalance Drilling Fluids in
extreme cases
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Rule of Thumb: Maintain <5% low gravity drill solids

in the mud; < 3% in a Reservoir Drill In Fluid or High
Density Mud (>120 pcf) for best control of mud
parameters, minimizing formation damage and
minimizing risk of stuck pipe. Studies show that over
10% low gravity solids almost guarantees stuck pipe.
12.3.2.3 The Importance of Proper Bridging Materials
Using a high quality properly sized bridging material

will effectively bridge across porous sands minimizing
filtrate and whole mud invasion, filter cake build up,
seepage loss, differential sticking and formation
damage.
Bridging material type and optimum concentration

should be determined through testing with the Particle
Plugging Apparatus and FANN® 90 to determine the
combination of products that will provide the lowest
spurt and fluid loss. It is important to bridge and seal
pore spaces with the initial loss of filtrate. This
minimizes filtrate loss and filter cake build up and
resulting stuck pipe.
Dynamic filtration can be evaluated in the laboratory

under a variety of conditions. These include various
shear rates, pressures, and temperatures and filter
medium permeability. The lab requires details about
the size and permeability of sand to be drilled. Ideally,
the tests should be completed far enough in advance
so the treatment can be implemented and the active
system tested to confirm the lab results prior to drilling
the sands
12.3.2.4 Connection Guidelines
There is a history of sticking problems when making

connections. These guidelines are to remind everyone
of good drilling practices which minimize potential
problems during connections. These guidelines
assume top drive drilling
• All Drillers should be familiar with these connection

procedures.
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• Wipe, at least, the last joint prior to making a

connection. If erratic or high torque is experienced
prior to the connection, clean the hole.
• At “Kelly Down” always allow the weight on bit
(WOB) to drill off prior to picking up off bottom,
especially when drilling with high WOB.
• Have a single in the “V”door in case downward
motion is required to free the pipe after a
connection.
• Avoid starting and stopping the mud pumps
suddenly. This may disturb the wellbore downhole
(shock loading effect). Take a whole minute to bring
the pumps up to speed.
• Minimize the period without circulation during a
connection.
• After drilling or reaming, cuttings should be
circulated above the open hole section and/or the
horizontal section prior to picking up to make a
connection.
• If differential sticking is suspected to be a risk;
maximize pipe motion, consider rotation of string
with slips set while picking up the next stand.
• Connections should only be made if hole condition
is good. Never make a connection with any over
pull onto the slips.
• Set slips high enough to allow downward
movement. If hole conditions are sticky, extra stick
up may be required, taking care not to bend pipe.
• Always confirm circulation after a connection prior
to moving pipe.
• Always begin pipe motion downwards once slips
are pulled.
12.3.2.5 Reaming and Back-Reaming Guidelines
Reaming in the hole has the greatest risk of sticking

associated with it due to the fact that the BHA
continues run in hole (RIH) past "stirred up" cuttings
beds and can therefore pack-off.
The preferred practice is to work the string past a tight

spot as a first option. However, over pull limits must be
known and used. Work up to the over pull limit in
stages, ensuring free movement in the other direction
at each stage.
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Understanding the geology and hole condition is

important. Different actions may be required in different
formations (e.g. under gauge sand, ledges or sticking
balling formations).
• Always plan the trip. Have an up-to-date mudlog on

the rig floor, know where high doglegs exist and
note troublesome areas from past trips.
• A tripping speed plot should be available on the rig
floor. A good understanding of this plot will assist in
safer and quicker trips.
• Ensure that the Driller knows what actions to take
in the event of problems. Are over pull limits,
freeing procedures and reaming practices
understood? Are written instructions for the driller
prepared and updated regularly?
• If reaming is required, control the speed of reaming
operations. Large volumes of settled cuttings or
new cave-ins can be introduced to the hole while
reaming. It is critical that this material is circulated
out (4 stands an hour can be used as a rule of the
maximum speed).
• Reaming operations should be conducted as
smoothly as possible. Rotation speed should be
dictated by torque and kept as low as possible.
• Prior to heavy reaming, slow rotation (<80 rpm)
should be attempted to "walk" the pipe through
ledges.
• Reaming weight and speed should be kept low (<
10 - 15 Klb) either up or down. This reduces the
chance of sidetracking the well and is less
damaging to the drill string.
• When the top drive stalls out during reaming
operations, there is a great deal of stored energy in
the torqued up drill string. Always release this
torque slowly. If consistent parameters can be used
for reaming operations, this assists in identification
of changes in torque and pressure trends.
• Increase in drag, torque, or pressure may indicate
that the annulus is loaded up and a pack-off may
be forming. Take time to clear up the hole.
• The shakers must be monitored continuously, and
the volume of solids being removed from the
wellbore should be recorded. Reaming speed and
circulation time should be adjusted if volume rate
dictates.
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Drill floor personnel should get into the habit of calling

the Mud loggers before making connections to check
that everything is OK.
12.3.3 Treatment
Once the pipe becomes stuck, whether it is the drill pipe assembly
or casing/liner, the reaction plan should be as follows:
• Determine the type of sticking mechanism. Use the following

table to help.
• Immediately apply efforts to work the pipe properly and use
spotting pills.
 Rule of Thumb: The surest way to free stuck pipe is to

ALWAYS BE PREPARED. Preplanning is essential and must
include having proper mud additives and chemicals at the well site
before drilling a high risk section.
12.3.4 How to Determine if Pipe is Differential or Mechanically Stuck

PACK-OFF/ WELLBORE
PIPE MOTION PRIOR TO STICKING? DIFFERENTIAL
BRIDGE GEOMETRY
Moving Up 2 0 2
Rotating Up 0 0 2
Moving Down 1 0 2
Rotating Down 0 0 2
Static 2 2 0
PIPE MOTION AFTER STICKING?
Down Free 0 0 2
Down Restricted 1 0 2
Down Impossible 0 0 0
PIPE ROTATION AFTER STICKING?
Rotate Free 0 0 2
Rotate Restricted 2 0 2
Rotate Impossible 0 0 0
CIRCULATING PRESSURE AFTER STICKING?
Circulating Free 0 2 2
Circulating Restricted 2 0 0
Circulating Impossible 2 0 0
TOTALS 12 4 18
Ins tructi ons :
Ans wer the s ha ded ques ti ons by ci rcl i ng a l l the numbers i n the row wi th the correct a ns wer.
Add the col umns ; the col umn wi th the hi ghes t number i ndi ca tes the s ti cki ng mecha ni s m.
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12.3.5 Stuck Pipe Action Plan
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12.3.6 Spotting Fluids Classification
Filter Cake
Brine Surfactant Lubricant Glycol Acidic Solvents
Degrading
Dehydrate the Change Reduces Degrades the Dehydrate the Dissolve filter Dissolve asphalt
filter cake and wettability offriction filter cake (Can filter cake and cake and based material
as a spacer filtercake to between be weighted) lubricate. It possibly weaken
between the allow action of
drill pipe cannot be formation
mud and other acid or other and weighted integrity at stuck
spacers spotting fluidformation point
and filter
cake
E.g. Vendor E.g. Vendor E.g. Vendor utual
M
CaCl 2 Surfactants Lubricants Spotting MEG/TEG Citric Solvent
Lo Surf-259 Radiagreen Chemicals (EGMBE)
Lube 167
CaBr2 W-54 EZ SPOT Polygylcols Acetic
F-103 Teq-Lube II Pipe Lax Formic
BaroLube
Coastal Spot HCl
Gold Seal
High Weight High Viscosity (HWHV) spacer: Brine or drilling fluid

spacer that has a density and viscosity sufficiently higher than the
spotting fluids and displacement mud to minimize interface mixing and
improve displacement efficiency. Density should be 10 – 12 pcf higher
than the fluid being displaced.
12.3.7 Spotting Fluid Types, Actions and Material Requirements
It is critical to have a spotting fluid readily available and apply it as

soon as possible. If spotted within the first 6 hours, statistically
there is a 90% chance of getting free. After that time, the success
rate goes down exponentially.
12.3.7.1 General Action of a Stuck Pipe Spotting Fluid:

• To dehydrate, disturb or degrade the filter cake
• Allow a lubricant to penetrate the filter cake and
reduce pipe/cake adhesion
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a) Brine Pre-Sweep or Soak Pill to precede Lubricating Pills
Purpose:
• To dehydrate and degrade the filter cake by

osmotic pressure
• If pumped around the stuck pipe fast, in
turbulent flow, may wash and thin the cake
• If soaked, will further dehydrate the filter cake.
When and How to Use:
• 30 – 50+ bbl pumped as first pill in a lubricant,

glycol or cake degradation pill train.
• Pumped as fast as possible past stuck zone OR
spotted and soaked up to 16 hours prior to
moving second pill into place.
Formulation for 100 bbl: CaCl 2 , NaCl or CaBr 2
• CaCl 2 – 10.5 big bags (2200 lbs/bag) for 236

lbs/bbl for 86 pcf
• NaCl - 10 big bags (2200 lbs/bag) for 110
lbs/bbl for 75 pcf
• CaBr 2 – 95 drums for 106 pcf
• Potassium Formate – 15.4 tote tanks (275 gal
each) for 98 pcf
b) Surfactant Pills
Purpose:
• To change to or ensure water wet surface area

of stuck pipe zone prior to placing acid or glycol
spot
• If OBM, 1 – 2% by volume in first pill pumped in

a lubricant, glycol or cake degradation pill train
Pumped as fast as possible past stuck zone OR

spotted and soaked up to 16 hours prior to moving
second pill into place.
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Formulation for 100 bbls:
• CaCl 2 - 10.5 big bags (2200 lbs/bag) for 236

lbs/bbl for 86 pcf
• NaCl - 10 big bags (2200 lbs/bag) for 110
lbs/bbl for 75 pcf
• CaBr 2 - 95 drums for 106 pcf
• Potassium Formate - 15.4 tote tanks for 98 pcf
c) Lubricant Pills
High concentration Lubricity Pill - Components =

active mud, lubricant, weight material as required
Purpose:
• To lubricate area around stuck zone and reduce

adhesion of pipe/cake
• Recommended soaking time – 12 – 30 hours
• Density can be adjusted for any hydrostatic
requirement
• Only when it is the quickest response pill to the

stuck pipe event. Filter cake degradation pills
are preferred since they perform the same
lubricating function plus other benefits.
• 80 bbls Active Mud

• 20 bbl (14 drums) Lubricant
d) Filter Cake Degradation Pills
Pills containing filter cake degradation chemistry

and a high degree of lubricity. It usually is
recommended as first response pills and can be
weighted up.
Purpose:
• To degrade filter cake and lubricate area
around stuck zone to reduce adhesion of
pipe/cake
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requirement
• Recommended as first response pills due to

multiple benefits
requirement
• EZ Spot – Components = Water, diesel, EZ

Spot, weight material
i. 6 drums EZ Spot
ii. 44 – 64 bbl diesel (depending on density
required)
iii. 10 – 28 bbl water (depending on density
required)
iv. Barite or CaCO 3
• Pipe Lax – Components = Water, diesel, Pipe

Lax, weight material
i. 6 drums Pipe Lax
ii. 44 – 64 bbl diesel (depending on density
required)
iii. 10 – 28 bbl water (depending on density
required)
iv. Geltone, VG-69 – 12 – 15 sacks
v. Barite or CaCO 3
• Coastal Spot – Components = Coastal Spot

tote tanks, NaCl, SX Plus
i. 3300 gal (12 tote tanks) Coastal Spot
ii. 1210 lbs. NaCl
iii. 26 sacks SX Plus
iv. 580 gal water (depends on density required)
v. Barite or CaCO 3 to required density
e) Glycol Pills
Pills containing filter cake degradation chemistry

and a high degree of lubricity. It is usually
recommended as first response pills and can be
weighted.
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Purpose:
• To degrade/dehydrate filter cake and lubricate

area around stuck zone to reduce adhesion of
pipe/cake.
• Density CANNOT be adjusted. Are used in neat
solution, no viscosifiers.
• Glycol or glycol cocktail pill density will be 68 +/-
pcf. Check before pumping.
• Also recommended as first response pills,

especially in Gas Drilling, due to multiple
benefits and history of success.
• When in horizontal wells or maintaining
hydrostatic pressure is not critical.
Formulation for 100 bbl:
• Glycol Neat – Components = Aramco Glycol

(MEG or TEG). 77 drums Aramco Glycol (MEG
or TEG)
• Glycol Formulation – Components = Aramco

Glycol (MEG or TEG, lubricants, Pipe-Lax)
i. 65 drums (80 bbl) Aramco Glycol (MEG or
TEG)
ii. 12 drums Lubricant (15 bbl)
iii. 4 drums (5 bbl) Pipe-Lax
f) Acid Pills
Purpose:
• To dissolve filter cake and near borehole rock

to reduce pipe/cake adhesion.
• Citric acid is a low strength acid for use when

stuck in Carbonate.
• Primary usage is HCl (hydrochloric acid) when
stuck in Carbonates or to dissolve Carbonate
based filter cake in sandstones.
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• HCl/HF (hydrofluoric) acid blends are available

for sandstone applications but extra safety
precautions must be taken as HF has high HSE
risks.
• HCl has been used successfully to relieve
severe shale balling causing pipe sticking when
shale ball contains Carbonate chips.
• Corrosion inhibitor addition is mandatory.
• Recommended soaking time – 30 minutes – 2
hours
• Density can be adjusted by mixing acid in
various brines although HCl is commonly used
in 15 – 20% concentrations with water.
• Citric Acid Pill – Components = Water, 12 – 20

lbs/bbl citric acid (dry)
i. 98 bbl water
ii. 36 sacks (25 kg) citric acid
• HCl – Components = water, 31.5% HCl,

corrosion inhibitors
*Consult with Cement Company representative

for formulation and supply of acid and
corrosion inhibitors. Confirm formulation with
Aramco Mud Specialist.
• HF acid blends – Commonly referred to as
“mud acid”. It is a specialty formulation and
should be planned case by case by the Cement
Company acid specialists.
g) Solvent Pill
Purpose:
• To dissolve any material containing

asphaltenes (tar) which have contributed to a
stuck pipe incident.
• When stuck pipe is suspected to be across a

“tar” zone. Tar cuttings are often noticed on the
shaker.
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• Mutual Solvent (EGMBE) mixed at 15-20% in

base oil.
Formulation for 100 bbl:
• 5 – 10 bbl base oil spacer either side of mutual

solvent/base oil pill
• 85 bbl Base oil - (Low tox mineral oil, Diesel)
• 12 drums Mutual Solvent – 15% by volume
12.3.7.2 Spotting Procedure
Follow the Stuck Pipe Action Plan for determination of

what type of pill train to use. Specific volumes and
spotting procedures should be written for each
particular well.
a) Soaking Time of Stuck Pipe Pills
• Acid pills react rapidly with Carbonates. The

reaction can be considered complete in as little
as 30 minutes to 1 hour. This action may be
retarded down hole if rock is previously coated
with OBM or a grease pill thus enforcing the
importance of using mutual solvents and
surfactants in the pill formulations to convert the
rock/filter cake to a water wet condition.
• For all “grease” type or glycol/ lubricant pills, the
recommended effective soak time is a minimum
of 12 hours with the pill in place to 30+ hours.
The action of these pills is to degrade/crack the
filter cake in place around the stuck zone and
allow the lubricious phase of the fluid to soak
into the area between the pipe and release
pressure. Basically, a fluid is soaking into rock,
which takes time.
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13.0 SOLIDS CONTROL
“IF YOU CONTROL THE SOLIDS, YOU CONTROL THE MUD.”

Ancient Mud Philosopher
Solids in drilling fluids are a complex balance of desirable and undesirable

components. The science and art required to maintain this balance begins with
good well planning. The right solids control equipment (SCE) must be on
location and the expertise must be available to operate, maintain and evaluate
this equipment properly during the entire course of the well.
Failure to maintain the proper balance of solids in the drilling fluid can result in
many negative effects:
a) Increased viscosity and filtration
b) High chemical and dilution costs
c) Uncontrollable mud and costly replacement of the entire system
d) Reduced ROP
e) Excess torque and drag
f) Downhole tool failure
g) Excess pump wear
h) Damage to production zones
i) Stuck pipe
j) Rig downtime
13.1 Designing and Planning
Designing a Pre-Well Plan for Solids Control – Drilling Engineer,

Mud Specialist
a) Plan the mud type and density

b) Develop solids targets for each interval and mud density
c) Understand low gravity solids (LGS) targets and tolerance of the mud
systems selected
d) Understand the costs of dilution vs realistic goals of solids control
equipment
e) Determine if and when centrifuges may be needed and a projected
operation plan (Solids Removal or Barite Recovery mode, how many
hours per day recommended)
f) Check on availability of additional SCE required (centrifuges)
g) Develop a plan for evaluation of solids control equipment (SCE)
h) Plan logistics to accommodate dilution/equipment discharge volumes
i) Consider environmental impact of excessive dilution/discharge
j) Develop a Shaker Screen Program for each interval
k) Determine when hydro-cyclones and centrifuges are cost effective
l) Consider the effect bit choices have on solids content in mud and the
resultant dilution/ cost impact
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m) Request a Solids Control Program for the well from a company

specializing in SCE.
Rule of Thumb: Every one (1) barrel of solids removed by

mechanical means saves twenty (20) barrels of dilution / displacement
fluid to maintain 5% Low Gravity Solids.
bbls of solids removed / Target LGS = bbls of dilution required

Ex. – 1 bbl of solids removed / 0.05 = 20 bbls dilution required
13.1.1 Dilution / Displacement versus Solids Control Equipment
Dilution / displacement is a random dump of all solids of all

particle sizes. The net effect is poor particle size distribution of
the system producing poor quality rheology, filtration control and
potential formation damage.
13.1.2 Mechanical Solids Control versus Random Dump of Solids
Mechanical Solids Control is the employment of various pieces of

equipment to remove solids of a particular size range, type and
density (specific gravity), with some limitations. The effect is to
maintain a desirable particle size distribution to aid in controlling
rheology, filtration and damage to producing formations.
13.1.3 Common Use of Centrifuges
a) Wells > 10,000 feet or highly deviated/horizontal wells

b) High bottom hole temperatures
c) High density muds
d) Expensive muds
e) Producing zones sensitive to formation damage plugging
f) Environmentally sensitive areas
Pros: Drivers for additional Mechanical Solids Control

• Mud Performance
• Mud / disposal / transportation costs
• Minimizing mud volumes to limit environmental impact
• Minimizing formation damage
Cons: More sophisticated SCE does not pay off in:
• Shallower wells / shorter drilling days

• Lack of time for solids accumulation
• Economics of simpler drilling fluids
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• Lesser degree of drilling difficulty where mud performance is

less critical
• Minimal environmental constraints
Solids control equipment has limitations. The most practical solids

control method is a combination of mechanical solids removal first
and maintaining with minimal dilution second.
13.1.4 Develop a Well Site Plan for SCE Implementation – Rig

Foreman, Mud Engineer
a) Review the Solids Control Well Plan thoroughly.

b) Request a rig audit of SCE by a qualified mud specialist or
SCE company.
c) Implement recommended repairs of any equipment that is not
optimized before spud.
d) Ensure adequate inventory of recommended shaker screens,
fittings or spare equipment for planned equipment.
e) Coordinate with any planned SCE vendors to supply
equipment and qualified operators.
f) Have training sessions for pit/shaker hands to cover SCE
responsibilities
g) Post equipment maintenance plan/procedures in mud pit
shack.
13.2 Mud Solids
13.2.1 Mud Solids – What are they?
Some industry specialists define them as “The Good, The Bad

and The Ugly”.
“The Good” – Commercial Solids – Solids added to give specific

effects such as bentonite, polymers, weighting agents, LCM plus
several more.
“The Bad” – Sand Size Solids – Drilled Solids which produce the
negative effects previously mentioned and are the easiest to
remove.
“The Ugly” – Colloidal Size Solids – The greatest challenge.

They have tremendous surface area, can be very reactive, are the
same size as many commercial solids, have the strongest
negative effect on mud properties and are the most difficult, if not
impossible to remove.
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13.2.2 Types of Solids in Drilling Fluid
From this comparison it is clear that “desirable” solids such as

those used for bridging and density have considerable overlap in
size with “undesirable” solids from drilling. This makes the
selection and management of solids control equipment very
important to be tailored to the type of mud and type of formation
being drilled. This comparison also illustrates the point that a well
designed bridging mud (PSD) need not have a high solids content
to be effective.
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13.2.2.1 Drilling Fluid Solids
Classification by Type
Dissolved Solids Suspended Solids Colloidal

Solids
Ultra Fine Solids
Mud
Salts Drill Solids (< 2 – 3
Additives
microns)
NaCl Clays Barite Usually powder
CaCl 2 Sand Bentonite fluid additives
KCl Carbonates Polymers used for filtration
Sodium/Potassium Anhydrite CaCO 3 control like
Formate Dolomite LCM lignite. They will
Organophilic disperse in
Clay solution, will not
settle, are not
removable by
standard SCE
Classification by Specific Gravity
Low Gravity Solids High Gravity Solids

(1.6 – 2.9 SG) (> 4.2 SG)
Drilled Solids Barite
Calcium Carbonate Hematite
Most fluid additives
13.2.2.2 Effect/Impact on Drilling Fluid Properties
If undesirable solids accumulate in the fluid, changes in

the fluid properties are noted. Depending upon the
size and shape of the solids, fluid loss may either
increase or decrease. In general, the quality of the
filter cake will deteriorate (i.e., become thicker and
softer). The most immediate changes will be noted in
the fluid rheological properties.
13.2.2.3 Plastic Viscosity
Plastic viscosity is largely due to mechanical friction

between solids particles in the drilling fluid. This
property depends primarily on the size, shape and
number of solids in the fluid. Progressive increases in
plastic viscosity can indicate a build-up of drilled solids.
Page 117 of 141

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
13.2.2.4 Yield Point and Gel Strength
Yield point and Gel strength indicates the degree of

attractive forces between particles in the fluid. These
attractive forces are related to the distance between
the particles. When yield values and gel strengths
become excessive, treatment with a dispersant or
deflocculant is required.
“The removal of very fine particles from the fluid

produces a greater reduction in viscosity than does the
removal of an equivalent volume of coarser solids due
to the difference in surface area.”
The Effect of Solids on the Fluid Flow and Hole

Cleaning
13.2.3 Evaluating the Solids Content of Mud
Commonly referred to as a loaded question or as one grizzly oil

field hand said – “It’s as complicated as Women’s Shoes.” Simply
said, it is a mathematical calculation based on several variables
including mud density, retort readings, specific gravity of weight
material in use, salinity, specific gravity of an oil recorded, type of
salt in use and amount of added commercial solids in the mud.
The best way to evaluate the solids content is to rely on
experience, refer to prepared rule of thumb graphs or require a
competent mud engineer with computer software to produce the
numbers. A solids analysis for the mud in use is reported on the
Daily Mud Report.
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13.2.3.1 Solids Content Definitions
a) Retort Solids – Represents the total solids in the

mud as read directly from the retort tube and
includes soluble solids.
b) Corrected Solids – Represents the total solids in

the mud minus the soluble salt.
c) Low Gravity Solids (LGS) – Represents the

corrected solids in the mud minus high gravity
weight material. This value also includes low
density weight material added such as Calcium
Carbonate (CaCO 3 ).
d) Drill Solids – Represents the total solids in the

mud minus soluble salt, any weight material and
chemical additives.
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______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
An example of Solids Calculations from a Daily Mud Report
MUD PROPERTIES
Sample Source Flow Line
Time 1:58
Flow Line Temp. F 160
Depth ft 5,430.00
Mud Weight lb/ft3 83.00
Mud Gradient psi/ft 0.58
Funnel Viscosity sec/Qrt 73
600 RPM 99
300 RPM 61
200 RPM 47
100 RPM 30
6 RPM 10
3 RPM 8
Rheology Temp. F 120
PV cP 38
YP lb/100ft2 23
LSYP lb/100ft2 6
Gel Strength(10s) lb/100ft2 11
Gel Strength(10m) lb/100ft2 17
API Fluid Loss ml/30min
HTHP Filtrate ml/30min 2
Cake API/HTHP 1/32nd in 1
Sand Content Vol %
Retort Oil 52
Retort Water 23
Retort Solids 25
Alkalinity Mud (Pom) 4
Excess Lime ppb 6
Emulsion Stability V 950
Oil Water Ratio 69/31
Cl- mg/l 310 k
BIT HYDRAULICS SOLIDS ANALYSIS
AV / DP 134.98 CaCl2
ft/min Vol % 3.63
AV / DC 200.01 CaCl2
ft/min % wt 36.2
AV / RISER ft/min CaCl2 mg/l 488,763
na / ka 0.3771 / 4.6 Av.sp.Gr.Solids 2.62
np / kp 0.6982 / 0.83Corrected SolidsVol % 21.37
BIT HHSI hp/in2 0.97 Avg. Sp. Gr. of Salt Wa 1.35
BIT PRESSURE LOSS psi 267.2 LGS Vol % 1.72
NOZZELS VELOCITY ft/sec 173.4 LGS ppb 15.34
ECD @ Bit lb/ft3 83.93 HGS Vol % 19.66
ECD @ Casing Shoe lb/ft3 83.75 HGS ppb 189.46
Note: Another value of solids measurement reported daily is ASG of

Solids in the mud (average specific gravity). In a Barite weighted mud
(Barite S.G. = 4.2), the closer to 4.2 the ASG is, the cleaner the mud
is indicating that the solids are predominantly Barite.
In a mud weighted with CaCO 3 (S.G. 2.7), the formulas cannot

differentiate ASG of weight material solids from drill solids due to the
similar specific gravity.
Rule of Thumb: Low Gravity Solids = 5 – 8% for a Barite mud. 3

– 4% for a reservoir drill in fluid
Page 120 of 141

Target Solids Percent for Muds that do not Contain Barite
CHAPTER 3
82.3
If mud contains oil:
A. For each 1% oil in mud (as measured in retort) add 0.1 to solids
80.8 content. (Based on oil @ 0.84 Sp. Gr.)
If mud contains over 10,000 ppm salinity:

79.3 B. For each 10,000 ppm increase in salinity (as measured in filtrate
test), Subtract 0.3 from solids content. (This is approximate and will vary
SAUDI ARAMCO
slightly for various concentrations of salt and percent solids..

77.8
Example: Mud Wt. 71.8 pcf, oil 12%, 18,000 ppm chlorides
Drilling Technical Department
(Solids from graph) 9.5 + 1.2 {See A. re: oil content} - 0.54 {See B. *0.3
76.3 x 1.8 salinity*} = 10.16 % Target Solids
74.8
WORKOVER FLUIDS
73.3
71.8
Mud Weight pcf

70.3
68.8
Solids based on 2.6 Sp. Gr
67.3
65.8
64.3
Figure A: Target Solids Percent for Muds w/o Barite

62.8
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Solids Percent by Volume
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WORKOVER MANUAL
September 2013
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
100%
95%
90%
85%
80%
75%
70%
65%
60%
55%
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
59.5
60.0
60.5
61.0
Density of Water & Diesel Emulsion with 3% LGS
61.5
40%
62.0
% Diesel
PCF
62.5
30%
% Water
63.0
63.5
20%
64.0
64.5
10%
65.0
%OIL
65.5
Page 122 of 141

OIL BASE MUD
CHAPTER 3
MUD WEIGHT Vs TOTAL SOLIDS%

No Drill Solids - CaCO3 Weight Material
Mud Weight pcf
70 75 80 85 90 95
SAUDI ARAMCO
5
6
7
8
9
10 CORRECTED SOLIDS
11
WORKOVER FLUIDS
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20 UNCORRECTED SOLIDS
Solids %
21
22
Figure C: Target Solids Percent for OBM

23
Figure B: Density of Water & Diesel Emulsion
24 GUIDELINES FOR IDEAL UNCORRECTED SOLIDS vs DENSITY - OBM

25
26 NOTE: PARAMETERS USED FOR THESE TARGETS ARE:
OIL/WATER RATIO - 65/35
27 SALINITY - 350,000 using 77% PURITY CaCl2
28 WEIGHTING MATERIAL - CaCO3
29 *Variations on typical oil/water ratios or salinity of Aramco muds
will vary these targets by +/-1 - 4%.
30
31
32
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WORKOVER MANUAL
September 2013
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
13.2.3.2 Another Tool for Evaluating Solids Content – Trend

Charting
Mud engineers should maintain a daily graph of critical

parameters directly related to solids content during the
course of drilling a well. A visual representation of
these daily values for Plastic Viscosity, mud density,
solids content, low gravity solids, etc. can help in
identifying trends in mud properties that can go
unnoticed from day to day. Targets can also be
included to help follow the plan. It is a simple method
to ensure prevention of associated problems that are
developing. Some examples are below.
Solids Trend Chart
45
40
35
30
Maximum PV
25
Target Solids
20
15
10
5
Target LGS
0
12-May 13-May 13-May 14-May 14-May 15-May 15-May 16-May 16-May 17-May 17-May
Density/10 PV Solids LGS
Solids Analysis Trend Chart

PD-XXX / XXXX-1
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22 Density/10
20 The squares in red indicate an excellent decrease in Low Gravity PV
Solids over the last f ew days to about 5% today. PV conf irms drop in solids.
18 Excellent work! Solids
16 LGS
14
12
10
8 Target LGS
6
4
2
0
13-Aug 15-Aug 17-Aug 19-Aug 21-Aug 23-Aug 25-Aug 27-Aug
Date
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Figure D: Trend Charting
13.3 Solids Control Equipment
The design objective of any solids control system should be to

achieve step‐wise removal of progressively finer drilled solids.
13.3.1 Typical Equipment and Layout
The Optimum Solids Control System consists of:
• An adequate number of shakers to handle the full circulating

volume
• High efficiency centrifuges to control fine solids and to facilitate
Barite recovery
• A typical system may include hydro-cyclones
• These should ONLY be used with spud mud
It generally is not economical to run desanders, desilters and mud

cleaners from a solids removal and mud cost standpoint unless
the shale shakers are not operating efficiently. In fact, they can
aggravate a solids problem since their centrifugal pump systems
are proven to grind solids to smaller, harder to remove sizes.
Page 125 of 141

LSND, 67 - 100 pcf
Spud mud,w/ LSND, 100 -150 LSND, with fine to OBM/SBM, 75 -
Spud mud, 65 - 72 NO BARITE OBM/SBM, 68 - 75 All Oil, 57 - 70 pcf
10 - 40 ppb pcf WITH medium graphite 140+ pcf WITH
CHAPTER 3
pcf (Reservoir Drill-In pcf NO BARITE NO BARITE

LCM BARITE (RGC) or LCM BARITE
Fluid)
Shaker 1 100- 230 50 - 100 170 - 230 180 - 220 120 - 170 As fine as possible As fine as possible As fine as possible
Shaker 2 100- 230 50 - 100 170 - 230 180 - 220 120 - 170 As fine as possible As fine as possible As fine as possible
Shaker 3 170 - 230 100- 230 170 - 230 180 - 220 120 - 170 As fine as possible As fine as possible As fine as possible
SAUDI ARAMCO
Shaker 4 170 - 230 110 -220 170 - 230 180 - 220 120 - 170 As fine as possible As fine as possible As fine as possible
Desander Yes No No No No No No No
Desilter Yes No No No No No No No
When to Run It?
Yes, 200 - 270 Yes, as shaker only, Yes, as shaker only, Yes, 200 - 270 Yes, as shaker only,
Mud Yes/blanked as mesh, if no no hydrocyclones, no hydrocyclones, mesh, if no no hydrocyclones,
No No
Cleaner desilter centrifuge screen as fine as screen as fine as centrifuge screen as fine as
WORKOVER FLUIDS
available possible possible available possible

On TSR to hold
Centrifuge Yes, Total Solids Yes, Barite Yes, Barite
No No desired MW when Yes, TSR mode Yes, TSR mode
1 Removal (TSR) recovery recovery
needed
On TSR to hold
Centrifuge Yes, Total Solids Yes, Barite Yes, Barite
No No desired MW when Yes, TSR mode Yes, TSR mode
2 Removal (TSR) recovery recovery
needed
Notes: ALL SHAKER SCREENS ABOVE CONFORM TO API RP 13 C SIZES.

1. All shakers should be running with the finest screens possible. THERE IS NO SUCH THING AS A SPARE SHAKER!
2. Pool of mud on the screen MUST be maintained at 75 - 80% coverage on the screens (referred to as the "pond".)
3. Mud cleaner should be used as a secondary desilter for spud muds (blank screen) or used as additional shaker, except at higher mud weights and with OBM.
4. Mud cleaner with >= 250 mesh screens should be run on OBM/SBM to help in water wet solids removal.
5. Centrifuges should be run in total solids removal mode at lower mud weights and in barite recovery in higher mud weights.
6. If LCM is used in OBM, large mesh screens should only be used until full returns are gained then the LCM should be screened out.
7. If possible, run mud from the centrifuge recovering barite over shaker or mud cleaner screen before it returns to the system.
8. In certain cases the centrifuges can be used to advantage with spud mud, as when drill water is in short supply and you wish to reduce the dilution rate.
9. When keeping sized CaCO3 and graphite in the mud system, the shaker screens should be matched to the particle sizes that are to be kept in the system.
10. Most important is to ensure that no cuttings or whole mud bypasses shaker screens through holes, gaps between screens or around skirts at the discharge end.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Key to achieving this is to have someone reliable watching, maintaining the shakers and changing or plugging screens at all times while circulating.
13.3.2 How Do I Know What Equipment to Run for my Mud Type And
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WORKOVER MANUAL
September 2013
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13.3.3 Quick Check Your Solids Control Equipment in 30 Minutes or

Less
 Shale Shakers
Do I have 75% pool on shaker?
Holes in screens? During connections turn off shakers and check shaker screens one by one.
Are motors running in right direction? With no mud on shaker, put glove on back and it should vibrate
to front and off. Not stay in the middle of the shaker.
Check for leaks around the seals of the shaker screens.
Are the crown rubbers/seal strips in good condition? Check when screens are off. If change one,
change all.
Is grease schedule being followed (Brandt shakers)?
Based on ROP and hole size, is the right amount of cuttings consistently coming off the shaker?
Ensure there is no shaker bypass. This will build up solids further downstream.
Check oil level in sight glass on side of Derrick Shaker motors.
Are crank up bolts tight?
Are screen tension bolts tight?
Are the springs in good condition (rusted or sagging)?
Are the rubber vibration dampeners in good condition? (Cracked, swollen, hard?)
Is the basket level (side to side)? Check with spirit level laid on front of shaker.
Is rubber curtain in place at front of shaker (to keep solids from falling back under shaker)?
Is there excess or unusual sounds coming from the shaker?
When screens are being changed, notify mud engineer to be there to inspect all parts under screen.
If VSM 300, bladder pressure to hold in screen should be +/- 90 psi.
 Degasser
Check if float arm is free.
Check that suction is free of solids build-up around it.
Run for 2 – 5 minutes. Check vacuum gauge. Should be 0.5 psi.
Do not bypass degasser pit when going to a short system.
 Desilter, Desander & Mud Cleaner

Is the pressure correct? Should read 35 – 40 psi (or 3 times the mud weight in ppg)
Cone discharge spray or rope? Should be spray.
Take cones off and compare to a new cone for wear.
 Centrifuge
When was unit last serviced? Ask to see maintenance schedule kept by centrifuge operator.
Look at grease nipples. Should see excess fresh grease to indicate recent service.
Rig foreman and mud eng. to be with the centrifuge operator during regular maintenance rounds.
Look at solids being discharged. How much? Wet or dry? Should not be mud/fluid. Should not be
real dry. Should be medium sludge like humus.
Any unusual noise or vibration? Unit should be “zinging” noise and no excess vibration.
If pump smells like burnt rubber, have vendor check.
Check all hoses and fittings for leaks or dry rot.
Check pump for excess leakage.
Is centrifuge getting flushed out during shutdown? WBM - flush with water till water comes out clean.
OBM - flush with base oil or lower to 500 RPM and flow with base mud to “wash” out.
Visually check for water / base oil hook-up for flushing. There is a connection - is a hose hooked to
it?
What is unit RPM? Barite recovery 1,500–1,900 rpm, total solids removal 2,400–3,200 rpm.
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13.3.4 Shale Shakers
Shale shakers are the first line of defense in the Solids

Control Chain
The shaker’s strategic position at the flow line allows it to remove
large amounts of solids before the mud is circulated through the
surface mud system. Efficient operation of the shaker leads to
better performance of downstream separation equipment.
Most shale shakers operate at a high speed with an elliptical

vibratory motion. Two vibrators (motors) which provide power to
the shaker drive the machine. The vibrators are attached to the
screen deck and transmit vibration to the screens.
Most shale shakers are equipped with a unique basket tilting

mechanism providing up to a 5-degree inclination for fluid
retention with no interruptions in service.
Rule of Thumb: A shaker operating properly has 75 – 80% of

the screen area covered in mud.
Shaker / Screen Best Practices
• The most common error in running shakers is not running a full

pool of mud on the screens. The pool of mud should cover at
least 75% of the total screen area. Minor mud losses over the
screen are acceptable and often beneficial.
• Inspect shakers on a regular basis. Routine maintenance on
screen rubbers and regular greasing of movable parts results
in longer screen life and better solids removal.
• Shakers are only as good as the grade, installation and
maintenance of the screens.
• Shaker screens do not make an absolute cut based on the
screen size. As screens remove solids, a filter bed effect
(FBE) develops which effectively becomes a fine filter on top
of the screen surface. The larger the hole, the faster the ROP,
the thicker an FBE becomes, trapping, piggy-backing and
removing more solids. The effect can be an unexpected
removal of Barite over a screen which theoretically, Barite
should pass through easily.
Shaker performance is affected by:
• Vibration patterns and dynamics

• Number of decks
• Deck size
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• Deck angle
• Screen type and mesh
• Mud Rheology
• Flow rate and solids loading
Shale Shaker Adjustments:
Deck angle
• Generally the easiest/fastest adjustment

• Do not use as a long term adjustment
During normal operations the deck angle should be adjusted to

zero degrees with 75% Coverage over the screen area. This is
when you know the proper screen size has been selected
Flow distribution
• Depending on design/availability and conditions

• Generally limited by flow rate and number of shakers
• Can be changed during operations
• One shaker flow should always be fully opened
Motion type
• Linear Motion
• G-force linear motion up to 6 G’s
• Speeds solids conveyance
• Increases shaker-fluid capacity
• Enables shaker to process heavier solids loads
• Enhances cuttings-processing volume
• Elliptical Motion
• Reduces G-force (5 G’s maximum)
• Optimizes solids removal
• Maximizes drilling-fluids recovery
• Drier cuttings
• Extends screen life
• G-Force Boost
• Only used in linear motion up to 6 G’s
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Screen choice
• Significant impact on solids size removal

• Can be done during operations depending on conditions
• Many rigs only stock multiple size, not multiple platform or
mesh types
The separation performance of a shale shaker screen is normally

represented by the percentage of drill solids removed and the
screen life. Grading the screens will vary from manufacturer to
manufacturer, but the best way to compare is to look at fluid
volume capacity versus solids-removal efficiency.
• Screen Blinding; what do we do?
First Determine if Blinding or Solids Bed (build-up of cuttings not

conveyed off the shaker)
a) If Solids Bed
• Lower Deck angle to improve conveyance

• If dual motion shaker use Linear Motion
b) Blinding
• Screen up (finer cut point)

• Change mesh weave or to a platform type screen
G-Force Factor
• Counterweight settings – Not readily changed during

operations
• Boost mode – Very fast change, downside is current
designs do not have deck angle adjustment
Shaker screens are comprised of two elements:
• A media to separate the drilling mud from the cuttings

(mesh type)
• A method to attach the media to the shale shaker (platform
type)
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13.3.5 Hydrocyclones
 Desanders  Desilters  Mud Cleaners
Performance Variables Cone Diameter

Cone Diameter (inches) Diameter determines processing
capacity
Feed Pressure (inlet manifold) Larger cones can handle more
volume
Solids Size Distribution (feed) Smaller cones can remove very
fine solids.
Plastic Viscosity (feed)
13.3.6 Mud Cleaner
The mud cleaner is a bank of hydrocyclones mounted over a

shaker. In some installations, there are desander and desilter
cones mounted in such a way that the unit can be used as a mud
cleaner or as a shaker and hydrocyclone unit separately.
• Mud Cleaners were introduced in the 1980’s to remove finer

solids from the mud than the shakers could remove, at this
time shakers were using 30 to 120 mesh screens.
• With the volume of solids & particle size left in the mud from
the older design of shakers, the mud cleaners were effective.
• With today’s finer-screening shakers that have higher overall
efficiency rates than the traditional linear-motion shakers, the
applications for mud cleaners are limited and generally not
necessary.
• When running a screen above 200 mesh, a mud cleaner will
only remove a very small percentage of solids, and during this
process it will grind the solids that are in the mud into ultra fine
solids.
• Useful in closed-looped, waste processing systems to “dry”
hydrocyclone discharges.
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Feed Pressure - Feet of Head
• Hydroclones are designed to process a fixed volume of mud at

a specific head
• If the head pressure is less than required, volume processed
will also be less and velocity of the mud entering the cone will
produce insufficient G-Force.
• It is generally not economical to run desanders, desilters and
mud cleaners from a solids removal and mud cost standpoint
unless the shale shakers are not operating efficiently. In fact,
they can aggravate a solids problem by grinding up solids to
smaller, harder to remove sizes.
Spray Discharge - Optimum Desired Flow
Rope Discharge – Not optimized!
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Disadvantages of Desanders, Desilters, Mud Cleaners
Industry research proved that centrifugal pumps used for the

hydrocyclone equipment ground up solids and made them more difficult
to remove.
(Courtesy Amoco Research)
More Surface Area of Solids means More Chemical Cost to Treat
Page 133 of 141

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
13.3.7 Centrifuges
Application
The primary benefit of centrifuge utilization is to control fine solids
that contribute to undesirable mud density and rheology.
• Total Solids Removal Mode - Discard drill solids from

un‐weighted mud
• Barite Recovery Mode - Reclaim Barite while discarding drill
solids
• Dual Centrifuging Mode – Reclaim Barite and recover liquid
from a dual centrifuge system
• De-watering applications using chemical flocculants
Centrifuge Processing Rates:
Centrifuges Should Process 5 - 25% of Circulating

Volume/Day. Typically, these rates are 15 – 25 gpm for Barite
Recovery Mode and 30 – 60 gpm for Total Solids Removal
Mode.
Processing rate decreases as mud density increases:
13.3.7.1 Barite Recovery Mode

• The process of salvaging Barite, the most expensive
component of many weighted mud systems.
• The term Barite Recovery is misleading since the
actual goal is to remove and discard as many
colloidal fines as possible while saving the Barite.
Removing the colloidal fines is the most effective way
to reduce viscosity (PV and progressive gel
strengths).
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______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
• Reducing viscosity-creating colloids without

increasing volume through dilution is where the
economics of a centrifuge pays off.
• Rheology control is the reason we operate a
centrifuge in Barite recovery mode.
• The unit should only be operated when unwanted
viscosity increases are noticed.
• Over-centrifuging for Barite recovery may needlessly
discard liquid and additives.
a) How do we determine when to operate the

centrifuge for Barite recovery?
Plastic Viscosity (PV) is a good indicator of the

total solids volume, the nature of their size,
reactivity, and ability to produce viscosity. Plastic
Viscosity is an indicator of mechanical friction
between solids particles in the fluid and thus
an increase in PV will indicate an increase in
solids concentration indicating the need for a
centrifuge.
b) Barite Recovery Efficiency
• Except at the lowest mud densities, 85 ‐ 95% of

Barite processed should be recovered as a 3.8 ‐
7.6 gpm sludge.
• Adjust feed and pond settings to achieve a 9.5
ppg / 30 – 35 funnel viscosity on the effluent
discard.
• Increasing feed rate will sacrifice cut point.
Reduced feed rate gives better separation.
• Once PV is stabilized, run unit continuously at
lower volumes to maintain the system.
13.3.7.2 Total Solids Removal Mode
• The goal is defined as the name implies – Remove

as many solids as possible to maintain the minimum
mud weight.
• The centrifuge will be run at higher RPM (2,500 –
3,200 rpm)
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______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
• Larger bowl centrifuges are more efficient for this

purpose.
• It is recommended to run the unit at 75 – 80%
capacity to avoid approaching torque limits. By
avoiding capacity limits, the most common centrifuge
problem – torque overload (plugging) can be
avoided. Run conservatively and steady and
downtime will not happen.
• Add your system dilution water at the centrifuge feed
pipe which will reduce feed viscosity and enhance
centrifuge efficiency.
• Important! Avoid running the unit in hourly intervals.
Lower GPM for longer intervals will maintain more
consistent mud properties and longer unit life without
problems.
13.3.7.3 Notes on Centrifuging Un‐weighted Mud
Because of processing limitations the smaller

processing rate centrifuges are effective solids control
devices only under certain conditions:
• Installed and operational prior to increasing the mud

weight with Barite.
• Low Circulation Rates - Bowl RPM can be increased
for a finer cut point
• With un‐weighted mud systems we never know on a
real time basis what particle sizes exist in the mud
system, only that their average specific gravity is 2.6.
• As formation types change the centrifuge needs to be
adjusted for the goal of maximum solids discard.
To Discard Large Volumes of Coarse Solids:
• Run minimum bowl rpm

• Use unit with maximum Bowl/Conveyor Differential
• Feed Tube fully retracted
• Reduced feed rate
Page 136 of 141

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
These adjustments are necessary to reduce

bowl/conveyor torque and prevent packing off the unit
To Discard Large volumes of Ultra‐Fine Solids

• Maximum Bowl rpm
• Minimum Bowl/Conveyor RPM Diff.
• Feed Tube fully inserted
• Adjust the feed rate for maximum discard
13.3.7.4 Principles of Operation - Centrifuges
Centrifugal ‐ Separation
• Based on the principle of accelerated gravity - An

object whirled about a central point is forced away
from that central point.
• The degree of rotational force generated is a
function of the rotational speed and the distance of
the object from the rotational point.
Decanting Centrifuge
• A bowl is rotated about its central point at some

speed, with the outer surface (I.D.) of the bowl from
the central point being defined as the bowls radius.
• The degree of Centrifugal Force generated is a
function of the rotating speed and the bowls radius.
• This is expressed as G‐Force in multiples of the
earth gravitational force (1 “G”).
G-Force = Bowl Diameter (inches) X RPM2 X

0.0000142
• When a suspension of solids is fed into the rotating

bowl, solids strive to move outward through the
liquid toward the internal surface of the bowl.
• The effective force generated by the particles as
they move to the internal surface of the bowl is
determined by their density in relation to the liquid,
and their physical size.
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Particle Mass and Separation Time
• Larger more dense particles move through the

liquid with the greatest force, making immediate
separation.
• Smaller less dense particles move through the
liquid to the interior surface of the bowl with less
force, taking more time to separate.
• The smaller the particle the greater the separation
time.
Performance Adjustments:
• Bowl Speed (RPM)

• Bowl/Conveyor Speed (RPM) Differential
• Pool Depth (inches)
• Feed Tube Placement
• Feed Rate (gpm)
Centrifuge Bowl
Parameters affecting Separation:

• Bowl Rotating Speed (RPM)
– Units (1,900 ‐ up to 4,000 rpm) Bowl Diameter
(inches)
– Units (up to 70 Inches)
Increased bowl speed will result in greater solids

removal
Centrifuge Bowl Speed

Centrifuge Models vary in size in speed.
Bowl Speed G-Force

• 1900 RPM 720
• 2500 RPM 1250
• 3250 RPM 2100
“G” Force = RPM 2 x Bowl Dia. x 0.0000142
Page 138 of 141

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Recommended G-Force Range – General

Requirements
• Barite Recovery – 600 – 700 “G’s”

• Solids Removal – 1,000 – 3,000 “G’s”
Mud type, weight, economics, bowl length & process

volume can vary these numbers
13.3.7.5 Example of Savings by Using Centrifuges
Section Comparison WDYH 2 & WDYH 3
Page 139 of 141

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
14.0 SAFETY
High density brines have unique chemical properties. Consequently, they

should be handled in a different manner than conventional muds, especially for
safety reasons.
Personnel safety when handling these brine systems involves two aspects:
a) Education of all personnel

b) Proper safety apparel.
A brine is simply a salt (or a blend of salts) plus water. Low concentrations of
these salts cause little or no problem. Commercially available salts currently
used in Saudi Aramco's fields are:
a) Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

b) Potassium Chloride (KCl)
c) Calcium Chloride (CaCl 2 )
d) Calcium bromide (CaBr 2 )
e) Zinc bromide (ZnBr 2 )
f) Sodium formate (NaCOOH)
g) Potassium formate (KCOOH)
Page 140 of 141

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Of all the brines, Calcium and zinc bromide are the most dangerous and
special emphasis on training of personnel in handling, PPE and education of
personnel must
14.1 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
This is a list of the minimum safety apparel which should be worn when
working with or in the vicinity of brines:
a) Hard hats
b) Chemical splash goggles
c) Rubber gloves
d) Rubber boots
e) Aprons/slicker suits
f) Disposable dust/mist respirators
14.2 Rig Safety Equipment
Following is a list of the minimum safety equipment that should be

available when working on a rig with brines:
a) Eye wash fountains and drench showers

b) Pipe wipers
c) Floor mats
Page 141 of 141

CHAPTER 3 r1

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CHAPTER 3 r1

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SAUDI ARAMCO WORKOVER MANUAL

Drilling Technical Department September 2013

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

1.2 Selection of Fluids

2.0 TYPES OF FLUIDS

2.1 Oil Fluids

2.2 Clear Water Fluids

2.3 Oil & Water Emulsions

3.0 MILLING FLUIDS

3.1 Milling Fluid Types

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

4.0 SPECIALIZED DRILLING FLUIDS

4.1 Overbalance Drilling Fluids

4.4 Oil-Based Fluids or Invert Emulsions

5.0 RESERVOIR DRILL-IN FLUIDS

5.1 Overview – All Areas

5.2 Acid Soluble (CaCO3) Bridging and Weight Material

5.3 Brine Based Drill-In Fluids

6.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUID ADDITIVES

6.1 Acid Soluble (CaCO3) Weighting Material

7.0 SELECTING A COMPLETION FLUID

7.1 Solids-Free High Density Fluids

7.2 Sodium Chloride Brines

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

7.5 Sodium Chloride/Calcium Chloride brines

8.0 DISPLACEMENT TECHNOLOGY

8.1 Conditioning the mud

8.3 Special Techniques

8.4 General Displacement Procedures

8.5 Spacers and pills

8.7 Clear Brine Completion Fluid Displacement

9.0 PACKER FLUIDS

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

9.4 Corrosion Inhibitors

10.0 HANDLING COMPLETION FLUIDS

10.1 Transportation (Trucks and Boat Hold Tanks)

11.0 CLEAR FLUID FILTRATION

11.1 Benefit of Filtration

12.0 DRILLING FLUID PRACTICES, PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

12.1 Hole Cleaning

12.1.1 Indicators of Hole Cleaning Problems

12.2 Wellbore Stability

12.2.1 Misconceptions about Wellbore Stability

12.3 Stuck Pipe

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

12.3.1.1 Mechanically Stuck Pipe

13.0 SOLIDS CONTROL

13.1 Designing and Planning

13.3 Solids Control Equipment

13.3.1 Typical Equipment and Layout

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

13.3.2 How do I Know What Equipment to Run for my Mud Type

14.1 Personal Protective Equipment

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

Two primary objectives must be accomplished regardless of the well

• Control the well with required density and minimal leak-off

1.1.1 Workover Fluids are the general-purpose fluids such as:

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

1.2 Selection of Fluids

Several factors must be considered before a decision is made on the type of

Understanding of the physical and chemical reservoir characteristics

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

RESERVIOR SENSITIVITY STUDY

RESERVOIR FLUID RESERVOIR ROCK