Programme 14 Saitse ¥ ROS Frames Series 2 wo Learning outcomes When you have completed this Programme you will be able to: Derive the power series for sinx Use Maclaurin’s series to derive series of common functions Use Maclaurin’s series to derive the binomial series Derive power series expansions of miscellaneous functions using known expansions of common functions Use power series expansions in numerical approximations ‘¢ Use I'Hépital’s rule to evaluate limits of indeterminate forms ‘© Extend Maclaurin’s series to Taylor’s series 775776 Engineering Mathematics Power series 2) Introduction In the first Programme on series (no. 13), we saw how important it is to know something of the convergence properties of any infinite series we may wish to use and to appreciate the conditions in which the series is valid. ‘This is very important, since it is often convenient to represent a function as, a series of ascending powers of the variable. This, in fact, is just how a computer finds the value of the sine of a given angle. Instead of storing the whole of the mathematical tables, it sums up the terms of a series representing the sine of an angle. ‘That is just one example. There are many occasions when we have need to express a function of x as an infinite series of powers of x. It is not at all difficult to express a function in this way, as you will soon see in this Programme. So make a start and move on to Frame 2 ‘Suppose we wish to express sin x as a Series of ascending powers of x. The series will be of the form de + ext + where a, b,c, etc. are constant coefficients, Le. numerical factors of some kind. Notice that we have used the ‘equivalent’ sign and not the usual ‘equals’ sign. ‘The statement is not an equation: it is an identity. The right-hand side does not equal the left-hand side: the RHS is the LHS expressed in a different form and the expression is therefore true for any value of x that we like to substitute. Can you pick out an identity from these? sinxSa+bx +o? (04-4)? = 3x? — 241 (2u41)? = 4x? 44x ~3 (x42)? Pant When you have decided, move on to Frame 3Series 2 777 Correct. This is the only identity of the three, since itis the only one in which the RHS is the LHS written in a different form. Right. Now back to our series: sinx Sa+bx toe +de text + To establish the series, we have to find the values of the constant coefficients a, b, c,d, etc. Suppose we substitute x = 0 on both sides. Then sin0=a+0+0+0+0+4 and since sin 0 = 0, we immediately get the value of a. liza Now can we substitute some value for x, which will make all the terms disappear except the second? If we could, we should then find the value of b. Unfortunately, we cannot find any such substitution, so what is the next step? Here is the series once again: sinx=a+bx +c 4dx¥ texts and so far we know that a =0. The Key to the whole business is simply this: Differentiate both sides with respect to x. On the left, we get cosx. On the right the terms are simply powers of x, so we get eee )”t”té<‘<«éi cost = b +624 +d3x? +040 + ‘This is still an identity, so we can substitute in it any value for x we like. ‘Notice that the a has now disappeared from the scene and that the constant term at the beginning of the expression is now b. So what do you suggest that we substitute in the identity as it now stands, in order that all the terms except the first shall vanish? We substitute x again.778 Engineering Mathematics w Substitute x= 0 again Correct: because then all the terms will disappear except the first and we shall be able to find b. cose = b+ 62x +d.3x? edn? + Put x cos0=1=b+04040404 1 So far, so good. We have found the values of a and b. To find ¢ and d and all, the rest, we merely repeat the process over and over again at each successive stage. i.e. Differentiate both sides with respect to x and substitute So we now get this, from the beginning: thx a pds pert a fi 4 Putx=0, . sind +OH0404 Differentiate. cosy =b+c2x+d.3x? +e4x3 + f5xt + Put x=0, c0s0 =14+5+0+0+0+.. ee 2+d3.2x+e4.3x2 +f.S.4x3 + Put x 240404 Differentiate. 43.2.1 + 0.4.3.2x + f5.4.3x2 + rutx=0 “1=d31+0+0+ pjene2 Ae sin 43214 /SA320+ Pat x = edt 40404 e Once more: 543214 1=fsi+04 fei All that now remains is to put these values for the constant coefficients back into the original series. ie. sinx= ‘Now we have obtained the first few terms of an infinite series representing the function sinx, and you can see how the terms are likely to proceed. ‘Write down the first six terms of the series for sin x. When you have done so, move on to Frame 8Series 2 779 Provided we can differentiate a given function over and over again, and find the values of the derivatives when we put x=0, then this method would enable us to express any function as a series of ascending powers of x. However, it entalls a considerable amount of wrlting, so we now establish a general form of such a series, which can be applied to most functions with, very much less effort. This general series is known as Maclaurin’s series So move on to Frame 9 and we will find out all about it ‘Maclaurin's series To establish the series, we repeat the process of the previous example, but work with a general function, f(x), instead of sin x. The first derivative of f(x) will be denoted by /"(x); the second by f"x); the third by f"(x); and so on. Here it is then: Let fl) =a+ by bot 4d? +e + pS + Put x=0. Then f(0) = a+0+0+0+ a i.e, a= the value of the function with x put equal to 0 Differentiate. f'(x) = b+ c.2x +.d3x +edx' + f.Sx4 4 Put x =0. f'(0)=b+0+0+ b=f'(0) Differentiate. f"(x) =c.2.1+d3.2x+e4.3x? +/.5.4° FO) £%) Putx=0. -, f"(0)=c2!+040+ z Now go on and find d and e, remembering that we denote & {Pe} by Mo ana J frre} by Fe) So, d=... and e= Here it is, We had: P(x) = 21 +d 32+ edd? + fS40 + Differentiate. ©. "(x)= 43.2.1 +e4.3.2+/S.4.3x +. “o Put x=0, f"(0) =4.3!+4040+ oo earner (peece soserters a) 0) g FO), ,_ £*O) ida ea Gs » ete, So.a= f(0); b= FO); c780 Engineering Mathematics ‘Now, in just the same way as we did with expressions for a, b, ¢, ... etc, back into the Fla) = ‘our series for sin.x, we put the original series and get: 11x) = £0) + FO)a+ e+ ro) gp te and this is usually written as ce eres FQ) =FO)+2F0) + FLO) +H LO) + This is Maclaurin’s series and important! Notice how tidy each term is. ‘The term in x* is divided by 2! and multiplied by f"(0) ‘The term in x* is divided by 3! and multiplie. The term in x* is divided by 4! and multiplie. Copy the series into your record book for fut -d by f"(0) -d by f*(0) jure reference. Mave on to Frame 12 art FX) = FO) + x0) + ‘Now we will use Maclaurin’s series to find a s ‘the successive derivatives of sinh x and put x series for sinh x. We have to find = 0 in each. Here goes, the! fx) =sinhx F(0) = inno =0 Fia)=coshx —_f'(0) = coshO Px)=sinhx ——f"(0)=sinhO=0 PM") =coshx —f"(0) = coshO=1 f(x) =sinhx f"(0) =sinh0 =0 [°(0) = cosh ete. sinha = 9 +42 + 3.00) 4°2.0) 49.0) a+ sinhx=24% +5t SI Move om to Frame 13Series 2 731 Now let us finda series fr in(t +2 n ust che same way: (33) fo) =In(1 +2) f(0)= rapa atot fO= reeset 2 P= royarisay tant aoe Pa) = 32042) 4 = FO) = Pa) 432044) = Po)= You complete the work. Evaluate the derivatives when x= 0, remembering that In 1 =0, and substitute back into Maclaurin’s series to obtain the series for In(1 +2). So, In(1 +3) = f(0) =In1 FO=1 FO=-1 FO) PO) = £0) = 45 Also F(x) = F(0) + x0) + £ro +Fro + Inf +2) =0+x1 +5) wares FaQrhcay+.. ince) +f Note that In ds sees, the denominators ate he natu number, not factorials! Another example in Frame 15 Expand sin? as a series of ascending powers of x Maclaurin’s series Fix) = (0) +2f'0) +. Fro +2 £O+ f(x) = sin? f0 1G) =2sinxcoss—sinde FO) f"(0) = £0) = PO)= ‘There we are! Finish it off: find the first three non-vanishing terms of the series. ‘Then move on to Frame 16782 Engineering Mathematics Because Fix) =sin?x 2sin xcosx = sin 2x 2cos2x F(0) =0 f(0)=0 £0) =2 —4sin 2x ro) —8cos2x FO) 16sin2x PO)=0 f(x) = 32cos2x F4(0) =32. ete, 2 apa? mo O+2FO+ FLO +A LO + 2) +O) + FB) + FO) +5 32) + Next we will find the series for tan.x. This is alittle heavier but the method is always the same. Move to Frame 17 Series for tan x f(x) =tanx F(0) =0 £12) = sec? x ro=1 f"(X) = 2sec* xtanx £0) F(x) = 2sect x +4 sec? xtan?x sectx+4(1 + tan? x) tan? x = 2sectx + 4tan? x4 4tantx Fm) =2 f°) sect xtanx + 8tanxsec?x + 16tan? xsec? x (14 2) + BEL + 2) + 160801 + 2) [putting ¢ = tanx) (1 + 2? + 4) + Bt + Bt + 1607 + 1605 Gt + 4085 + 2408 fo) =0 Px) = Losec? x + 12082. sec? x + 12084. sec? x P(0) tanx=Series 2 783 = (18) annaxr de Move on to Frame 19 Standard series In(1 +x). singe Differentiate: as aT cas eels ata al In the same way, we can obtain the series for cosh x. We already know that sinnx neo 2 Ey so if we differentiate both sides we shall establish a series for cosh x. What do we get? sinhx Differentiate: coshx = 1+ giving: coshx Let us pause at this point and take stock of the series we have obtained. We will make a list of them, so move on to Frame 21784 Engineering Mathematics ‘Summary Here are the standard series that we have established so far Mm Vv v vl vil Make a note of these six series in your record book. ‘Then move on to Frame 22 The binomial series By the same method, we can apply Maclaurin’s series to obtain the binomial series for (1 +x)". Here it is: fx) = +3)" £0) =1 Pe) =n(14a" ro=n P's) = n(n 1), tay" 1) =n(-1) fra) = n(n 1)(n— 2). ay P"0) = nin —1)(n—2) P(x) = n(n 1)(n—2)(n— 3). +x)" FO) = mln 11-2) 3) ete etc General Maclaurin’s series: 1) = FO) +40) + F"0) +P") + ‘Therefore, in this case: Fnlen— 1) + Fl — 1)(n = 2) + nin=1) 2, m= 1)in=2) 5 ; Toe vil By replacing x wherever it occurs by (~x), determine the series for (11— x)" When finished, move to Frame 23 (1+x)" = 1b ant (1+x)" = 1 netSeries 2 785 nin—1) 2 _min—1lm—2),5 G3) (1-2) = 1 =e 2 3 Now we will work through another example, Here it is To find a series for tan“, As before, we need to know the successive derivatives in order to insert them in Maclaurin’s series. 1 f(x) = tan“! x and f(a) => lige er wc he wong bcm ater hey ts ect afd can avoid umes mo If we differentiate again, we get ("(x) = We have f(x) = tan-!x and f(a) = 25 = (1-432). If we now expand (1+2?)* as a binomial series, we shall have a series of powers of x from which ‘we can easily find the higher derivatives. $0 see how it works out in the next frame To find a sevies for tan-x 24) f(x) = tan“ (0) =0 aie POT ) gt 4 DIE2N-3) a6 1-x at DEBIES) = txt xa ro=1 *. fM(X) = 2x + 4x3 — 6x5 + Bx7 — f"0) f(x) = -2 + 12x? — 30x4 + 56x5 — f(x) = 24x — 120%? + 336x5 —. (0) f(x) = 24 — 360x2 + 1680x4 — PO) 2 3 tan1x=f(0) +4f'(0) +570) +300) + 1x Substituting the values for the derivatives, gives us that tan’ Then on to Frame 25 This is also a useful series, so make a note of it. >786 Engineering Mathematics Another series which you already know quite well is the series for e*. Do you remember how it goes? Here it is anyway: #8 xt ealee Gt Hy and if we simply replace x by (—x), we obtain the series for e-* a xl fee ae etetnat S548 XIl So now we have quite a few. Add the last two to your list. And then on to the next frame ‘Once we have established these standard series, we can of course combine them as necessary, as a couple of examples will show. Example 1 Find the fist three terms of the sees for .In(1-+2). xt We know that e* = 1+x = so ena +y)= {14045 ‘Now we have to multiply these series together. There is no constant term in the second series, so the lowest power of x in the product will be x itself. This can only be formed by multiplying the 1 in the first series by the x in the second. ‘The #2 term is found by multiplying 1 x (-3) ae and xxx Te = tems fund by ming <2 and xx (- 2 and 5 xx and so on.Series 2 787 eIn(l +x) It is not at all difficult, provided you are careful to avoid missing any of the products of the terms. Here Is one for you to do in the same way: Example 2 Find the first four terms of the series for e* sinh x Take your time over it: then check your working with that in Frame 28 Here is the solution. Look through it carefully to see if you agree with the (28 J result. sinhx e\ sinhx Lowest power is x Term in x = Lx There we are. Now move on to Frame 29 Approximate values788 Engineering Mathematics Example 1 Evaluate ¥T-02 correct to S decimal places 102=1+002 vT02 = (1 +002)! =1 zou 7 (002)? +2 22 2 (002) + 14001 ~£(0.0008) + +4 (0:000008) ~ 14001 — 0.00005 + 0:0000005 ~ 1.010001 ~ 0.000050 = 1.009951 vT02 = 1.00995 Note: Whenever we substitute a value for x in any one of the standard series, ‘we must be satisfied that the substitution value for x is within the range of values of x for which the series is valid. ‘The present series for (1 +x)" is valid for |x| < 1, so we are safe enough on this occasion. Here is one for you to do, Example 2 Evaluate tan“! 0-1 correct to 4 decimal places. Complete the working and then check with the next frame tan 0.001 0-00001 _ 0:0000001 3 5 7 = 0-1 — 0-00033 + 0.000002 — = 0.0997 [Note: x is measured in radians.] tan“"(01) = 01 - We will now consider a further use for series, so move now to Frame 31Series 2 789 Limiting values - indeterminate forms In the first Programme on series, we had occasion to find the limiting value of 31 J tt yc, Someties, we have to ind the imtng value of function of x when x —+0, or perhaps when x —» a, tim (225x-14] 040-14 47 a Lin Te ogee ea Sa eel ene ere x? + Sx — 14 tin Fe} eens a S410—14 O54 ypatis eve of® Is it zero? Is it 1? Is it indeterminate? When you have decided, move on to Frame 32 y as it stands, is | indeterminate (3) o Putting x = 2 in the function gives ‘We can sometimes, however, use our knowledge of series to help us out of the difficulty. Let us consider an example or two. Example 1 an tin {2224} iar: 5 Ue we substute 1.0 in the fncin, we get the result 9 which i indeterminate. So how do we proceed? 2xs 3 + Gg t+ So if we replace tanx Well, we already know that tanx by its series in the given function, we get: (980 e dx in (89=2) Eig sesh ee Bole ee x ne sin 25—*} ‘Move on to Frame 33 for another example790 Engineering Mathematics Uy Saas ete! 4. Use the expansion to evaluate (1-03)" correct to three places of decimals.802 Engineering Mathematics 12. By the use of Maclaurin’s series, show that 3 3x5 5 8 38 | sina rete Assuming the series for e*, obtain the expansion of e*sin“!x, up to and including the term in x*, Hence show that, when x is small, the graph of y-=etsin 'x approximates to the parabola y =x? +x. By application of Maclaurin’s series, determine the first two non- bs e vanishing terms of a series for In cos x. Express (1 + cos) in terms of cos 5 and show that, if #8 small, In(1 +cos@) = In2-% — & approximately 7796 14 If xis small, show that: to) EES 1 4 SE, 2 x © ayi- 24948 fF 17. Find the fst te terms in the expansion of HC) ey) (+4) 18 The field strength of a magnet (H) at a point on the axis, distance x from its centre, is given by ae ay ary where 2! = length of magnet and M = moment. Show that if lis very small 2 compared wth x then #1 =2¥, )P¥] 19 Expand [In(1 +x)? in powers of x up to and including the term in x*. [B5] ence determine whether cos2s~[in(1 +x]? has a maximum valve, minimum value, or point of inflexion at x = 0. 20 If is the length ofa circular ac, ais the length of the chord of the whole arc, and bis the length of the chord of half the arc, show that: (@) a= 2rsing. and (b) b= 2rsin 4, where ris the radius of the circle. byexpandingsings and sin Lasser show that = ar approximately,