Origin and Late Cretaceous-Tertiary Evolution of The Ecuadorian

Research Collection
Doctoral Thesis
Origin and late Cretaceous-Tertiary evolution of the Ecuadorian

forearc
Author(s):
Luzieux, Léonard
Publication Date:
2007
Permanent Link:
https://doi.org/10.3929/ethz-a-005348206
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In Copyright - Non-Commercial Use Permitted
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ETH Library
DISS. ETHN0.16983
ORIGIN AND LATE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY EVOLUTION OF THE

ECUADORIAN FOREARC
A dissertation submitted to
ETH ZURICH
for the degree of
Doctor of Sciences
presented by
LEONARD LUZIEUX
Dipl. de Géologue, Université de LAUSANNE
born on 08.07.1977
citizen of Delémont, Jura
Accepted on the recommendation of:
Prof. Dr. Wilfried Winkler, ETH Zürich, examiner

Prof. Dr. Friedrich Heller, ETH Zürich, co-examiner
Dr. Richard Spikings, University of Geneva, co-examiner
Prof. Dr. Jean-Pierre Burg, Zürich, co-examiner
Prof. Dr. Kevin Burke, University of Houston, co-examiner
2007
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract
Résume
1 Introduction
1 1 Aim of the study
1 2 Regional framework
1 3 Tectonostratigraphic subdivisions of the
1 3 1 Pmön Block
13 2 San Lorenzo Block

1 3 3 Pedernales Block
13 4 Esmeraldas Block
1 3 5 Santa Elena Block
1 3 6 Pallatanga Block
1 3 7 Naranjal Block
1 3 8 Macuchi Unit
1 4
Key issues and approach
2 Stratigraphy
2 1 Introduction
2 2 Pinon Fm
2 3 Calentura Fm
2 4 San Lorenzo Fm
2 5 Las Orquideas Fm
2 6 Cayo Fm
2 7 Guayaquil Fm
2 8 Santa Elena Fm
2 9 Azucar Group
2 10 Late Palcoccne-Early Eocene hiatus
2 11 San Eduardo Fm
2 12 Ostiones Fm
2 13 Las Masas Fm
2 14AnconFm
2 15 San Mateo Fm
2 16 Punta Bianca Fm
2 17 Zapallo Fm
2 18 The Ancon Group
2 19 The Oligocène hiatus
2 20 Playa Rica Fm
2 12 Pambil Fm
2 22 The Progreso Basin
2 23 The Manabi Basin
2 24 The Borbon Basin
2 25 Conclusions
3 Paleomagnetism
3 1 Introduction
3 2 Selection of sites
3 2 1 Structural cntcna
3 2 2 Lithologie criteria
3 2 3 Alteration criteria
3 2 4 Formations selected
1
Tabic of contents
3 3 Sampling and preparation 57
3 4 Magnetic properties and lithologics 57
3 4 1 Introduction 57
3 4 2 Curie temperature analysis 58
3 4 3 Isothermal Remanent Magnetisation (IRM) and hysteresis properties 60
3 5 Natural remanent magnetisation (NRM) 62
3 5 1 Demagnetisation procedure 62
3 5 2 Thermal alterartion tests 64
353Field tests of NRM 65
3 5 4 NRM Measurements 66
3 6 Palcomagnctic results 71
3 6 1 Mafic volcanic basement 71
3 6 2 Calentura and Cayo fms 73
3 6 3 Guayaquil Fm 75
3 6 4 San Eduardo and Las Masas fms 75
3 6 5 San Mateo Fm 75
3 7 Anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) 75
3 7 1 Introduction 75
3 7 2 AMS Measurements 77
3 8 AMS interpretation and results 80
3 8 1 Cayo and Calentura fms 80
3 8 2 Guayaquil Fm 82
3 8 3 Las Masas Fm 82
3 9 Conclusion 82
4 Sediment provenance analysis using heavy mineral assemblages 83
4 1 Introduction 83
4 2 Methodology 83
4 3 Results 83
4 3 1 Presentation of the heavy mineral groups identified in the coastal forearc,

and their possible significance 83
4 3 2 Santa Elena Block 85
4 3 3 Pinon Block 87
4 3 4 San Lorenzo Block 87
4 3 5 Pedernales Block 87
4 3 6 Esmeraldas Block 87
4 3 7 Progreso Basin 87
4 3 8 Manabi Basin 87
4 3 9 Borbon Basin 87
4 4 Discussion 90
4 5 Conclusions 93
5 Paleogeography and structural evolution 95
5 1 Introduction 95
5 2 Cretaceous pre- and syn-accretionary period 95
5 2 1 Late Turoman-Coniacian 95
5 2 2 Santonian-Middle Campanian 97
5 2 3 Late Campanian-Maastnchtian 100
5 2 4 Discussion 100
5 3 Tertiary (post accrctionary period) 105
5 3 1 Paleocene ,
105
5 3 2 Eocene 105
5 34 Oligocène 109
II
Table of contents
535 Miocene HO
5 3 6 Discussion 110
6 Conclusions 114
7 References 116
1 129
Appendix
133
Appendix 2
Appendix 3 137
Appendix. 4 190
194
Appendix 5
Curriculum vitac 196
III
Acknowledgements
AKNOWLEDGEM ENTS
"In everyone's life, at some time, our inner fire goes out. It is then burst into flame by an
encounter with another human being. We should all be thankful for those people who rekindle the
inner spirit." Albert Schweitzer
I would like to start this section by expressing my gratitude to Wilfried Winkler, who enabled me
to carry out this PhD project at ETH-Zürich. His scientific advice and generous, ongoing support
during the various steps of my thesis were much appreciated. I would also like to recognize Friedrich
Heller, who guided me through the world of Paleomagnetism. Working with him was always a
also goes to Richard Spikings, for sharing his knowledge of the Northern
pleasure. My gratitude
Andes with enthusiasm and providing substantial support for radiometric dating. His thorough
reviews were helpful. I would like to thank Jean-Pierre Burg for taking the time to provide advice
Many thanks to Kevin Burke for accepting to review this work
on plate tectonics and arc processes.
of the results and interpretations in
and honouring the project with his presence in the jury. Many
this project are based on micropaleontological data obtained with the expert assistance of Michèle
Caron. I cannot offer enough thanks to her for the hours spent on the microspcope nor the coffees
she offered me during my visits in Fribourg. I thank Peter Hochuli for many interesting discussions
and advices. My gratitude goes to Staline Benitez and his family, for providing extended assistance
in the field and introducing me to the delicate food of the Manabi province. Many of the outcrops
studied and described in this work could not have been reached without the assistance of Luis
greatly appreciated. Thanks Perdo Reyes,

Matamoros. The help and support of Thomas Imbach is to
for his hard work in the heat of the coastal lowlands, his pleasant company, and teaching me Spanish
during the various field seasons. Thanks are expressed to Sarah-Jane Jackett and Diego Villagomez
for sharing field knowledge. Diane Seward (ETHZ), Urs Schaltegger and Mike Dungan (University
of Geneva) are acknowledged for their logistical support concerning the mineral separation process.
Thanks are expressed to Nergui Martin-Gombajov for careful help during the mineral separation
helpful discussions and support
process. I would like to thank William Lowrie and Ann Hirt for their
My gratitude goes Regula Schaelchli for her

in the Laboratory for Natural Magnetism, ETHZ. to
tremendous assistance during my time at ETH. Finally, I am thankful to my colleague and good
friend Cristian Vallejo for all the good moments we spent together during this project.
Of course, I would like to thank all my friends and colleagues in Zürich, as well as the ones from the
Jura, Ticino and Lausanne, for the many laughs and good moments that we shared.
Last but not least, T would like to give special thanks to my family for always being supportive
during both good and difficult moments. Thanks to Etienne for his visit and the nice moments
shared in Ecuador. This thesis is dedicated to my parents, without whom nothing of this could have
occurred.
This project was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation, projects 2-77193-02 and 2-
77504-04.
IV
Abstract
ABSTRACT
The Ecuadorian forearc region has been considered to comprise several tectonostratigraphic
blocks, of which two are assumed to have formed parts of oceanic plateau sequences that erupted
above mantle-plumes. Previous workers suggested that the Pallatanga block, which is now exposed
in the Western Cordillera of Ecuador, formed part of the Late Cretaceous Caribbean-Colombian
Oceanic Plateau. The Pallatanga Block detached from the plateau during collision with the South
American Plate during the Late Cretaceous. The other allochthonous blocks, which are exposed within
the flat coastal region, (Pinon, San Lorenzo, Pedemales and Esmcraldas blocks) were considered to
have been incorporated into the forearc during the Paleocene and Eocene. Furthermore, previous
workers suggested that the mantle-plume related basement sequence of the Pinôn Block erupted in
the Early Cretaceous, at a southern Pacific latitude. This interpretation would imply that remnants
of two oceanic plateaus accreted to the N W South American Plate margin during the Cretaceous-
Cenozoic period.
New 40Ar/39Ar analysis of crystalline, mafic basement rocks of the Pinôn Fm. (88±1.6 Ma)
and fossil ages from the overlying Calentura Fm. (89-84 Ma) clearly show that they erupted during
the late Turonian-Coniacian. Paleomagnetic inclination results indicate that the mafic basement of
the Pinôn, San Lorenzo and Pedemales blocks extruded at equatorial, low southern latitudes, and that
no significant latitudinal drift occurred during the Late Cretaceous. Lithostratigraphic similarities
suggest that the basement rocks of the individual blocks have a common origin. Eruptions of an
island arc (San Lorenzo and Las Orquideas fms.) during the Santonian and Maastrichtian indicates
that MORB rocks were subducting towards the west beneath the leading edge of the oceanic plateau,
soon after it formed (-5 my). Rapid changes in paleomagnetic declination occurring between 73-70
Ma in both the Pinon and the San Lorenzo blocks were coeval with the termination of island arc
activity. During the Late Campanian-Maastrichtian, the Pinôn and San Lorenzo blocks experienced
40-50° of CW rotation, that was coeval with their timing of accretion to the South American continent.
Similar Late Turonian-Coniacian basement ages and Late Campanian-Maastrichtian tectonic events
are reported from the Pallatanga Block of the Western Cordillera.
Previous workers observed that the earliest deposition of detrital quartz is diachronous in
the structural blocks of the forearc, which they utilised to suggest that there were multiple accretion
events. We investigated the provenance of the detrital clasts within the coastal blocks by determining
the heavy mineral assemblages, and paleocurrent flow data inferred from both field observations
and the anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility. These results show that since the Early Tertiary,
continental detritus has been preferentially distributed to the southern forearc (Pinôn and Santa
Elena blocks). The lack of continent-derived clasts within the sedimentary cover of the San Lorenzo,
Pedemales and Esmeraldas blocks to the north was probably caused by topographic isolation.
Therefore, diachronism in supply of continental detritus to the coastal blocks is not evidence for
multiple accretionary events.
The Eocene stratigraphie record of the San Lorenzo, Pedemales and Esmeraldas blocks is
characterised by a hiatus, which was coeval with regional-scale, rapid exhumation (>lkm/my) in
the Eastern Cordillera, and an increase in convergence rates between the Farallon and the South
1
Abstract
American plates. We therefore suggest that the discontinuous depositional record reflects periods of
surface uplift, that were driven by forces related to varying subduction kinematics.
Summarising, we propose that the Pinôn, San Lorenzo, Pedemales, and Esmeraldas
blocks, including the Pallatanga Block in the Western Cordillera, all derive from a common large
igneous province, the Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic Plateau, that accreted to the South American
Plate during the Late Campanian-Maastrichtian (73-70 Ma). In the outer forearc, the collision is
documented by the termination of arc-related volcanism, and clockwise rotation of the indenting
blocks. These observations should be accounted for in any reconstruction of the Caribbean region
and the Northern Andes.
Keywords: Northern Andes; Ecuadorian forearc; Caribbean Plate; paleomagnetism;
chronostratigraphy; Late Cretaceous.
2
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Lavant-arc équatorien est composé par plusieurs unités tcctonostratigraphiques (écailles)

d'origine océanique. L'écaillé du Pallatanga, qui se trouve dans la Cordillère Occidental Equatorienne,
constituait une partie d'un plateau communément nommé CCOP (Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic
Plateau). Durant la collision du plateau contre la marge continentale, au Crétacé supérieur, certaines
parties marginales du plateau se sont disloquées et ont été incorporées dans l'avant-arc du continent
sud-américain. Le reste des écailles océaniques (les écailles du Pinôn, du San Lorenzo, du Pedemales
et d'Esmeraldas), qui sont situées dans la région côtière, sont traditionellement attribuées à l'existence
et la collision d'un deuxième plateau océanique contre la marge continentale sud-américaine, au
cours d'une période comprise entre le Paléoccnc et l'Eocène. Selon les dernières interprétations, le
socle de l'écaillé du Pinôn aurait été formé au Crétacé inférieur par volcanisme de point chaud situé
dans le Pacific Sud.
De nouvelles analyses 40Ar/,9Ar effectuées sur les roches du socle de l'écaillé du Pinôn
indiquent un âge de crystallisation compris entre 90 et 87 Ma. D'autres données paléontologiques

exposées dans ce travail attribuent la couverture sédimentaire du socle (Formation Calentura) à un
âge de déposition compris entre 89 et 84Ma, ce qui confirme donc une attribution stratigraphique du
socle au Turonicn supéricur-Coniacicn. Les inclinaisons d'aimantations naturelles indiquent que les
socles des écailles du Pinôn, San Lorenzo et Pedemales ont crystallises sous des latitudes équatoriales.
Nous n'avons pas observé de changement notable de latitude dans ces écailles durant la période
du Crétacé. Ces observations suggèrent que les écailles constituant l'avant-arc équatorien ont une
origine commune. La présence de roches volcaniques à affinité d'arc intra-océanique indiquent la

subduction d'une plaque océanique sous la marge du plateau dans un laps de temps très court après
le volcanism de point chaud (~5 My). De rapides changements sur les déclinaisons d'aimantations
magnétiqies observés entre 73 et 70 Ma dans les écailles du Pinôn et du San Lorenzo sont corrélabiés
temporellement avec l'exctinction de l'arc intra-océanique. Nous considérons que ces informations
reflètent l'existence d'un événement tectonique affectant les écailles côtières durant le Campanien
supérieur. Des nouvelles données radiométriques mesurées dans le socle de l'écaillé du Pallatanga,
ainsi que l'enregistrement d'un événement tectonique majeur dans les écailles de la Cordillère
Occidentale supportent une origine commune des différentes écailles de l'avant-arc équatorien.
Certains auteurs ont correlé l'apparition diachrone du quartz détritique dans les écailles à
une indication d'un mode d'accrétion comprenant plusieurs étapes distinctes. Nous avons étudié
la provenence des depots élastiques au travers de l'étude des assemblages de minéraux denses
contenus dans les roches détritiques, ainsi que des paléocourants associés (ceux-ci ont été déduits
en utilisant les directions d'imbrication des grains détritiques que nous avons pu déterminer grâce
à une étude sur l'anisotropie magnétique des roches). Nos résultats démontrent qu'au cours des
temps géologiques suivant l'accrétion des écailles, le drainage des sédiments résultant de l'érosion
de massifs continentaux (Cordillère Orientale) ont été systématiquement déviés vers le Sud de la
côte equatorienne (l'actuel Golf de Guayaquil), comparablement au drainage qui peut s'observer
aujourd'hui. Dans les assemblages détritiques des écailles du San Lorenzo, Pedemales et Esmeraldas,
ainsi quand dans les basins du Miocène qui les recouvrent, laprésenec de détritisme de type continental
3
Abstract
n'a pas pu être détectée. Cela implique que l'apparition diachrone de détritisme continental dans les
écailles ne peut pas être attribué à une accretion séquentielle des unité comprises dans l'avant-arc
équatorien, mais reflète une presence continue de barrières topographiques séparant les basins de
l'avant-arc externe des basins de drainages continentaux depuis l'accrétion des bloques.
Durant cette étude, nous avons néanmoins pu confirmer l'existence d'un hiatus érosionel
durant l'Eocène, enregistré dans les écailles du San Lorenzo, du Pedemales, et d' Esmeraldas.
Cette période est également marquée dans un contexte régional par une des vitesses d'exhumation
importantes mesurées dans la Cordillère Orientale (>lkm/my), ainsi que par une augmentation
notoire de la vitesse de convergence entre la plaque de Farallon et le continent sud-américain. Une
situation similaire est observée durant l'Oligocène, où un hiatus de nature non précisé, enregistré
dans toutes les écailles côtières, est corélable à une accélération des vitesses de convergence entre
les plaques Farallon/Nazca et Amérique du Sud, et à la rupture de la Plaque Farallon, ayant comme
résultat la création de plaques de Nazca et Cocos.
Les résultats de cette étude ne confirment pas l'attribution des écailles constituant l'avant-
arc équatorien à des plateaux océaniques d'origines différentes. Nous proposons que les écailles du
Pinôn, du San Lorenzo, du Pedemales, d'Esmcraldas, et du Pallatanga proviennent d'une unique

province océanique, celle du CCOP. Les écailles ont été accrétées durant le Campanien supéricur-
Maastrichtien. Cette période a été enrigistrée dans toutes les écailles soit par une extinction du
volcanism d'arc océanique, par Tenrtegistrement de rapides rotations autour d'axes verticaux, ainsi
que par une exhumation rapide des massifs crystallins continentaux résultant de la collision entre le
CCOP et l'Amérique du Sud. Nous recommendons vivement de considérer les résultats de cette étude
dans toute future reconstruction impliquant la région des Caraïbes et les Andes septentrionales.
Mots clés: Andes septentrionales, avant-arc équatorien, Plaque des Caraïbes, Palaeomagnétismc,
Chronostratigraphie, Crétacé supérieur.
4
Introduction
Chapter 1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Aim of the study
The Ecuadorian coastal forearc forms part of the north-western South American Plate
margin (Fig 1.1), where a complex tectonic juxtaposition of oceanic plateau fragments, island
arcs, and pre- and post-accretionary sedimentary and continental arc rocks crop-out. The origin
of the coastal forearc is poorly understood, which is reflected by the existence of widely varying
models that are not compatible with each other because they propose (i) different temporal and
spatial origins of the volcanic basement rocks, (ii) contrasting temporal constraints on the timing
of accretionary events onto the South American Plate margin, and iii) widely varying numbers of
accretionary events. This study presents a new hypothesis to account for the origin and evolution of
distinct tectonostratigraphic blocks, that originated in oceanic environments, and were subsequently
emplaccd in the Ecuadorian forearc.
1.2 Regional framework
The Caribbean Plate is located in the center of a complicated tectonic patchwork, in
which it is juxtaposed against the South American, North American, Cocos and Nazca plates via
subduction and transform plate boundary zones (Fig. 1.1). Geophysical and geochemical analyses
of Hie Caribbean Plate reveal the presence of a thick mafic crystalline basement with oceanic plateau
affinities (Sinton et al., 1998; Revillon et al, 2000), and there is a consensus that the Caribbean Plate
extruded above a mantle plume at -90 Ma at equatorial latitudes in the Pacific (Burke et al., 1984;
Duncan and Hargraves, 1984; Burke, 1988; Pindcll et al., 1988; Ross and Scotese, 1988; Pindcll and
Barrett, 1990; Pindell et al., 2005). The Caribbean Plate collided with the North and South American
continental plates during the Late Cretaceous and was not consumed by subduction because of its
of the Chords Block in North America, and
buoyancy (Cloos, 1993). During collision, the margins
of the northern South American plate were deformed, the leading margin of the Caribbean Plate
fragmented, and the plate drifted to the NE and reached its current position during the Eocene
(Pindell et al, 2005). An alternative autochthonous, less probable origin for the Caribbean Plate has
also been proposed (e.g. Meschede, 1998; Mcschede and Frisch, 1998; see chapter 5 for a discussion
of this model).
Mafic crystalline sequences with oceanic plateau affinities are documented in the Western
Cordillera, the flat coastal forearc region and offshore regions (e.g. Gorgona Island) of Ecuador
and Colombia (Kerr et al., 1997; Kerr et al, 2002), which in part are believed to have shred off the
Caribbean Plateau (Spikings et al, 2001 ; Kerr and Tarncy, 2005). To emphasize the proposed common
origin of the hotspot related Late Cretaceous mafic rocks within the Caribbean and northern Andean
regions, they are collectively referred to as the Colombian-Caribbean Oceanic Plateau (CCOP; Kerr
et al., 2000).
1.3 Tectonostratigraphic subdivisions of the Ecuadorian forearc
The Ecuadorian forearc comprises a succession of tectonostratigraphic units, which wc will
refer to as "blocks" throughout this study (Fig. 1.3). The "block" terminology is preferred to the
5
Introduction
Chapter 1
Key
Continental /"/*7|Continental crust deformed 1 Oceanic
LZ3 crust
V V V Oceanic terranes
^_^j during Andean orogenesis
Andes
J ridge & rise
y
of motion relative to the
y Subduction Thrust fault / Strike-slip fault
/Direction
Caribbean Plate
Fig. 1.1. Tectonic framework of the Caribbean region. Abbreviations: AC, Amotape Complex; CC, Central
Cordillera; CL, Ecuadorian coastal lowlands (Costa); EC, Eastern Cordillera; Gal, Galapagos Islands;
Go, Gorgona Island; GrA, Greater Antilles; WC, Western Cordillera. Caribbean plate region redrawn from
Pindell and Barrett, 1990.
earlier "terranc" nomenclature because the origin and hence geological relationships between the
tectonostratigraphic units are not clearly known.

With the exception of the Santa Elena Block, in which crystalline basement rocks have not
been found, all of the blocks in the coastal forearc are underlain by mafic, crystalline volcanic rocks,
that are considered to represent the basement (Fig. 1.2). The mafic basement is restricted to the
region west of the Calacali-Pujili Fault (figs. 1.2 and 1.3), which hosts two important morphologic
features, the Western Cordillera (or Cordillera Occidental), and the mainly flat, coastal lowlands
(Costa). Previous work has unequivocally shown that the blocks arc allochthonous (which will be
further demonstrated within this study). This study presents an investigation into the tectonic origin
of the blocks, and their timing of accretion to South America.
6
Introduction
Chapter 1
rig 1 2 Synthetic tectonic section across the noi th\\ estera South Iniencan t onlmenlal margin hetu een 0 and
2°S depicting the different tectonomorpholo'iic units leferredto in the text ( uistal thicknesses estimates pom
Houçuei anomaly study of Feimnger et Seguin (19H1) \hhie\iations ( l'h/ ( alacah-Piijih Fault /one Pel
Peltetec I ault (IS/ ( himbo loachi Shear /one rC f astern Cordillei a I ID Intel Andean üepiession
S 1/ Sub- Indean /one 11C Western ( ordillei a lhe Peltetec h ault is the I cuadorian along-strike extension
oj the Romeral 1 ault /one in ( olomhia The Culucah Pu/ili I ault Zone is the northern alons, sinke extension
of the Pallatanga I ault
Coastal forearc
1.3.1 Pinon Block
The Pinon Block is located in the southern coastal Forearc, where it is separated from the
Santa Elena Block to the south by the normal Colonche Fault and to the west from the San Lorenzo
Block by the Puerto Cayo Fault Die northern and eastern extent of the Pinon Block is unknown,
because it is buried beneath Neogene sedimentary rocks of the Manobi Basin However, the western
flank of the Western Cordillera displays a sharp and -N-S trending continuous break-in-slopc,
suggesting that it may correspond to a ma)or fault The oceanic, mantle-plume derived basement
rocks (Reynaud et al 1999) had not been iddiomctncally dated prior to this study 1 he onlv existing
chronostratigraplnc constraint was piovided by overh mg sedimcntan rocks, which were tentatively
assigned a Cenomaman-Turonian age (- 100-90 Ma Thalmann. 1946, Jaillard et al, 1995) lhe
mantle-plume derived rocks were intruded b> the 1 as Orquideas ocean island arc (Re>naud et al,
1999) Previous authors (Reynaud et al, 1999 Kerr et al , 2005) suggested the mantle-plume and arc
7
Introduction
Chapter 1
LEGEND
~^ZZ^Z
S Esmeraldas Block
III Pedemales Block
<f>
< San Lorenzo Block
o
o
=
Pinon Block
1 Santa-Elena Block
L
D
g§=i Naranjal Block
œ
o
Ü Pallatanga Block
CC
m
[„"„"| Macuchi Unit
/ Fault
Normal fault
f
7 Strike-slip fault
1 ig 1 ? Map of tectonostiatiîaphic units m the I cuadonan foreaic (aflei ( ODIGLM 1993 Bemtez 1995
Witt 2001 and lallejo 2007) ibbrevialiom ( or C olonche 1 ault Cal (ancmch Fault CIS/ C himbo
loaclu Sheai /one CP11 Calacah Pu/ili Fault Zone FB hsmeiaidas Block LF Esimraldas haul! Gl
GuayaquilFault MS/ Mulaute Sheai /one Ml! Macuchi Unit NB Vaian/al Block FAB Pallatanga Block
P1B PmonBlock PI B Pedemales Block PC F PueitoC a\ oh ault Pel Peltatec I ault RS/ Romero! Sulme
/one SIB Santa I lena Block SLB San Loi enzo Block The Peltetec hault is lhe Lcuadui sail along stnke
extension of lhe Römeral 1 ault /one in C \>lomhia Backgi ound digital ele\ at ion map from Soin i s (2001)
rocks of the Piiîon Block originated in the southern Pacific Ocean Furthermore, numerous different
suggestions have been made for the tuning of accretion of the Pinon Block to the South American
Plate, including the Early Campanian to Eocene (80-35 Ma Bemtez 1995) Paleocenc (6^-56 Ma
Daly, 1989, Jaillard et al, 1995 and 2004) and Eocene (55-35 Ma Kerr and larney, 2005) Tins study
proposes that the Pinon Block accreted during the Late Cretaceous (73-70 Ma), as will be presented
in detail throughout this thesis (Luzieux et al , 2006)
1.3.2 San Lorenzo Block
The San Lorenzo Block, west of the coastal lowlands is bounded against the Pinon Block
by the Puerto Cayo Fault Its northern contact with the Pedemales Block is buried bv Ncogenc
sedimentary rocks of the Manabi Basin The mafic volcanic rocks of die basement aie commonly
considered to have the same age and origin as those of the Pinon Block (Reynaud et al, 1999 Kerr
etal 2002 Kerr and Tarney, 2005) Similarly, a voluminous Santonian to Maastiichlian (85-70 Ma)
island arc volcanic rocks intrude mantlc-plumi, denved basalts and gabbros (Lebrat, 1985, Reynaud
etal , 1999, Kerr etal, 2002)
8
Introduction
Chapter 1
1.3.3 Pedemales Block
The Pedemales Block is located on the equator, in the western coastal lowlands. It is bound
to the southeast by the Canandé Fault, and its northern extent is obscured by the Borbon Basin.
The oceanic, mantle plume-derived basement is undated. Kerr and Tamey (2005) proposed that
the basement crystallised in the southern Pacific (26-30°S) at -90 Ma, and that it subsequently
accreted to the South American Plate during the Eocene, partly in order to account for elevated
Eocene exhumation rates in the Ecuadorian Eastern Cordillera (Spikings ct al, 2005). Alternatively,
Mamberti ct al (2003) suggested that the Pedemales Block was part of the CCOP before it was
incorporated into the South American margin at an unknown time. The CCOP crystallised in the
equatorial Pacific.
1.3.4 Esmeraldas Block
Rock exposure within the Esmeraldas Block is sparse, because it is mostly covered by
dense vegetation. Rock outcrops are limited to the west by the Esmeraldas Fault, and the remaining
boundaries are covered by Ncogcnc sedimentary rocks of the Borbôn Basin. Although the nature
and age of the volcanic basement has not been previously determined, tiiis study shows that it
probably correlates with the basement in the remaining blocks of the forearc, partly because of its
anomalous thickness, inferred from Bouguer anomalies (Feininger and Seguin, 1983). Kerr and
Tamey (2005) suggested that the rock sequences in the Esmeraldas Block correlate with those found
in the Pedemales Block.
1.3.5 Santa Elena Block
The Santa Elena Block lies south of the Pinôn Block and is bounded in the north by the
Colonchc Fault. Crystalline, mafic volcanic rocks do not crop-out in the Santa Elena Block, although
its basement is considered to be equivalent to that found in the Pinôn Block, because it yields highly
positive Bouguer anomalies, suggesting the presence of athick, mafic volcanic basement.
Western Cordillera
The Western Cordillera is adjacent to the Interandean Depression, which straddles the dismembered
transition from high density mafic rocks, to lower density continental crust. The basement sequence
of the Western Cordillera consists of mantle-plume derived, basalts and gabbros, pctrologically
identical to those found in the flat Forearc region. The Western Cordillera has been investigated in
detail by various authors, (Egüez, 1986; Boland ct al., 2000; Hughes and Bermudez, 1997; Hughes
and Pillatasig, 2002; Kerr et al, 2002; Jaillard et al, 2004). The most recent study is that by Vallejo
(2007).
1.3.6 Pallatanga Block

The Pallatanga Block consists of a densely faulted array of juxtaposed mantle-plume and
island arc derived volcanic rocks, associated with pre- and post accretionary sedimentary rocks. It
9
1 Introduction
Chapter
is limited to the east by the Calacali-Pujili Fault Zone, which hosts a tectonic melange, commonly
referred to as the Pujili Melange. Between 0° and 3°S, the Pallatanga Block is separated from the
volcanic Macuchi Block by the Chimbo-Toachi Shear Zone, and at northern latitudes it is bound by
the Mulautc Shear Zone, which separates it from the Naranjal Block. Jaillard et al. (2004) proposed
that the mantle-plume derived sequences of the Pallatanga Block originally formed parts of two
different oceanic plateaus. The older plateau may have accreted during the Campanian (83-71 Ma),
and formed part of an Early Cretaceous large igneous province, that formed in the South Pacific.
The younger plateau sequence derived from the CCOP, accreted in the Maastrichtian (70-66 Ma).
Jaillard ct al. (2004) based this step-wise accretionary model on their observation that the earliest
appearance of detrital quartz within the Pallatanga Block is diachronous. More recently, Vallejo et
al. (2006) argued that the mantle-plume derived sequences all originally formed part of the CCOP.
1.3.7 Naranjal Block
The Naranjal Block, located to the west of the Mulaute Shear Zone, has so far been given
limited attention (Vallejo, 2007), partly because of the poor rock exposure. Both plume-derived and
island arc-related volcanic rocks are reported (Kerr et al., 2002). There is a lack of radiometric age
data, and the overlying Campanian sedimentary Colorado Fm. (Boland et al, 2000) represents the
only strata that can be reliably utilised m any attempt at correlating rocks sequences throughout the
forearc. Kerr ct al (2002) tentatively suggested that the Naranjal Block accreted in the Eocene (55-
35 Ma), based on an Eocene age yielded by a sheared diorite in the Mulaute Shear Zone (Hughes
and Bermudez, 1997).
1.3.8 Macuchi Unit
The Macuchi Block is bound against the Pallatanga Block by the Chimbo-Toachi Shear
Zone, and its western extension is covered by Neogene sedimentary rocks of the Manabi Basin.
Egüez, ( 1986) and Hughes and Pilatasig (2000) suggested that the volcanic rocks of the Macuchi
Fm. erupted in an ocean island arc setting during the Eocene, and that they accreted against the
South American Plate during the Early-Middle Eocene (55-40 Ma: Boland et al, 2000) to Late
Eocene (Hughes and Pillatasig, 2000; Spikings et al., 2001; Kerr et al., 2002), based on correlations
with angular unconformities and elevated cooling rates.
1.4 Key issues and approach

This overview illustrates the limited amount of data in the literature that can be utilised
to accurately constrain the tectonic evolution of the Ecuadorian forearc. Previous investigations
gathered extensive field data (see caption in Fig. All), including geophysical measurements
(Feininger and Seguin, 1983; Ropcrch et al, 1987), stratigraphie and sedimentary analyses (Bristow
and Hoffstcttcr, 1977; Bcnitcz, 1995; Jaillard et al, 1995 and 2004), and gcochcmical analyses
of volcanic rocks (Lebrat, 1985; Reynaud ct al, 1999; Lapierre et al, 2000; Kerr ct al, 2002).
However, there has been a paucity of geochronological and paleomagnetic data, that would permit
better understanding of the forearc region.
10
Introduction
Chapter 1
In order to address the main issue of this study, we propose to use the following methods:
-A compilation and critical evaluation of existing stratigraphie age data to identify key questions.
40
-Radiometric dating of the mafic basement using the Ar/39Ar method.
-Biostratigraphic dating of key sedimentary formations, especially those rocks, that has also been
analysed by the paleomagnetic method.
-Paleomagnetic sampling and measurement of sections of basement volcanic rocks and their
overlying sedimentary cover sequences, to evaluate their paleogeographic latitude of extmsion and
sedimentation, tectonic rotations, and the determination of sediment transport directions.
-Sedimentary provenance analyses using heavy mineral associations within clastic cover rocks.
Provenance information may allow us to distinguish the pre- and post-accretionary identity of the
source regions, thus providing paleogeographic constraints.
II
Viipr ^
B S if*
Chapter 2 Stratigraphy
2. STRATIGRAPHY
2.1 Introduction
The concept of different structural blocks emplaccd in the Ecuadorian forearc, and their
complicated geological relationships was introduced in the previous section. A detailed examination
of each tectonostratigraphic package is required to improve our understanding of the origin of the
relationships between each block. In this chapter, the history, occurrence, lithologie characteristics,
stratigraphie attribution and possible correlations of sedimentary fonnations in the coastal forearc
are discussed (prior to the Miocene). New geochronologic data, acquired from radiometric, fossil and
paleomagnetic analyses, are presented here and are integrated into a new stratigraphie framework
(Fig. 2.1).
Throughout this report, die reader can refer to several key figures including a composite
stratigraphie diagram (Fig. 2.1), and synthetic lithostratigraphic columns (figs. 2.2-2.5) of the coastal
blocks and Neogene basins. In addition, a geological map with the occurrence of the formations in
the coastal Ecuadorian forearc is presented in Appendix 1.
The stratigraphie fonnations are discussed in order of descending age, and the geographic
extension of the formations does not always correlate with block boundaries, but rather shows
formation inter-fingering or overlapping in some cases. Therefore, introducing each formation on the
basis of its stratigraphie attribution rather than describing each block separately avoids unnecessary
repetitions.
2.2 Pinôn Fm.
2.2.1 History
The rocks constituting the mafic basement of the coastal blocks are commonly referred to
as the Pinôn Fm. Originally, the term "Pinôn" was introduced by Tschopp (1948) to refer to the
volcanic rocks emplaced in the north of Guayaquil, and extending westward toward Nobol and Pedro
Carbo. Early workers proposed a Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous crystallisation age (Sauer, 1965;
Tschopp, 1948), mainly based on biostratigraphic assemblages hosted by overlying sedimentary

rocks (Thalmann, 1946).
Goossens and Rose (1973) proposed that dark, basic volcanic rocks at the coast, and more
generally in the Northern Andes, should be referred to as the Basic Igneous Complex (BIC), implying
a common origin over a widespread area. This term was utilised in Ecuador until Lebrat (1985)
demonstrated that volcanic rocks of the BIC constitute both MORB and island arc volcanic rocks,
which can be identified along the coastal region. Since then, the earlier Pinôn Fm. terminology has
been rc-applied to designate only the oldest mafic rocks, which yield geochemical characteristics of
MORB.
The Pinôn Fm. was considered to represent a remnant of normal oceanic floor (Goossens
and Rose, 1973, Juteau et al, 1977; Lebras et al, 1987) until Reynaud ct al. (1999) showed that
they yield geochemical characteristics of rocks erupted from mantle-plumes. This geochemical
12
Borbön
Basin
r >
—
tipfwr Onxala ~—"^_
—
o
c
middle Oniole
-—— ~^1-
lower Onzole
Angostura
—
~^—~— ViChe -
—-
w \t \f %4 ******
Pedemales Esmeraldas
Block Block
*Anc6n Group
Legend
[>-~ —\ Fluvial and flood plain deposits Calciturbidites deep marine deposits
\ J
/ V V V
Marine siliciclastic deposits Island arc extrisuves and mtrusives
v v v
[?£?£?] Deep manne fine deposits Plume-related mafic basement
1,1 Shallow water limestones Paraconformity
W Unconformity
Pig 2 1 Composite stratigraphie columns of the coastal blocks and overlying Neogene basins Abbreviations*
CoF, Colonche Fault, PCF, Puerto Cava Fault, CaF, Canande Fault, EF, Esmeraldas Pauli Time scale from
Gradstein et al (2004)
13
Fig 2 2 Synthetic hthostratigraphic columns of (a) the Santa Elena Block, in the regions of Santa Plena,
and (b) the Pinon Block, in the area of Guayaquil (see Appendix I), in the southern coastal forearc Vertical
metric scale applies for formation thicknesses, not for single beds The compilations are based on this work
and Benltez (1995)
interpretation corroborates the presence of anomalously thick mafic basement underlying the coastal
lowlands (Feimnger and Seguin, 1983), implying that some of the oceanic blocks that comprise
the forearc may be derived from a large igneous province (Reynaud et al, 1999, Kerr et al, 2002)
14
Fig 2 3 Synthetic hthostratigraphic columns of the San Lorenzo Block in the regions of (a) Puerto lopez,
and (h) Manta (See Appendix I), in the central coastal forearc Vertical metric scale applies for formations
thicknesses, not for single beds The compilations are based on this work and Bemtez (1995)
Subsequently, the Pinôn Fm has been used to designate mafic rocks exposed along the coastal
Ecuadorian forearc, which extruded over a mantle-plume
2.2.2 Occurrence
The Pinôn Fm crops-out in all the coastal blocks except the Santa Elena Block, where mafic
basement has not been identified (figs 2 1 and 2 2a) However, in the other blocks, it is not always
easy to distinguish between the Pinôn Fm and overlying island arc volcanic rocks, and consequently
both units are frequently mapped togetiier (Appendix 1)
The Pinôn Fm is exposed as large outcrops in the Pinon Block, north of Guayaquil
(Appendix 1) Easy access is provided by the Pctnllo road tax station, located approximately 30
15
Lithostratigraphic columns
a) Pedemales Block b) Esmeraldas Block
Pedemales Rio Verde
Punta Bianca Fm <

Pambll Fm <
Cayo Fm
/VVVVVVVVV'
VVVVVVVVVV
San Lorenzo Fm
fVVVVVVVVVV
Playa Rica Fm i
Pinon Fm ,
500m
Zapallo Fm (
Legend Ostlones Fm
Sedimentary lithologies
Pinon Fm
500m
[ ~| Alternated shales maristones siltstones and fine tuffs
—
l*„°\ Conglomerate and debns flow
Sandstone
|t yt"^ Limestones Crystalline lithologies
IvYvl Island arc gabbros lava flows pillow and columnar basalts
y Unconformity IBM Oceanic island lava flows pillow and columnar basalts
'
y Paraconformity
\ / \ Oceanic island gabbros and wehrlites
Fig 2 4 Synthetic hthostratigraphic columns of the San Lorenzo Block in the regions of (a) Pedemales and
(b) Esmeraldas (See Appendix 1), in the northern coastal Jorearc Vertical metric scale applies for formations
thicknesses not for single beds The compilations are based on this work Bemtez (1995) and Baldock
(1982)
km north of Guayaquil (UTM coordinates 609698, 9784622, WGS84), and to the south of Nobol
(UTM coordinates 610094, 9787726, WGS84) The Pinon Fm can be observed in the San Lorenzo
Block on the roads between Montanita and Puerto Lopez (UTM coordinates 522120, 9812963,
WGS84), and also between Puerto Cayo and Jipijapa (UTM coordinates 538101, 9852461,
WGS84) Weathered mafic rocks can be seen in road-cuts around the sector of Jama (coordinates
80°12'50"W, 0°07'27"S, WGS84), in the Pedemales Block, and fresh outcrops can also be found
along the shore (UTM coordinates 587086, 9986778, WGS84) Only sparse and limited outcrops
are reported in the Esmeraldas Block The best exposure can be seen m a quarry located west of
Puerto Libre (road Puerto Libre-Esmeraldas), and to a lesser extent in the Rio Verde We were not
able to find a previously documented exposure at Quimnde (S N d G y M, 1969, CODIGEM and
BGS, 1993)
16
Lithostratigraphic columns
a) Progreso Basin b) Manabi Basin c) Borbon Basin
Las Cartas Portoviejo Esmeraldas
Progreso Fm.
Guayacan Fm.
Sublbaja Fm.
Upper Ortzole Fm
El Consuelo Fm.
Choconcha Fm.
Villingtoa Fm.
Middle Onzole Fm
Portoviejo Fm. <
Dos Bocas Fm.
Lower Onzole Fm.
500m
Zapotal Fm.
Angostura Fm.
Tosagua Fm,
500m
Legend Vic he Fm.
Sedimentary lithologies 500m
\Z _~| Shales marlstones, siltstones and fine tuffs | ] Sandstone l-'.'i '\ Lumaohellic sandstone
G£=r] Siltstone \°°d\ Conglomerate and debns flow
Fig 2 5 Synthetic lidtostratigraphtc columns of the \eogene basins from south (left) to north (right) Ca) Progreso Basin in the area of Carta, (b) Manabi Basin
in the area of Portoviejo, and (c) Borbon Basin in the area of Esmeraldas (see Appendix 1) Vertical metric scale applies forformations thicknesses, not for single
beds The compilations are based on this work, Benitez (1995) and Whittaker (1988)
2.2.3 Lithology and Petrology

The Pinôn Fm. is represented by a wide range of mafic lithologies, including wehrlitcs,
gabbros, lava flows, pillow and columnar basalts (figs. 2.6-2.8), The rocks are metamorphosed to
low-grade zeolite and prehnitc-pumpellyite facies (Raharijohana, 1980; Lebrat, 1985; Reynaud ct
al., 1999).
In the southern exposures, located in the Pinôn and San Lorenzo blocks, basalts and
dolentes comprise plagioclase laths and clinopyroxene glomeroporphyric aggregates embedded in
a glass-poor groundmass. In a few cases, the presence of orthopyroxenes can be seen, but they have
mainly been replaced by smectites and chlorite. The gabbros are mainly composed of pyroxene
and plagioclase (rarely with hornblendes), and have a subhedral, granular structure. The wehrlites
show texture, with cuhedral olivine crystals sometimes being enclosed in large plates of
a poikilitic
pyroxenes.
Northern exposures within the Pedemales and Esmeraldas blocks host both pillow basalts
with glassy rims and picritic hyaloclastites. The phyric pillow basalts contain clinopyroxene
and plagioclase phenocrysts enclosed in a groundmass composed of quenched plagioclase and
clinopyroxene microlites. The hyaloclastites are composed of glass, which is partially replaced by
palagonite, and contain picritic and basaltic fragments.
2.2.4 Stratigraphie attribution

Earlier authors assigned a crystallisation age ranging between the Jurassic and Albian
(Thalmann, 1946; Marks, 1956; Faucher and Savoyat, 1973; Jaillard etal., 1995), based on
radiometric K/Ar ages, and biostratigraphic correlations.

Attempts to date the basement by the K/Ar whole rock method revealed ages ranging between
50 and 120 Ma (Goossens and Rose, 1973;Kcnnerley, 1980;PichlerandAly, 1983; Wallrabe, 1990).
However these ages arc not reliable because, (i) it is not always clear if the analysed samples are
from the Pinôn Fm. or in the overlying island arc volcanics, because geochemical data to differentiate
between these two types of volcanic rocks arc often missing, and (ii) the large age range suggests
that some rocks have experienced partial 40Ar loss, which can not be quantified by the K/Ar method.
Therefore, these ages can not be used to provide an accurate quantitative measurement of the age of
the Pinon Fm.
We obtained a plateau hornblende "WAr (Fig. 2.9a-b) age of 88.8±1.6 Ma (2a) from a
gabbro located near the town ofNobol (UTM coordinates: 610094; 9787726, WGS84), which yields
an indistinguishable inverse isochron age (MSWD 1.9) and an initial Âr content that is widiin
5% of an atmospheric composition (Fig. 2.9b). Furthermore, chondrite-normalized plots (Sun and

McDonough, 1989) of REEs and multi-elements (Figs. 2.9c and d) yield flat patterns, which are
comparable to previously published data from mantle-plume related rocks in Ecuador (Reynaud et
al., 1999; Kerr et al., 2002), confirming the stratigraphie attribution of this sample to the Pinôn Fm.
18
Fig 2 6 Massive basaltic lava flow m the Pinon pm 'This outcrop has been sampled for paleomagnetic
analyses (site 04LL79P, chapter 3), and is situated m a river bed located SE of the village of 1 lallo, Pinon
Block UTM coordinates 569070, 9794611, WGS84
Pig 2 7 Pillow lavas in the Pinôn Pm ,

on the road between Montafiita and Puerto Lopes, San Lorenzo Block
This outcrop was sampledfor paleomagnetic analyses (site 02LL05P, chapter 3) U1M coordinates 0522120,
9812962, WGS84
Pig 2 8 Jointed columnar basalt in the Pihon Pm, Pedemales Block This outcrop was sampled for
paleomagnetic analyses (site 03JX29P, chapter 3), and is located on the road between El Carmen and
Pedemales VIM coordinates 0614365, 4927, WGS84
19
Pig. 2.9. Sample 03LL266 (Pinôn Fm., PMôn Block UTM coordinates: 610094; 9787726, WGS84). (a)
Hornblende '"Ar/Âr age spectra (1R-C02 laser, University of Lund, Sweden) (b) 40ArÂr inverse isochron
(2a). (c) Chondrite normalized (Sun and McDonough, 1989) whole rock, REE content (white points) The thin
lines represent results obtained by previous studies of the PiPiân Fm. (Reynaud et al, 1999; Kerr et ai, 2002).
The flat profile ((La/Yb)n =

1.177) supports the hypothesis that these rocks erupted above a mantle plume
(d) Chondrite normalized (Sun and McDonough, 1989), whole rock, multi-element plot (white points). The
thin lines represent results obtained by previous studies in the Piftôn Fm. (Reynaud el al, 1999; Kerr et ai,
2002). No clear subduction-related signature can be seen (e.g. no discernable Nb anomaly), which contrast
with the geochemical signatures acquired from magmatic rocks of the Las Orquideas and San Lorenzo fms.
Geochemical data ofsample 03LL266 listed in Appendix 5.
2.2.5 Correlation
A mantle-plume derived, crystalline mafic basement is reported in other coastal blocks
along the coast, including the San Lorenzo, Pedemales and Esmeraldas blocks (Reynaud et al.,
1999; Kerr et al., 2002), where it is also referred to as the Pinôn Fm., although it has not been
dated radiometrically. Kerr and Tamey (2005) proposed on the basis of geochemical arguments that
these rocks may have been derived from two geographically distinct oceanic hotspots located in
the Pacific region. However, the new radiometric and paleomagnetic results presented in this study
preclude the possibility that the remnants of two distinct large igneous provinces are emplaced on
the coast (chapter 5).
20
2.3 Calentura Fm.
2.3.1 History
The term Calentura Fm. was first introduced by Thalmann (1946) for the basal member of
the overlying volcanoclastic Cayo Fm. He biostratigraphically determined a Cenomanian-Turonian
(100-90 Man) age, which has been used also to infer die age of the conformably underlying Pinôn
Fm. The present biostratigraphic assemblages, however, argue for a Coniacian to Santonian age
(89-84 Ma).
2.3.2 Occurrence
The Calentura Fm. is found to the north of Guayaquil, and more generally the eastern side
of Pinôn Block. The formation thins, and eventually pinches out in the western part of the block
(Appendix 1). No outcrops outside of the Pinôn Block are known,
A few outcrops arc readily accessible on the fields of the Consorcio I.L.M., Via a Daulc (km
14.5), to the north of Guayaquil and the most complete section is found in the Rio Guaraguau, to the
NW of Guayaquil (Fig. 2.10a).
2.3.4 Lithology
The Calentura Fm. is composed of intercalated decimetric layers of calcareous turbidites,
black shales, organic rich limestones, marlstones and radiolarites (figs. 2.2b and 2.10a). Towards the
top of the formation, approximately 5 meters of rhythmically bedded, decimetre thick sandstones
and siltstones can be observed (Rio Guaraguau, UTM coordinates: 595636; 9775610, WGS84, see
Fig. 2.10a). The estimated thickness in the Rio Guaraguau section is about 70m. However, the
formation could be more developed elsewhere, as Benitez reports a thickness of 400m in Guayaquil
(Benitez, 1995).
The Calentura Fm. overlies the Pinôn Fm. (figs. 2.1 and 2.2b), although the contact could not
be observed. New radiometric and biostratigraphic data presented in this study favours a conformable
contact between both formations. The transition between the Calentura Fm., and the overlying Cayo
Fm. is gradual and confonnable (with an increase of clastic material towards the top).
2.3.5 Depositional environment

The black shales, limestones, marlstones and radiolarites indicate a marine, hemipelagic
depositional environment.
Thin section analyses ofthe limestones reveal a dominant mudstone composition. Occasional
wackestones are observed (where broken bioclasts float in amatrix dominated by fine organic matter).
Bioclasts include pieces of bryozoans, pelagic, benthonic, and agglutinated foraminifera. Packstones
arc sparse and were formed by lag deposition of foraminifera by winnowing currents. Traces of
bacterial activity can be occasionally observed. The abundance of organic matter in the matrix
indicates an anoxic depositional environment. The systematic small size and poor development of
the remaining pelagic foraminifera indicates that the disoxic environment in which they lived was,
21
for unknown reasons, rather hostile.
Graded sandstones and siltstones, appearing at the top of the formation contain volcanic-
hornblendes and volcanic glass), which transported into the
derived clasts (pyroxenes, were
hemipelagic environment via turbiditic flows.
2.3,6 Stratigraphie attribution

Thalmann (1946) first reported a Cenomanian-Turonian depositional age, based on
the presence of'Globolruncana cf. renzi. This fossil has later been renamed Margmotruncana
renzi, and ranges between the Middle Turonian and Coniacian (Caron, 1985), A Turanian age
was continued later with a first study of the pelagic bivalve association containing Inoceramus
plicatus, I. rocmeri, and /. striata (Marks, 1956), and an enigmatic ammonite, which name has not
been communicated (Jaillard et al., 1995).
Fig. 2.10 (a) Lithologie log of the Calentura Pm., Rio Guaraguau, Pihon Block. UTM coordinates. 595885;
9775751, WGS84. (b) Biozones of the planktonicforaminiferalfauna m sample 03LL230, Calentura Fm., Rio
Guaraguau (Fig. 2.10). Time scale after Gradstein et al. (2004), biostratigraphic scale after Premoli Silva
and Verga (2004) and magnetic polarity scale after Cande and Kent (1995). See Appendix A2.1 for pictures
and drawings of the foraminifera.
22
However, in the Guayaquil area, Gamber et al. (1990; cited in Benitez, 1995) attributed a
Coniacian age, based on the nannofossils Lithatrinus florahs, Eiffelithus eximius, mdMarthsterites
fiircatus. Furthermore, recent work based on radiolarians, palynomorphs and planktic foraminifers,
also argues for a Coniacian depositional age (Velasco Sanchez and Mcndoza, 2004). Our own
investigations confirm a Coniacian to Santonian stratigraphie attribution, with the association of
Marglnotruncana pseudolineana, Rosita fornicata, and Hedbergella (Det. M. Caron), yielding an
age range between 89 and 84 Ma (Prcmoli Silva and Verga, 2004). Sec Fig. 2.10b and Appendix
A2.1 for biozones and photographs.
Obviously, older studies of the Calentura Fm. utilised the high abundance of organic
matter when stratigraphically assigning it to the Cenomanian-Turonian. However, corroborating
paleontological studies favour a Conacian to Santonian age, which suggests a correlation with the
Ocean Anoxic Event (OAE) 3 (Wagner, 2002; Gallagher et al., 2005), rather than with the OAE 2,
as previously proposed.
Volcanic cover and associated sedimentary rocks
The presence of volcanic arcs and related volcanoclastic formations is documented by a
variety of lithologies. The volcanic rocks, which mainly yield a tholeiitic geochemical signature
(Fig. 2.11), are difficult to differentiate from the mantle-plume derived mafic basement using field
relationships alone. Consequently, all of the mafic volcanic rocks along the coast, regardless of their
textural and stratigraphie attribution, are mapped together (see Appendix 1).
Fig. 2.11. Geochemical characteristics of the island arc-related Las Orquldeas and San Lorenzo fins, (a)
Chondrite normalized (Sun and McDonough, 1989), whole rock (basaltsfrom the Las Orquideas Fm., diabase
and basalt in the San Lorenzo Fm.) REE content. Data from Reynaud et al. (1999), and Kerr et al. (2002). The
enrichment in LREE represents typical elemental fractionation generated by a subduction zone setting (cf.
Fig. 2.9c; Sun and McDonough, 1989). (b) Chondnte-normalised (Sun and McDonough, 1989), whole rock,
multi-elements plot. Data from Reynaud et al. (1999), and Kerr et al. (2002). Negative Nb and Ti anomalies
are typicalfor rocks formed in a subduction zone setting (c.fi Fig. 2.9d; Sun and McDonough, 1989).
23
Chapter 2 Slraugraphy
2.4 San Lorenzo Fm.
2.4.1 History
The San Lorenzo Fm. was initially defined by Lebrat ( 1985), who also demonstrated that the
Basic Igneous Complex (Goossens and Rose, 1973) was a misleading term because it was composed
of volcanic rocks that represent more than one tectonic setting: Lebrat (1985) assigned volcanic
rocks from the region of Cabo San Lorenzo, Manabi, which yield an island arc geochemical affinity,
to the San Lorenzo Fm.
2.4.2 Occurrence
The San Lorenzo Fm, has its main occurrence in the San Lorenzo Block (figs. 2.1 and 2.3),
where extended sections can be found on an E-W trending line between Portoviejo and Cabo San
Lorenzo. The best sections are reported in Cabo San Lorenzo (UTM coordinates: 510033; 9883244,
WGS84), in La Pila (UTM coordinates: 546730, 9876750, WGS84), and in the quarry at Picoaza
(UTM coordinates: 549515, 9886601, WGS84). Some of the volcanic rocks emplaced between El
Carmen and Pedemales (Pedemales Block, UTM coordinates: 614775; 6053, WGS84), may also be
attributed, on geochemical grounds (Kerr et al., 2002) to the San Lorenzo Fm. (figs. 2.1 and 2.4a).
2.4.3 Lithology and petrology

The San Lorenzo Fm consists of basaltic lava flows (Fig. 2.12), pillow lavas (Fig. 2.13).
joint-columnar basalts (Fig. 2.14), interlayered volcanoclastic conglomerates, hyaloclastites and
coarse-grained grcywackes (Fig. 2.13). The lavas in the San Lorenzo fm. are petrographicaliy similar
to basaltic lavas assigned to the Pinôn Fm. They show a porphyritic texture with augite phenocrysts.
and a groundmass rich in plagioclase laths and microlites. Silicified interpillow sediments show
degassing structures due to microbial activity and/or volcanic gas escape (Fig 2.15), and occasional
silicified planktonic foraminifera (Appendix A2.2; sample 04LL315).
Pig. 2.12. Basaltic lava flows, paleomagnetic site 02LL6P. San Lorenzo Pm., San Lorenzo Block The site is
located to the south of La Pila, on the road between Montecristi and Jipijapa. UTM coordinates: 546730;
9876750, WGS84.
24
Fig 2 13 Sedimentary rocks intercalated with lava flows at the same locality shown in Fig 2 12 The dip
direction of the sedimentary strata was used for paleomagnetic tilt corrections
structure, due to radial

'
Pig 2 14 Jointed columnar basalts forming a rosette cooling of a lava pipe [he
pipe intruded older pdloM lavas The greenish spots emplaced between the pillow Icn'as (indicated bv the
arrow) are sedimentary rocks Picoaza quarry west oj Portoviejo, San Lorenzo Pm, San Lorenzo Block ( 'IM
coordinates 551151, 9886742, UGS84
Pig 215 1 hin section of the interpillow sedimentary rocks (sample 04LL313) shown in Pig 214 The black
arrows show dome structures caused by degassing subsequent to microbial activity, or volcanic gas escape
The scale bar represents 2mm
25
The San Lorenzo Fm is overlain by the Eocene Ostiones and San Mateo fins ,
via an angular
unconformity (see chapter 5).

Various workers have utilised microfaunal evidence yielded by inter-pillow sedimentary
rocks to assign the San Lorenzo Fm to a period spanning the Late Santonian to Maastrichtian (Sigal,
1969; Faucher et al., 1971, Benitez et al, 1996; Ordonez, 1996). Radiometric studies have yielded
K/Ar ages of 85-5OMa (Goossens and Rose. 1973; Kennerley, 1980, Pichlcr and Aly, 1983: Lebras
etal, 1987; Wallrabe, 1990), and a single plagioclase 1lAr/wArageof 72 7-1:1.4 (Lebras etal, 1987),
although its accuracy can not be evaluated by the reader because the age spectrum and inverse
isochron data are not provided

Our finding of Cdobolnmccma venlricosa in the Picoaza quarry (sample 04LL3 15, Appendix
A2.2; UTM coordinates: 549515; 9886601, WGS84) confirms a Campanian-Maastrichtian age
assignment for the San Lorenzo Fm
2.5 Las Orquideas Fm.
2.5.1 History
The term "'Las Orquideas Member" was first introduced by Benitez (1995) for volcanic
rocks found in the northern suburbs of Guayaquil, which he proposed to represent the effusive
volcanic component of the Cayo Fm. Later, Reynaud et al (1999) demonstrated that these rocks
yield a distinct geochemistry with an oceanic island arc affinity, distinguishing tiiem from the mantle-
plume related magmatic rocks of the Pinôn Fm. Furthermore, we suggest that the Cayo Fm should
strictly refer to sedimentary rocks (see section 2.6), and hence the volcanic rocks located proximal
to Guayaquil are assigned to the Las Orquideas Fm
2.5.2 Occurrence
The Las Orquideas Fm, is only known in the suburbs of Guayaquil The outcrops of the type
locality described in Benitez (1995), and in Reynaud ct al. (1999) do not exist anymore because of
industrial activity (road and building construction). However, other outcrops can still be found along
the road from Guayaquil and Daule, in Pascuales (UTM coordinates: 618993, 9765280, WGS84)
and in Petrillo (UTM coordinates' 609698; 9784622, WGS84).
2.5.3 Lithology and petrology

The Las Orquideas Fm. is composed of intrusive microgabbros, (Fig. 2,16) and basalts
that form pillow stmctures. Basalts and microgabbros show a porphyritic texture with pyroxene
phenocrysts that are frequently replaced by chlorite and smectite. The groundmass is rich in
plagioclase, and is also partly replaced by smectite and chlorite

The nature of the contact between the volcanic Las Orquideas Fm., the clastic Cayo Fm. and
the underlying Calentura Fm. is not fully understood because we have not been able to identify it in
26
Chapter 2 Slraugraphy
outcrop (see section 2.5.4). However, mafic dykes and sills intrude the basal part of the Cayo Fm.
(Figs. 2.1 and 2.2b; Benitez, 1995), suggesting that a component of the Las Orquideas Fm . is coeval
or younger than the Calentura Fm.
The stratigraphie attribution of the Las Orchideas Fm. is mainly unconstrained. Reynaud
et al., (1999) argue that in the type locality, which no longer exists (hence precluding its status as a
type locality), pillow basalts of the Las Orquideas Fm. are confomiably overlain by die Calentura
Fm However, a previous study by Stalin Benitez (1995) states that no pillows were present at the
type locality (Stalin Benitez, personal communication, this person collected die samples analysed
in Reynaud et al, 1999). Consequently, the samples referred to by Reynaud et al. (1999) may have
been collected from an intrusive body, and unfortunately the issue will never be resolved due to the
destruction of the outcrop.
Although radiometric dating and/or new field observations are required to determine the
stratigraphie range of the Las Orquideas Fm., reversed magnetisation recorded in the Las Orquideas
Fm. (sec chapter 3) implies that the volcanic formation is partly younger than the Calentura Fm..
which is confirmed by intrusive relationships. However, we prefer to assign the lavas, and hence
a majority of the intrusive rocks as an equivalent of the San Lorenzo Fm., primarily based on the
geochemical island arc affinity and paleomagnetic data (Fig. 2,1).
big. 2.16 Intrusive body of the Las Orquideas Fm ,

Pihon Block. This outcrop was sampledforpaleomagnetic
analyses (site 03LL23P, see chapter 3), and is located on the Guayaquil ring road (suburb of Las Orchideas).
UTM coordinates: 620723; 9771346, WGS84
27
Cliaptcr 2 Stratigraphy
2.6 Cavo Fm.
2.6.1 History
Olsson (1942) assigned manne faciès sedimentary rocks exposed in die cliffs of tire small
fishing village of Puerto Cayo (located in the San Lorenzo Block, sec Appendix 1) to the Cayo Fm.
Later, similar lithologies in the Guayaquil area were also assigned to the Cayo Fm (Thalmann,
1946, Bnstow, 1976a) Until the present work, the Las Orquideas and Calentura fins, were included
as members of the Cayo Fm. Further detailed studies of the formation in the San Lorenzo Block can
be found in Romero (1990). and in die Pinôn Block in Benitez (1990).
2.6.2 Occurrence
The Cayo Fm is well developed and can be observed in the Guayaquil region of die Pinôn
Block (along the ring road, UTM coordinates. 616974, 9764235, WGS84), and in the southern part
of the San Lorenzo Block (Los Frailes beach, North of Puerto Lopez. UTM coordinates. 522902,
9835430, WGS84; Appendix 1). Limited occurrences have also been observed in the Pedemales
block (road between El Carmen and Pedemales. UTM coordinates: 614777; 6053. WGS84) The
best section remains in the remote Rio Bachillero (accessible during the dry season only, from the
small hamlet of Las Piedras, situated about 15km South of Pedro Carbo; follow the Rio Bachillero
upstream until the section starts at UTM coordinate' 582576; 9779015, WGS84),
2.6.3 Lithology
The Cayo Fm, typically consists of repeated thinning and fining upward sequences of light
olive green coloured, volcano-derived debris-flows and silicified turbidites (figs 2.2b, 2.3a and
2 4a)
The coarse, less silicified basal beds (bed thicknesses is approximately one to five meters,
Fig. 2.17), often show concentric, onion-type weathering stmctures (Fig. 2.18). Most of these beds
show a bimodal grain-size distribution, although upward grading (T ) and laminar bedding (Tb) can
sometimes be observed at the top of the beds

The upper part of the sequence is characterised by silicified, decimeter- to-centimctcr scale
thick turbidites (Fig. 2.19), which regularly show T to T, Bouma-sequences (Fig 2,20). although T
structures can be occasionally observed. The wavy aspect sometimes observed between beds is due
to boudinaging caused by the irregular diagenetic compaction of the siliceous sediments
The maximal thickness of the Cayo Fm. is estimated at Guayaquil (along the nng-road
section), to be approximately 2400m The formation thickness decreases gradually towards the
northwest, and the formation disappears in the area of Portoviejo-Manta. The section reported in
the Pedemales Block has a maximum thickness of a few hundred meters The Cayo Fm is generally
more silicified in the Pinôn Block tiian elsewhere and contains only a few pumice clasts, which are
commonly observed in more northern exposures.
The Cayo Fm overlies the Calentura Fm in the Piiïôn Block (figs. 2.1 and 2 2b). The
contact cannot be observed, but similar regional dips observed in both fonnations indicate either a
28
conformable to para-conformable nature. The Cayo Fm. is conformably overlain by the Guayaquil
Fm .
which was deposited dunng the Maastrichtian-Palcoccne (Keller ct al., 1997; figs 2.1 and
2.2b).
In the San Lorenzo and Pedemales blocks, the Cayo Fm rests either on the Pinôn Fm. or on
the San Lorenzo Fm (figs 2,1, 2 3 and 2.4a). The nature of the contact has not been characterised
because it has not been observed. The Eocene San Mateo and Punta Bianca fms. unconformablv
overlie the Cayo Fm. via an angular discordance (Romero, 1990, Benitez, 1995).
Fig 2.17. Meter scale thick debris flow sequences m the lower part of the Cayo Fm, interlayered with
lurbiditic sandstones: The shaded area on the figure shows a normal Jault plane This outcrop was sampledfor
paleomagnetic analyses (site 04LL 73P, see c hapter 3) and is located south of Los Frailes beach, San Lorenzo
Block. UTM coordinates: 522902; 9835430, WGS84.
Fig. 2.18. Spheroidal onion weathering ofcoarse sandstones in the lower part of the Cayo Fm., Rio Bachillero,
Pihôn Block. UTM Coordinates: 582576; 9779015, WGS84.
29
Fig. 2.19. Top of the Cayo Fm.. showing a regular sticces.sion of dm-thick siliceous turbiditic beds. The white
water tank is approximately 1m tall, and the outcrop is located in Duran, East of Guayaquil, Pihon Block.
UTM coordinates: 630097; 9759647, WGS84.
Fig. 2.20. Detail of a bedfrom Fig. 2.19, showingfining upward grading ( TJ, and a silty sequence ( TJ. The
wavy aspect may be caused by water escape during compaction. Paleomagnetic site 03LL24P was drilled in
the siltstones (upper drill hole), and 03LL25P in the sandstones (lower drill hole).
30
Chapter 2 Stratigiaphy
The lower part of the series is mainly composed of angular to sub-angular volcanic clasts,
embedded into a matrix of smaller volcanic fragments of Ortho- and clinopyroxene, hornblende,
plagioclase, oxides and volcanic glass
The Cayo Fm. becomes finer grained towards its upper part, which is accompanied by a
gradual increase in the fraction of bioclasts. which become dominant at the top of the formation
Sponge spicules and radiolarian skeletons are mainly responsible for siliceous cementation in
the upper part of the Cayo Fm. Both benthonic and planktonic foraminifera are also present. The
planktonic foraminifera have abnormally thin tests, which are often broken and squeezed due to
sediment compaction. The abundance of mm- to cm-wide burrow stmctures towards the top of the
formation is indicative of significant bioturbation activity.

The overall fining upward trend observed in grain-size and bedding thickness probably
reflects the progressive erosion of the volcanic arc source area. However, deepening of die basin due
to general subsidence (associated with submergence of the sourcing arc), may also have contributed
to the fining upward trend. The smaller, second-order fining upward cycles are interpreted to be the
result of lateral migration of mid- and lower fan depocenters in a deep-sea environment.
Several flute casts observed at Los Frailes (San Lorenzo Block, UTM coordinates' 523169;
9835803. WGS84) indicate a flow direction from NE to SW, not considering die post-depositional
rotations that the block obviously experienced (see chapter 3). This observation is consistent with
similar, yet few eastward flow paleo-transport indicators reported in both the Pinon and San Lorenzo
blocks (Benitez, 1995).
Traces of bitumen arc commonly found in small cracks and pores, which probably derived
from the migration of hydrocarbons from the underlying Calentura Fm

The coarse, basal strata of the Cayo Fm. remain undated because of the paucity of preserved
fossils However, towards the top of the formation, radiolaria, planktic foraminifera and dinocysts
associations all indicate a Late Santonian-Maastrichtian age for the upper strata of the Cayo Fm.
(Thalmann, 1946; Bristow, 1976a; Gamber et al., 1990; Romero, 1990). Microfossil assemblages
found along the Rio Bachillero yield a Late Campanian age of 71.5-70.0 Ma at site 04LL81P
(Ahathomphalus intermedins; Globotrnncamta stuarti; Radoiruncana subspinosa. det Michèle
Caron; see Fig, 3.8 and Appendix A2.2) and a Middle to Late Campanian age of 73-70 Ma at site
04LL83P (Globotruncana acgyptiaca; Rugotrunccma subcircunmodifer, Radotnmcana subspinosa.

det. Michèle Caron, see Fig. 3.8 and Appendix A2.3).
31
2.7 Guayaquil Fm.
2.7.1 History
Thalman (1946) and Sheppard (1946) first described the Guayaquil Fm. m the San Pedro
suburb of Guayaquil. However, the section in San Pedro is no longer exposed. Later. Benitez (1995)
proposed a new type locality at the intersection between the ring-road and die road to Salinas, in the
NW of Guayaquil (UTM coordinates. 617039; 9759128, WGS84).
2.7.2 Occurrence
The Guayaquil Fm. can only be studied in outcrop in the Pinôn Block (Appendix 1), and the
best sections arc located NW of Guayaquil (Benitez. 1995; see coordinates above). No outcrops of
the Guayaquil Fm. are known in the San Lorenzo, Pedemales or Esmeraldas blocks The Guayaquil
Fm. has was intersected in the borehole Ricaurte 1. during hydrocarbon exploration dnlhng of the
Manabi Basin, (Benitez, 1995).
Pig. 2.21. Guayaquil Fm. on the ring road section, San Luis quarry, Guayaquil, Pihôn Block, where
paleomagnetic sites 03LL54P and 03LL55P were sampled. UTM Coordinates: 617018; 9759224, WGS84.
Fig. 2.22. Siliceous limestones m the Guayaquil Fm., San Luis quarry; Guayaquil, Pihôn Block. The bed
indicated by the arrow is approximately 5cm thick. UTM coordinates 617039, 9759128, WGS84
32
2.7.3 Lithology
The Guayaquil Fm. is composed of approximately 300m of regularly, cm- to dm-scale
bedded siliceous limestones with chert nodules, turbiditic sandstones and tuffaceous siltstones
interlayered with shales and ash beds (figs. 2.2b, 2.21 and 2.22). The lower part (~ 90m) of the
formation is composed of cm- to dm-thick, black siliceous limestones, chert nodules and brown
siltstones. In the middle part (~200m), decimeter- to meter-thick tuffaceous sandstones alternate
with siliceous limestones. The sandstones become progressively more calcareous and rich in organic
matter towards the top of the member. The uppermost member (~20m) is composed of siliceous
limestones, which occasionally display soft-sediment defonnation (interpreted to be the result of
slumping) that is intercalated between turbiditic sandstones. Sedimentary dykes filled with sandstone
can occasionally be observed in the lower and middle members.
Mejia (1997) proposed that the turbiditic sandstones were deposited by paleo-currents
flowing towards the SSW, based on a study of grain imbrication. Unfortunately, the author did not
clarify his criteria to distinguish between upstream or downstream grain imbrication, and hence their
conclusions cannot be verified from thcirpublishcd data. However, Benitez (personal communication)
indicates that the imbrication was probably derived by an upstream affect, which, utilising predictive
models (Rusnak, 1957) and observations (Spotts , 1964) suggests that paleocurrent directions were
towards the S-SW, confirming the conclusions of Mejia (1997).

The contact between the Guayaquil Fm. and the underlying Cayo Fm. is conformable, and
the Guayaquil Fm. is paraconformably overlain by limestones of the Eocene San Eduardo Fm. (figs.
2.1 and 2.2b).

Studies of microfaunal associations (UNOCAL, 1987, cited in Benitez, 1995; Keller et al.,
1997), indicate that the Guayaquil Fm. was deposited in a bathyal environment. Clasts found in the
turbidites comprise both intra-basinal material (sponge spicules and fish teeth) reworked from a
neritic environment, a volcanoclastic component, and a few rounded zircons.
The Guayaquil Fm. was deposited during the Maastrichtian to Late Palcocene, according
to radiolarian associations (Benitez, 1995; Fig. 2.1). The lower and middle members were studied
in detail by Keller et al., (1997), specifically to constrain the location of the Cretaceous -
Tertiary
boundary.
33
2.8 Santa Elena Fm.
2.8.1 History
The first description of the Santa Elena Fm. is found in Sinclair and Berkey ( 1923), who
also named the formation.
2.8.2 Occurrence
The Santa Elena Fm. is restricted to die Santa Elena Peninsula, to south of die Colonche
Fault, which is the region defined as the Santa Elena Block (Appendix 1; Fig. 2.1 ; Torres et al., 1973;
Aguilera et al., 1974a; Aguilera et al., 1974b; Carré et al., 1974; Loachamin ct al., 1975b). Easily
accessible sections are found on the beach at Libcrtad-Salinas (UTM coordinates: 505067; 9757347,
WGS84).
2.8.3 Lithology
The most striking characteristic of the Santa Elena Fm, is its highly folded and faulted
nature. It is principally composed of white, grey, and greenish siliceous shales, limestones and
reddish sandstones (Fig. 2.2a), although brecciated basaltic rocks have also been reported (Sheppard,
1937).
Since no outcrops of crystalline basement has been reported in the Santa Elena Block, the
Santa Elena Fm. is the oldest known stratigraphie unit of this block. The unconformably overlying
Azucar Group is not folded (Fig. 2.2a).

High abundances of radiolarians, agglutinated benthonic foraminifera and sponge spicules,
suggests tiiat the Santa Elena Fm. was deposited in a bathyal environment (Benitez, 1995; Jaillard ct
al., 1995).
2.8.5 Stratigraphie correlation
Microfaunal associations yield a Maastrichtianto Paleocene age (Sinclairand Berkey, 1923;

Thalmann, 1946; Jaillard, 1993) for the Santa Elena Fm. Both the depositional age and the high
abundance of siliceous shales and limestones suggest that it is reasonable to correlate the Santa
Elena Fm. with the Guayaquil Fm. (Fig. 2.1).
34
2.9 The Azucar Group
2.9.1 History
The Azûcar Group (Landes, 1944, cited in Bristow and Hoffstetter ,1977) received its name
from the sandstone strata found at the town of Azûcar (Appendix 1), which were first described by
Olsson (1939). The group incorporates the clastic Chanduy, Estancia and Engabo fms.
2.9.2 Occurrence
Unaltered and easily accessible outcrops comprise the sea cliffs located to the west of Playas
(UTM coordinates: 566574; 9708424, WGS84), in the peninsula of Santa Elena. Other outcrops are
reported in the hills of Chanduy, Azucar and Saya (Torres et al., 1973; Aguilera et al., 1974b; Carré
ct al., 1974; Loachamin ct al., 1975b; Loachamin and Unda, 1979; Benitez, 1995).
2.9.3 Lithology
The Azucar Group is composed of a succession of conglomerates, sandstones and shales
(Fig. 2.2a), with maximum thickness estimates ranging between 650m (Benitez, 1995) and 2750m
(Small, 1962). Benitez (1995) proposes that the earlier, more conservative estimate docs not take
into account thinning by extensional faulting.

The Azûcar Group overlies the Santa Elena Fm. via an angular unconformity (fig. 2.1 and
2.2a), although the nature of the upper boundary witii the overlying Clay Pebble Fm. is not well
known because it is not visible. Small (1962) and Jaillard et al. (1995), propose that an erosional
unconfonmty sealing the top of the Azucar Group, although this is only based on biochronological
considerations.
Benitez (1995) utilised scdimentologic observations to propose that the sandstones and
conglomerates of the Azûcar Group represent deposits from high-density currents on deep sea fans,
which are intercalated with bathyal autochthonous shales.
Various studies of planktonic foraminifera and mollusc associations indicate a Paleocene
depositional age for the Azûcar Group, specifically between the Late Danian and Late Thanetian
(Thalmann, 1946; Small, 1962; Benitez, 1995).
2.10 Late Paleocene -
Early Eocene hiatus
The Paleocene and Early Eocene time interval is characterized in the San Lorenzo,
Pedemales, and Esmeraldas blocks, by a widespread stratigraphie hiatus (Fig. 2.1), which can be
seen in the field by angular unconformities (Romero, 1990; Benitez, 1995). In chapter 5, it will be
shown that in these blocks, the hiatus corresponds to a period of erosion.

Most authors propose that the Late Paleocene to Early Eocene time interval is also not
35
represented by sedimentary rocks in the Santa Elena and Pinôn blocks (Benitez, 1995; Jaillard et
al., 1995). However, this proposition was based on the assumption that a major accretionary event
occurred at this time period, and there is a paucity of unambiguous field observations, which support
the presence of a hiatus. Sedimentary strata of the Passage Beds in the Santa Elena Block (Fig. 2.1 ),
which are only reported in drill holes, are commonly considered to lie unconformably on the Azucar
Group (Benitez, 1995; Jaillard, 1995), although the contact zone has never been observed. In the
Pinôn Block (Fig. 2.1), Middle Eocene sedimentary rocks of the San Eduardo Fm. paraconformably
lie on the Guayaquil Fm. (Benitez, 1995; Jaillard et al., 1995). Although the contact cannot be
observed, the bedding attitudes of both formations are similar (Fig. 2.2b), and both formations
represent deep marine deposits. Consequently, any hiatus represented by the interface between these
formations would most likely be non-erosive. Furthermore, it will be shown later in this chapter that
an Early Eocene depositional age cannot be excluded for the San Eduardo Fm.
The existence or lack of a coeval unconformity in the Santa Elena and Pinôn blocks during
the Paleogene would clearly provide information potentially relating to the tectonic evolution of
the blocks. Therefore, it is clear that additional field based observations, and biostratigraphy data
is required to clarify the relationships between the Paleocene and Eocene sedimentary rocks in the
Santa Elena and Pinôn blocks.
2.11 San Eduardo Fm.
2.11.1 History
The San Eduardo Fm. was first described by Landes (1944). The limestones, making up the
bulk of the fonnation, were earlier interpreted as representing shallow water deposits (Hoffstetter,
1956), until their turbiditic nature was later proven (Feininger and Bristow, 1980). Since the type
section of the San Eduardo Fm. described by Landes (1944) does not exist anymore, the exposure in
the Cerro Blanco quarry (15 km west of Guayaquil, UTM coordinates: 605026; 9759581, WGS84)
is the new type locality (Benitez, 1995).
2.11.2 Occurrence
The San Eduardo Fm. is only found in the Pinôn Block, and no equivalent has been observed
in the San Lorenzo, Pedemales or Esmeraldas blocks.
Several geological maps have generally assigned all Eocene limestones to the San Eduardo
Fm. (Bixby et al., 1970; Granja et al., 1970; Torres et al., 1973; Torres and Marin, 1979; Evans
and Argücllo, 1980; CODIGEM and BGS, 1993), regardless of their sedimentary facies. However,
utilising sedimentological arguments, it will be shown that the limestones, which crop-out in the
San Lorenzo and Esmeraldas blocks should be attributed to a different formation (referred to as the
Ostiones Fm.; section 2.12).
36
2.11.3 Lithology
A majority of the San Eduardo Fm. is composed of limestone, which is utilised as the
primary material for the production of cement in Ecuador, and contains more than 93% CaC03
(Benitez, 1995).
The new type locality for the San Eduardo Fm. is at Cerro Blanco, where a 40m succession
of calcarcnitcs, micritic limestones, mudstones and siliceous claystones is observed. The calcarenitcs
have a white to cream colour, contain black chert nodules, and individual beds show a fining-
upward trend. They often have an erosive base, and represent products of allochtonous turbiditic
sedimentation events. Micritic limestones, mudstones and claystones alternate with the calcarcnite
beds and represent an autochthonous sediment fraction in the basin. Typically, each cycle is 40 to
100cm thick.
The San Eduardo Fm. overlies the Guayaquil Fm. with an apparent conformity, although
there may be a non-erosive hiatus between both formations (see figs. 2.1,2.2b, and section 2,7). The
contact with the overlying and intcrfingering Las Masas Fm. is conformable.

Turbidites of the San Eduardo Fm have packstone to wackestone textures. Biogenic
grains include large benthonic foraminifera such as Discocyclina and Nummuhtes, fragments of
echinodemis, red algae, and some sponge spicules. The pelagic micritic limestones occasionally
contain abundant (-50%) planktonic foraminifera, and rare benthonic foraminifera (Benitez, 1995).
The mudstones and siliceous claystones arc rich in sponge spicules, radiolarians and planktonic
foraminifera. From this association, a palcodeptli of 200 to 800m was inferred by Benitez (1995),
based on an unpublished report (UNOCAL, 1987).
The San Eduardo Fm. is considered by most authors to be Middle Eocene (Stainforth, 1948;
Small, 1962; Canfield, 1966; Frey, 1967, cited in Benitez, 1995). Early Eocene fauna found in the
formation is frcqucntiy interpreted as being reworked, but this is speculative because the published
data do not include any marker fossil that exclude an Early Eocene age. Alternatively, Jaillard ct al.
(1995) report Early Eocene marker fossils in the autochthonous strata, which lead them to propose
that the oldest rocks of the San Eduardo Fm. were deposited during the late Early Eocene (Fig.
2.1).
Similar limestone beds have been described in the western part of the Pinôn Block (Torres
ct al., 1973; Aguilera ct al., 1974a; Torres and Marin, 1979; Benitez, 1995), where they are referred
to as the "Javita Limestones". Jaillard et al., (1995) conclude that the "Javita Limestones" represent
a lateral equivalent of the San Eduardo Fm., and hence this study will refer to those occurrences as
the San Eduardo Fm.
37
2.12 Ostiones Fm.
2.12.1 History
The first description of the Ostiones Fm. is found in an unpublished report compiled by
Coloma Silva (1940), cited in Bristow and Hoffstetter (1977). The Ostiones Fm. was initially
considered to be anorthem equivalent (i.e. north of Jama) of the San Eduardo Fm. (Stainforth, 1948;
sparse attention since the turbiditic nature
Cusliman and Stainforth, 1951), and it has been given of
the San Eduardo Fm. was recognized (Feininger and Bristow, 1980). However, our observations
argue for a rather shallow, different depositional environment than that proposed for the San Eduardo
Fm. (see section 2.11).
2.12.2 Occurrence
Sparse and limited outcrops of limestones are documented in the Esmeraldas and San
Lorenzo blocks (Appendix 1). The type locality (situated in the Esmeraldas Block) is found in the
sea cliffs of Punta Ostiones (UTM coordinates: 689200; 119950, SA1956), which is a small fishing
village located between the towns of Esmeraldas and San Lorenzo de Esmeraldas (outside of the
map in Apendix 1, UTM coordinates: 740691 ; 142501). A section with similar sedimentary facics is
found in the locality of Santa Rosa (UTM coordinates: 542508; 9884768, WGS84), between Manta
and Portoviejo, which forms part of the San Lorenzo Block.
2.12.3 Lithology
The reference section of the Ostiones Fm. is illustrated in Fig. 2.23. The lower part of the
formation is dominated by cm- to dm-tiiick beds of micritic and silicified limestones with intercalated
fine sandstones, whereas limestones and meter-tiiick storm beds alternate in the upper part.
The Ostiones Fm. is interpreted to overlie the mafic volcanic basement (figs. 2.3b and
2.4b) and the contact can be observed both in the Santa Rosa section (San Lorenzo Block, UTM
coordinates: 542508; 9884768, WGS84), and the Rio Verde section (Esmeraldas Block, follow
the river upstream from the town of Rio Verde. UTM coordinates: 671652; 98663, WGS84). The
Zapallo Fm. conformably overlies the Ostiones Fm. in the Esmeraldas Block, (Fig. 2.4b); the upper
stratigraphie contact of the Ostiones Fm. is not exposed in the San Lorenzo block.

The scarcity of outcrops, and the lack of faunal documentation available forthe Ostiones Fm.
formation precludes an accurate description of its depositional environment. However, on the basis
of observations available from the type section in Punta Ostiones, it seems reasonable to assume
that the formation was deposited in a general deeping upward environment. The lower part, which
hosts numerous tabular stmctures is interpreted to have deposited in shallow marine conditions, and
possibly in a lagoon-type environment. The appearance of storm beds in the upper part of the series
is interpreted as being indicative of a general deepening of the series.
38
Chapter 2 Straugraphv
"
i '
i , j
Ostiones Fm. -
Punta Ostiones
-'t1 ' r
L
i 1-rJ r1 *
i 1 1
J r
,1 L 1 1 Ï"
'
r I l -
I
,
Jf 1
-i±±-rr,
A
g*, w^_ ^, ^,. b^ as»., fa»^
j-^-ff "^ I,*_.L-
-^
' T '
rJ i i t ri i
'
,** -*f
'
'
Jy I 1 ILL, -Lis?.
f
- f 7ra., r
,
.
i iv i ,
t ! r w.
Storm bed from member B
Legen d
r—1 Storm bed
1 I Sandstone
f4^jai Limestone
Graded bedding
r^^.i^ ÔO Wavy bedding
X Covered
r t r
,
l ; j_
,
l _L i j
.j_C^-I .
'
—r—-~,--L
^3ê?p=f^Ç'
* rl-i', 1.^5^2, ll_3
r-'r ,t,
-
i
Wavy bedded limestone and sandstone beds from
p~3T member A
-—
Om
i ~J_ ,1 ,i,l, ,T 1.
^ps -^,i^fT il:Ji! ;:^.i.
'
,1 iJtz
^Y-^ré
200m
^
Sedimentological facies interpretation of members A
and B Bathymétrie scale indicated
Pig 2 23 Synthetic log and sedimentologic facies interpretation of the Ostiones Fm at Punta Ostiones
Esmeraldas Block UTM coordinates 689200 119950 SA56
39

Although there is no detailed faunal data reported from the Ostiones Fm., it is attributed to
the Middle and Late Eocene (Fig. 2.1 ) due to the presence of Discocyclma (Bristow and Hoffstcttcr,
1977).
2.13 Las Masas Fm.
2.13.1 History
The Las Masas Fm, was first described by Sutton (1959), cited in Bristow and Hoffstetter
(1977), and it has only received minor attention since then.
2.13.2 Occurrence
The Las Masas Fm. occurs in the Pinon Block (Appendix 1), where it has often been grouped
with the San Eduardo Fm. (Torres et al., 1973; Aguilera et al., 1974a; Torres and Marin, 1979;
CODIGEM and BGS, 1993). A good section can be observed in the Cerro Blanco quarry (UTM
coordinates: 604913; 9759587, WGS84).
2.13.3 Lithology
The Las Masas Fm. consists of approximately 200m of dark grey and green to yellow
laminated shales, marlstones and siltstones, and silty beds often show parallel laminations at the
base.
The Las Masas Fm. can be difficult to differentiate from the top of the Guayaquil Fm. when
the San Eduardo Fm. is missing. However, a hiatus between both formations is commonly accepted
(Benitez, 1995; Jaillard et al., 1995) and the contact between both formations is paraconformable.
The Las Masas Fm. is confomiably overlain by the Ancôn Fm.
The succession of regularly bedded, fine-grained lithologies of the Las Masas Fm. is
indicative of deposition in a quiet, hemipelagic environment. The fauna encountered includes
an abundance of radiolarians, fine sponge spicules and planktonic foraminifera. A fraction of the
bioclasts encountered in the siltstones were reworked in the hemipelagic environment by turbiditic
currents on a basin plain.
Although no fossil list is reported, Benitez (1995) proposes a Middle Eocene age (Lutetian),
implying that the Las Masas and San Eduardo fms. were deposited simultaneously (Fig. 2.1).
Therefore, the San Eduardo Fm., and siltstones of the Las Masas Fm. represent an allochthonous
sedimentary component. The shales and marlstones, which arc typically found within the Las Masas
Fm. are sometimes observed between calciturbiditic beds of the San Eduardo Fm., and arc interpreted
to represent the autochtonous sedimentary component. However, additional biostratigraphic analyses
of the Las Masas Fm. are required to test this hypothesis. The Las Masas and Ancôn fins, (see
40
chapter 4) were probably derived from a common source, and the Las Masas represents a distal
facies, precursor of the Ancôn Fm.
2.14 Ancôn Fm.
2.14.1 History
The first description of this stratigraphie unit was provided by Small (1962), who proposed
to use the name "Ancôn Group" for all siliciclastic Eocene rocks in the Santa Elena and Pinôn blocks.
The type locality was established in the oil field of Ancôn within the Santa Elena Block, where a
succession of different formations arc collectively referred to as the Ancôn Group. However, given
the minor Hthostratigraphic variations that occur within the group in the Pinôn Block, the assignment
of a formation level (Ancôn Fm.) appears more appropriate.
2.14.2 Occurrence
The Ancôn Fm. is mainly exposed in soutiiern regions of the Pinôn Block (Appendix 1),
where it systematically overlies the Las Masas Fm. Exposed sections arc also reported in Rio
Chongön and Rio Matias (Bemtez, 1995), but the easiest accessible section is located in the Cerro
Blanco quarry (UTM coordinates; 604502; 9759472, WGS84).
2.14.3 Lithology
The Ancôn Fm. is composed of a rhythmic succession of cm to dm-thick yellow, brown and
green shales, tuffs, siltstones and sandstones. The formation thickness is difficult to evaluate because
of repetition due to normal faulting (e.g. Benitez, 1995), and an estimate of 1500m proposed by
Small (1962) may be exaggerated. The Ancôn Fm. confonnably overlies the Las Masas Fm., and is
covered by the Zapotal Fm. via an erosive unconformity (figs. 2.1 and 2.2b).

The rhythmic siliciclastic succession indicates that the Ancôn Fm. was deposited in a turbidite
fan system. Benitez (1995) compiled benthonic foraminifera associations listed in unpublished
reports (Euribc, 1988; UNOCAL, 1987, cited in Benitez, 1995), and inferred aneritic depositional
facies for the Ancôn Fm.

The benthonic foraminifera association yielded by the Ancôn Fm. implies a Late Eocene age
(Cusliman and Stainforth, 1951; Euribe, 1988). Similar lithofacies implies that the Ancôn Fm. of the
Pinôn Block and the upper Ancôn Group in the Santa Elena Block (Seca and Punta Ancôn fms.) may
be correlated. Lithostratographic observations and mineral provenance analyses (chapter 4) show

that siltstones of the Las Masas Fm. (discussed in section 2.13) and sandstones of the Ancôn Fm. arc
part of a single coarsening-upward sequence.
41
2.15 San Mateo Fm.
2.15.1 History
The San Mateo Fm. was described by Olsson (1942) to the south of the small fishing village
of San Mateo, located west of Manta. Later, various authors (Bristow and Hoffstetter, 1977; Benitez,
1995) proposed that two different lithologie intervals are present in the San Mateo Fm. (Olsson
1942), and referred to the basal, lighter coloured member, which contains tuffaceous sandstones,
siltstones and shales as the "Cerro Fm.". However, many outcrops that form part of the San Lorenzo
Fm. were also included in the Cerro Fm., and stratigraphie correlations have became confused, with
ages ranging from Maastrichtian to Middle Eocene (Bristow and Hoffstetter, 1977; Benitez, 1995;
Jaillard et al., 1995). Throughout this thesis, the basal tuffaceous strata are referred to as the "Cerro
Member", which is strictly associated with the San Mateo Fm.
2.15.2 Occurrence
The San Mateo Fm. is extensively exposed in the San Lorenzo Block (Appendix 1). The
best section is found south of San Mateo, where the type locality is situated (UTM coordinates;
519217; 9894676, WGS84). Good sections arc also reported in the sectors of Puerto Lopez, Julcuy,
Puerto Cayo-Jipijapa and Manta-Portoviejo (Bixby et al., 1970; Granja et al., 1970; Aguilera et al.,
1974a; Savoyat et al., 1974; Loachamin et al, 1975c ; Loachamin and Unda, 1979).
2.15.3 Lithology
The San Mateo Fm. is 700m thick at the type locality, and hosts repeated 10-40m thick,
thinning-upward sequences. These sequences arc composed of decimeter to meter thick debris flows,
pebbly sandstones and laminated sandstones (Fig. 2.24), which were deposited by high-density
turbidity currents. Dunes and tractive depositional structures (Fig. 2.25), as well as water escape
(dish) stmctures (Fig. 2.26), are commonly observed at the base of the sequences. Thick layers of
shales and marls cap the fining-upward sequences. The top of the formation is composed of coarse
conglomerates, which can be observed at the entrance to the town of Puerto Lopez.
The San Mateo Fm. overlies the San Lorenzo and Cayo fms., and probably the Pinôn Fm.
via an erosional unconformity (figs. 2.1, and 2.3, see also chapter 5). Similarly, the San Mateo Fm.
is overlain by the Zapotal Fm. in the south, and the Tosagua Fm. in the center and the north of the
San Lorenzo Block, via an erosive unconformity (Appendix 1 and Fig. 2.1).

We interpret the high density turbiditic flows arranged in a thinning-upward sequence within
the San Mateo Fm. as representing a fan system that prograded into a hemipelagic environment, in
contrast to shallow water deposits as was previously proposed by Jaillard et al. (1995). A general
thinning-upward tendency observed from the base to conglomerates at the top is considered to
reflect general deepening of the basin. Thick conglomeratic channel fills located south of Puerto
Lopez may represent the final progradation of the depocenter, or alternatively, the base of a new
42
Synthetic section of the San Mateo Fm. between Punta Jome and San Mateo
Yellow to brownish claystones

with injected secondary gypsum
Autochtonous sequence
Legend
\rz^~\ Claystone
\- -\ Siltstone
Fining upward sequence | | Sandstone
composed by laminated meter
scale sandstones intercalated with L o

»| Pebbly sandstone
siltstones toward the top The upper
part of the sequence is

characterised by the presence of
\\" l
| Limestone
boudinated meter thick limestones

Allochtonous sequence |^ yJ Secondary gypsum
EZ3
7~% Bivalve
—i-T—n— Boudinated layers
—=—— Well and regularely bedded
n
Graded bedding
Bioturbation
«3p
—
£^ Radtolarian fauna (from Contreras 1990)
««« Dish structures
/ Cross bedding
Fining upward sequence composed by massive meter scale sandstones and limestones
(base of the sequence only) and intercalation of dm scale siltstones and fine sandstones
with tuff at the top Allochtonous sequence
_z
^H J^Greyjshsiliceous claystones autochtonous sequence
Fining upward sequence composed by dm- to meter scale pebbly
D4- sandstones at the base (see also figs 2 25-26) laminated sandstones
and siltstones with dm scale limestones at the top Allochtonous sequence
___.
Fig 2 24 Synthetic log ofthe San Mateo P m between Punta Jome and San Mateo (type locality), San Lorenzo
Block U'lM coordinates 519217 9894676, WGS84
43
fining upward sequence The tuffaceous intervals represented by the Cerro member probably document
eruptive episodes, which affected nearby blocks during the Middle and Late Eocene (Egüez, 1985).
2.15.5 Stratigraphie correlations

Bivalve, radiolarian. planktonic and benthonic foraminifera associations show that the San Mateo
Fm. was deposited during the late Middle to Late Eocene (Shcppard. 1937; Olsson, 1942; Stainforth,
1948, Bristow and Hoffstetter, 1977; Baldock, 1982; Contreras, 1990; Romero, 1990). The San Mateo
Fm. is a stratigraphie equivalent of the Las Masas and Ancôn fms. in the Pinon Block, of the Punta
Bianca Fm. in the Pedemales Block, and of the Ostiones and Zapallo fins, in the Esmeraldas Block (Fig.
2.1). The use of Cerro Fm. should be avoided in the future and the tuffaceous episode documented at the
base of the San Mateo Fm should be referred to as die Cerro Member.
Fig 2.25. Current ripples and a dune preserved in a coarse sandstone, at the base of the San Mateo Fm ,
Punta
Jome (Pig. 2.24), San Lorenzo Block
Fig. 2.26. Coarse sandstone deposited m a high-density current, located two meters above the dish structures
(Pig. 2.25). The dish structures form by the displacement oj water from the sediment. Base of the San Mateo
Fm. (see Fig. 2 24), Punta Jome, San Lorenzo Block. UTM coordinates: 519217; 9894676, WGS84.
44
2.16 Punta Bianca Fm.
2.16.1 History
The Punta Bianca Fm. was introduced by Sigal (1968), cited in Bristow and Hoffstetter
(1977), who documents a reference section located 11 km NE of Jama (see coordinates below).
Subsequently, the Punta Bianca Fm. has only received minor attention.
2.16.2 Occurrence
The Punta Bianca Fm. outcrops in the Pedemales Block (Appendix 1) and unaltered sections
arc located 11 km NE of Jama (type section, UTM coordinates: 587086; 9986778, WGS84), and in
the cliffs to the south of Pedemales (UTM coordinates: 602981; 5547, WGS84).
2.16.3 Lithology
The Punta Bianca Fm. is composed of white siliceous shales, radiolarian-rich marlstones,
fine tuffs, and dm-thick, calcareous turbiditic sandstones. Sigal (1969) proposed a total thickness of
about 1000m.
The Punta Bianca Fm. overlies die Pinôn and San Lorenzo fms. with an erosive unconformity,
and it is overlain by the Tosagua Fm. via an erosive unconformity (figs. 2,1 and 2.4a).

The association of radiolarians and planktonic foraminifera in shales and marlstones is
indicates that the Punta Bianca formation was deposited in a hemipelagic environment (Bristow and
Hoffstetter, 1977) and the turbiditic sandstones arc interpreted to represent a deep sea fan system.
Baldock reports both deep and shallow marine bivalve associations (Baldock, 1982), thus suggesting
that shallow species were reworked in a deep marine environment.

The Punta Bianca Fm. is an age-equivalent of the San Mateo Fm., which is located in the
San Lorenzo Block (Fig. 2.1). The interpreted depositional ages range from late Middle Eocene to
Late Eocene (Sigal, 1969; Santos et al., 1986; Gamber et al., 1990).
2.17 Zapallo Fm.
2.17.1 History
The Zapallo Fm. was first described in an unpublished report of Smith (1946), cited in
Bristow and Hoffstetter (1977). The first detailed presentation of microfauna and the depositional
environment was provided by Stainforth (1948). Subsequently, the Zapallo Fm. has only received
minor attention.
45
2.17.2 Occurrence
The Zapallo Fm. crops-out in the Esmeraldas Block (Appendix 1), and has its type locality
in the Rio Zapallo (north of Puerto Libre). Unaltered sections can also be observed in the Rio Verde,
and along the road to Puerto Rico, which provides easy access to the basal conglomerate (UTM
cooredinates; 6614697; 971263, WGS84).
2.17.3 Lithology
The Zapallo Fm. is composed of white and greyish shales, siliceous claystones and siltstones
with intercalated thin layers of tuffs, and sandstones and sandy limestones, which overlie a basal
conglomerate. The conglomerate contains pebble-sized clasts of basalt and limestone. Baldock
(1982) estimated that the Zapallo Fm. has a thickness of approximately 1000m in the Rio Zapallo
area. The Zapallo Fm. overlies the Pinôn (unconformably) and Ostiones (conformably) fms., and is
paraconformably overlain by the Playa Rica Fm. (Fig. 2.1).

On die basis of benthonic foraminiferal and radiolarian assemblages, a neritic depositional
facies has been inferred for the Zapallo Fm. (Stainforth, 1948; Cushman and Stainforth, 1951).

Rich benthonic fauna indicate an Late Eocene age for the Zapallo Fm. (Stainforth, 1948;
Cushman and Stainforth, 1951), rendering it a stratigraphie equivalent of the Punta Bianca and San
Mateo fms., which are located in the Pedemales and San Lorenzo blocks respectively.
2.18 The Ancôn Group
2.18.1 History
Early in the 20ül century, the Ancôn Group was the first geological unit to be given extensive
attention in Ecuador, mainly due to the exploration of oilfields in the area of Ancôn (Santa Elena
Block). Previous studies, which subdivided the group into sedimentary formations are found in
unpublished reports (Brown, 1922; Murray, 1923) cited in Bristow and Hofftettcr (1977). With
reference to earlier descriptions of Bristow and Hofftetter (1977) and Benitez (1995), the group
contains the following formations (from the oldest to the youngest): Passage Beds Fm. (Marchant,
1956a), Clay Pebble Bed Fm. (Brown, 1922), Socorro Fm. (Murray, 1923), Scca Fm. (Murray,
1923), and finally, the Punta Ancôn Fm. (Sheppard, 1928).
2.18.2 Occurrence
The Ancôn Group is exclusively exposed in the Santa Elena Block, south of the Colonche
Fault (Appendix 1). Useful location information is provided by Benitez (1995), and local geological
maps (Aguilera et al., 1974a; Aguilera et al., 1974b; Carre ct al., 1974; Loachamin ct al., 1975b).
46
2.18.3 Lithology
The Ancôn group is composed of a succession of siliciclastic formations, which are briefly
described below (see also Fig. 2.2a). For further information, the reader is referred to the detailed
lithostratigraphic compilation of Benitez (1995).

The Passage Beds Fm., which has only been found in drill holes, consists of shales with fine,
intercalated, sandy beds. The thickness is variable, with a reported maximum of 130m.
The Clay Pebble Bed Fm., as its name indicates, consists of intrabasinal mud pebbles floating
in a matrix composed of similar clay, and has a maximum thickness of 600m.
The 450m thick Socorro Fm. is composed of shales, which alternate with meter thick
turbidites, and provide the main reservoir for hydrocarbons in die Santa Elena Block.
The overlying, 500m thick Seca Fm. consists of grey to greenish shales with intercalations
of fine sandstone beds. The Seca Fm. provides an impermeable seal to hydrocarbons held within the
Socorro Fm.
Finally, the Punta Ancôn Fm. is made up of metric to dcci-nietric, thick, grey sandstones,
which alternate with grey and reddish shales and decimetre thick sandstones. Slump stmctures are
common. A thickness of 140m was measured in the type locality.

The Ancôn Group is traditionally interpreted to overlie the Azûcar Group with an angular
unconformity (Stainforth, 1948; Small, 1962; Benitez, 1995; Jaillard et al., 1995), but since this
cannot be observed on any outcrop, their interpretation should be considered with pmdence (see
also the discussion in section 2.10). The Ancôn group is overlain by the Zapotal Fm. via an erosive
unconformity (Fig. 2.1).

Several hypotheses have been proposed to account for the disturbed, and occasionally chaotic
bedding stmctures observed in die Ancôn Group. The Clay Pebble Bed Fm. was initially interpreted as
a fault breccia formed during thrusting (Brown and Baldry, 1925). Later, Sheppard ( 1927) suggested
the breccias formed by sedimentary processes, and developed an hypothesis involving subaerial
mudflows generated in the Andes (Sheppard, 1937). Alternatively, Coleman (1970) suggests that
the Clay pebble Bed Fm. represents an olistostrome complex (Complejo Olistostromico de Santa
Elena). Potentially the most plausible hypothesis was proposed by Marchant and Black (1959), who
suggested tiiat slumping, driven by accentuated slope tilting was responsible for reworking of the
unconsolidated sediment, giving rise to breccia-like features. This latter interpretation is consistent
with the regional extension regime observed in Ecuador at diat time (see chapter 5). The microfaunal
associations, high abundance of shales with intercalated turbitide beds and the increased occurrence
of slumps suggest the fomiation was deposited in a bathyal environment.
47

According to Small (1962), the Passage Beds Fm. contains an Early Eocene fauna (Fig.
2.1), whereas the Clay Pebble Beds Fm. has been attributed to the Middle Eocene on the basis of
a foraminifera association (Bristow and Hoffstetter, 1977). The Socorro and Seca fms. have been
assigned to the Late Eocene (Cushman and Stainforth, 1951; Marchant, 1956a; Marchant, 1956b;
Small, 1962) and the Punta Ancôn Fm. was dated as Late Eocene and Early Oligocène by mollusc
associations (Sheppard, 1937) and radiolarians (Jaillard, 1993).
2.19 The Oligocène hiatus

Most regions of the coastal forearc arc characterised by a wide stratigraphie hiatus during
the Oligocène (Fig. 2.1). Exceptions are the Playa Rica and Pambil fms. of the Esmeraldas Block.
Oligocène faunas have been reported in other blocks (Savoyat et al., 1970, cited in Benitez, 1995),
and it is likely that some reworking occurred. For the Playa Rica and Pambil fms., we refer to the
stratigraphie attribution established by Whittaker ( 1988), because it is the most recent and complete
work, and is internationally published and therefore accessible.
2.20 Playa Rica Fm.
2.20.1 History
The Playa Rica Fm. was introduced by Olsson ( 1942), and subsequently studied by Stainforth
(1948), Tschopp (1948) and Canfield (1966).
2.20.2 Occurrence
The Playa Rica Fm. crops-out in the Esmeraldas Block Puerto Libre (Bristow and Hoffstetter,
1977; Whittaker, 1988). Oligocène sedimentary rocks, which fringe the south of the Manabi Basin
may also form part of the Playa Rica Fm. (Benitez, 1995).
2.20.3 Lithology
The Playa Rica Fm. consists of an 800m thick, monotonous succession of dark to light
grey shales and siltstones, which paraconformably overlie die Eocene Zapallo Fm., and arc
conformably overlain by the Pambil Fm. (figs. 2.1 and 2.4b).
The Playa Rica Fm. hosts a radiolarian assemblage, which lead Stainforth (1948) and
Canfield (1966) to propose it represents a deep marine to bathyal deposition facies.

Olsson (1942), Stainforth (1948), and Canfield (1966) suggested the Playa Rica Fm. was
deposited during the Early Oligocène on the basis of radiolarian assemblages.
48
2.21 Pambil Fm.
2.21.1 History
The Pambil Fm. was first described in an unpublished report by Williams (1947), cited
in Bristow and Hoffstetter (1977)) and the first published description was provided by Mosquera
(1949). A biostratigraphic description was presented by Stainforth (1965), Canfield (1966), and,
more recently, Whittaker (1988).
2.21.2 Occurrence
The Pambil Fm. is only known in the east of the Esmeraldas Block (Appendix 1), and the
type locality is located in the Rio Pambil (Bristow and Hoffstetter, 1977).
2.21.3 Lithology
The Pambil Fm. consists of 750m of monotonous grey to greenish massive shales, marlstone
and siltstones, with rare beds of sandstones and tuffs. It confonnably overlies the Playa Rica Fm. and
is overlain by the Viche Fm. via an erosive unconformity (figs. 2.1 and 2.4b).

Whittaker (1988) documents radiolarian associations at die base of the formation, and
an increasing abundance of benthic foraminifera towards the top, which he suggested indicates a
shallowing-upward trend, from deep marine to bathyal facies.
The Pambil Fm. is attributed to the Late Oligocène (Fig. 2.1), based on microfossil
associations (Stainforth, 1965; Canfield, 1966; Whittaker, 1988), suggesting that it may have been
deposited at the same time as the Zapotal Fm, although it has no real equivalent in the other, more
southerly coastal blocks.
The Neogene basins -

Introduction
The Miocene was marked by a period of tectonic extension, which affected all the coastal
forearc (Benitez, 1995), resulting in the formation of a series of extensional basins that filled
with siliciclastic sediments. These basins are, from south to north, the Progreso, Manabi, and the
Borbon basins (figs, 1.3, 2.1 and 2.5). Several offshore basins formed during the same period in the
region of the Gulf of Guayaquil, which are called the Jambcli, Tumbez, and Valdivia-Manglaralto
basins (Benitez, 1995). These basins have not been studied in depth in die present work, and only a
stratigraphie summary is presented here. More detailed descriptions are provided in Marks (1951),
Whittaker (1988), Benitez (1995) and correlations between these basins and coeval intemiontane
basins in southern Ecuador are found in Hungcrbühlcr et al. (1995).
49
2.22 The Progresp Basin
2.22.1 History
The Progreso Basin has been studied numerous times by several hydrocarbon companies,
although their reports have lead to a confused nomenclature because they derive different litho- and
chronostratigraphic correlations. The most synthetic and complete work on the Progreso Basin was
provided by Benitez (1995), which we frequently refer to in the following brief description.
2.22.2 Occurrence
The Progreso Basin spatially extends between the Pinon and Santa Elena blocks. Early
Miocene sedimentary rocks in the Pinôn Block (see Appendix 1) were included in the Progreso
Basin for the purpose of this study. However, Benitez (1995) proposed tiiat they are an extension of
the Valdivia-Manglaralto Basin.
2.22.3 Lithologies
The Progreso Basin contains a variety of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks (Fig. 2.5a). Basal
conglomerates of the Zapotal Fm. (thickness varying between 200 and 500m) are conformably
overlain by 300 to 2000m of laminated black to brownish shales and siltstones of the Dos Bocas
Fm. The overlying Villingtoa Fm. consists of 100 to 200m of white and grey shales, which are
occasionally interlayered with tuffs and sandstones. Massive sandstones of the El Consuclo Fm.
overlie the Villlingtoa Fm., which has a maximum thickness of approximately 500m. The overlying
Subibaja Fm., which is composed of 100 to 150m of white to greenish siltstones, is overlain by 100m
of lumachellic sandstones of the Progreso Fm. All contacts between the formations are reported be
conformable (Fig. 2.1 and 2.5a).

The conglomerates of the Zapotal Fm. were interpreted to represent a marine transgressive
event linked to the opening of the Progreso Basin (Small, 1962; Bristow, 1975; Benitez et al., 1986).
However, the absence of marine fauna (Benitez, 1995) and die abundance of fresh water gastropods
and palcosoils argues for afluviatile depositional environment (Benitez, 1995). Subsequently, the
Dos Bocas Fm. was deposited in the most subsiding section of the basin and marks the appearance
of fine detrital, marine facies sediments. The Villingtoa Fm. is lithologically similar to the Dos
Bocas Fm., although it contains a rich pelagic microfauna, which was interpreted to represent a
transgression maximum, and/or an increase of upwelling circulation (Benitez, 1995). The overlying
sandstones of the El Consuelo Fm. were probably deposited in a deep sea fan environment, and
represent a bathyal facies. The only fossils reported arc some nautiloids (Bristow, 1975) and shark
teeth (Benitez, 1995). A shallowing environment is indicated by abundant microfauna of the Subibaja
marlstones and siltstones, which are indicative of a shallow marine depositional environment (6-
120m: Marks, 1951). Finally, sedimentological (Benitez, 1995) and faunal (Marks, 1951; Benitez,
1983) evidence the Progreso Fm. was deposited in a tidal to cstuarian environment.
50
2.22.5 Stratigraphie extension

Due to a lack of reliable biostratigraphic data from the basal Zapotal Fm., the lower
stratigraphie age constrained for the Progreso Basin is approximated by the Dos Bocas Fm., from
which an Early Miocene age is reported (Benitez, 1995). Similar ages were proposed for the
overlying Villingtoa Fm. (Whittaker, 1988; Benitez, 1995). No diagnostic fossils are reported in the
El Consuelo Fm., although an Early Miocene age can be inferred from the late Early Miocene age
of the overlying Subibaja Fm. (Whittaker, 1988). Marks (1951) assigned the Progreso Fm. to the
Middle and Late Miocene.
2.23 The Manabi Basin
Sedimentary rocks ranging between the Early Miocene and Pliocene outcrop in the Manabi
Basin. This study utilises the stratigraphie terminology proposed by Whittaker (1988), based on field
observations and dense sampling, which is preferred to that of Benitez (1995), because the latter
is mainly based on data in unpublished reports. In addition, the terminology adopted in Whittaker
(1988) is the most systematic because different fonnation names are used in the different basins,
avoiding confusion introduced by incorrect correlations of sedimentary strata.
2.23.1 History
The first published study of the Manabi Basin was that by Williams (1947), cited in Bristow
and Hoffstetter (1977), which was rapidly followed by various biostratigraphic investigations
(Stainforth, 1948; Tschopp, 1948; Cushman and Stainforth, 1951). Bristow (1975) attempted to
correlate the lithologies in die Manabi Basin with the formation scheme established in the Progreso
Basin. However, Whittaker (1988) revised die biostratigraphic study of the samples previously
collected by Bristow, and established a new stratigraphie tcnninology, which is distinct from die
other Neogene Basins.
2.23.2 Occurrence
The Manabi Basin is the largest of the Neogene Basins in the coastal forearc (Fig. 1.3), with
a length of approximately 250km, extending from the Colonche Fault in the south, to the hills of
Jama in the north (Appendix 1), partly overlapping the Pinôn, San Lorenzo and Pedemales blocks.
2.23.3 Lithologies
The 1000m thick Tosagua Fm. (figs. 2.1 and 2.5b; Bristow, 1976b; Whittaker, 1988) is the
oldest formation in the Manabi Basin, and is mainly composed of chocolate-brown shales with
intercalations of coarse sandstones and conglomerates (the so-called San Augustin facies, or member).
The overlying Portoviejo Fm. consists of an 800m succession of white tuffaceous shales and clays,
which conformably overlie the Tosagua Fm. The Choconcha Fm. overlies either the Tosagua or the
Portoviejo Fm., and consists of coarse sandstones and conglomerates, with a maximum thickness of
approximately 300m. The overlying Guayacan Fm. is composed of 600m of blue-green argillaceous
siltstones, which weather to a yellow colour.
51

Whittaker (1988) identified planktonic and benthonic foraminifera associations, and
suggested that the Tosagua Fm. was deposited in an upper bathyal environment. The same author
also concluded that the San Augustin member represents a transgrcssivc event. The depositional
facies of the overlying Portoviejo Fm. is still enigmatic because only a few fossils have been reported
(Whittaker, 1988). However, the abundance of tuffs suggests that sedimentation was active during a
period of volcanic activity located in the Andean orogen to the east. The overlying Choconcha Fm.
was deposited in an inner-shelf and brackish environment, as suggested by the presence of molluscs
(Marks, 1951) and benthonic foraminifera (Whittaker, 1988) associations. Finally, the Guayacan
Fm. in hosts abundant planktonic foraminifera, and has been interpreted to represent a deep marine
facies (Whittaker, 1988).

The age of the Tosagua Fm. is well constrained, and ranges from Early to Middle Miocene
(Fig. 2.1, Bristow, 1976b; Whittaker, 1988). However, the overlying Portoviejo and Choconcha fins,
have not be biochronologically dated because the observed species arc stratigraphically insignificant.
Late Miocene age-diagnostic planktonic foraminifera have been detected in the Guayacan Fm.
(Whittaker, 1988).
2.24 The Borbon Basin
2.24.1 History
The earliest description of the stratigraphy of the Borbon Basin is presented in Stainforth
(1948), who later attempted to investigate the eastern margin of die basin in detail (Stainforth, 1965).
More recently, detailed studies are reported by Evans and Whittaker (1982), and Whittaker (1988).
2.24.2 Occurrence
The Borbôn Basin is the northernmost of the Neogene basins in the coastal forearc, and
is bounded to the south by a gravity low (Feininger and Seguin, 1983). Unaltered outcrops arc
observed along the shoreline and in rivers, in the north and west of the basin. The eastern extent of
the basin is not well defined.
2.24.3 Lithologies
The 1000m thick Vichc Fm. consists of grey to green and brown mudstones, and
paraconformably overlies the Oligocène Pambil Fm., (Fig. 2.5c), and it is occasionally difficult to
distinguish between botii fonnations. The conformably overlying Angostura Fm., hosts 40 to 300m
of fine- to coarse-grained orange sandstones and conglomerates. The Onzole Fm. can be resolved
into three informal members, and the lower member consists of 300 to 800m of silty mudstone,
overlain by mudstones intcrbedded with sandstones and conglomerates of the middle member (10-
250m thick). The upper member consists of 1200m of monotonous grey-green mudstones.
52

Rich and diverse assemblages of planktonic and benthonic foraminifera indicate a bathyal
depositional depth for the Viche Fm. (Stainforth, 1948; Whittaker, 1988). The overlying Angostura
Fm. has attributes indicative of shallow water conditions, including both planar and cross-bedding
stratification, which can be seen in the Punta Verde cliffs (UTM coordinates: 679199; 120091,
WGS84). A shallow water depositional environment is confirmed by faunal assemblages (Whittaker,

1988). The observed change of facies from the Viche to the Angostura Fm. was most likely driven by
a westward progradation of the coastal system. Whittaker (1988) showed that the lower and middle
members of the Onzole Fm. contain shallow water faunal assemblages (0 to 100m), and that the
upper member records a deepening of the depositional site to a bathyal depth.

The faunal associations found in the Viche Fm. indicate a depositional age ranging between
the Early and Middle Miocene (Fig. 2.1, Stainfordi, 1948; Whittaker, 1988). The overlying Angostura
Fm., only contains a few benthic foraminifera species, but is considered to have been deposited during
the Late Miocene (Whittaker, 1988). Finally, bodi the lower and middle members of the Onzole Fm.
are of Late Miocene age, and the upper member was deposited in the Pliocene (Whittaker, 1988).
2.25 Conclusions
New field observations and chronostratigraphic evidence presented in this chapter have been
integrated with previous work. We propose a new correlative chronostratigraphic scheme for the
crystalline basement units and overlying sedimentary rocks in the Ecuadorian coastal forearc (Fig.
2.1). Any geological model for the evolution of the forearc should take into account the following
observations:
1. A single new Âr/Âr analysis of hornblende indicates that the Pinon Fm., which empted from
an oceanic mantle-plume, cooled through the hornblende closure temperature (~550-500°C) at some
point during 90 and 87 Ma, probably as a result of thermal relaxation following crystallisation. This
result represents the first quantitative data point, which accurately constrains the crystallisation age
of the Pinôn Fm., and hence improves on older K/Ar radiometric ages, which were affected by
partial resetting to various degrees (Goosens and Rose, 1973; Kennerlcy, 1980; Pichler and Aly,
1983;Wallrabc, 1990).
2. New biostratigraphic results acquired from planktonic foraminiferal associations indicate that the
Calentura Fm. was deposited during the Coniacian-Santonian (89-84 Ma). This conclusion contrasts
with previous paléontologie studies of organic shales and limestones of the Calentura Fm., which
proposed a Cenomanian-Turonian depositional age. Consequently, the Calentura Fm. was deposited
during the OAE2 event, and not the OAE3, as previously proposed (Benitez, 1995; Jaillard et al.,
1995). In addition, the age of the underlying Pinôn Fm. is not constrained to the pre-Turonian period,
53
as previously suggested.
3. Geochronologic and magnetostratigraphic data acquired from the Pinôn Block suggests that
island arc activity, represented by the Las Orquideas Fm., extended at least to Campanian times
(<84 Ma).
4. Various planktonic foraminiferal assemblages confirm that both the island-arc related Cayo Fm.
in the Pinôn Block and the San Lorenzo Fm. in the San Lorenzo Block were deposited during the
Campanian-Maastrichtian (-80-70 Ma).
5. The Late Paleocene to Early Eocene hiatus in the Pinôn and Santa Elena blocks remain unproven
in the light of this study. The revision of various structural (see chapter 5) and biochronological
arguments does not favour for a major tectonic event taking place at that time, contrasting with a period
of terrane accretion proposed by Jaillard et al. (1995 and 2004). Therefore further biostratigraphic
work is needed to clarify the Late Paleocene history of the Pinôn and Santa Elena blocks.
6. Two hiati could be identified during the Tertiary. The earlier hiatus spans the Early to the middle
Middle Eocene (-55-40 Ma), and is related to subaerial exposure and erosion in the San Lorenzo,
Pedemales, and Esmeraldas blocks. The younger hiatus occurs in the Oligocène (-35-25 Ma). The
origin of these stratigraphie gaps, and their relationship with the tectonic evolution of the flat forearc
region will be discussed in chapter 5.
54
Chapter 3 Paleomagnetism
3. PALEOMAGNETISM
3.1 Introduction
Numerous authors have published models describing the origin and tectonic evolution
of the Ecuadorian forearc since the mantle-plume affinity of its basement has been recognized
(Reynaud et al., 1999; Lapierre et al., 2000; Kerr ct al., 2002; Jaillard et al., 2004; Kerr and Tamey,
2005), although tiiere are several disagreements because of a lack of accurate, quantitative data.
Consequently, quantitative methods need to be utilised to acquire data that accurately constrain
models of geological evolution. Roperch et al. (1987) applied the paleomagnetic tool to mafic rocks
of the coastal Ecuadorian forearc and they concluded that the coastal blocks crystallised at a shallow
southern, near equatorial latitude, and underwent clockwise rotation at an unknown time. However,
their conclusions have not been fully exploited in more recent geological models of the region
(Reynaud et al., 1999; Lapierre et al., 2000; Kerr and Tamey, 2005).
The present paleomagnetic study aims to i) determine the latitude at which the mafic basement
of the Ecuadorian coastal basement extruded, and ii) to track subsequent latitudinal drift, and iii)
constrain the timing of clockwise rotation that was identified by Roperch ct al. (1987). These aims
have been met via a systematic study of the natural remanent magnetisation (NRM) in the Cretaceous
and Tertiary stratigraphie units. A series of tests and mineralogical expertises have been applied to
ensure the original NRM has been acquired. Furthcnnore, the measured anisotropy of magnetic low
field susceptibility recorded in the sedimentary formations is used to retrieve information about the
directions of palcocurrcnts, which transported the clasts into their depositional site.
The sampled areas include the Pinôn, San Lorenzo, and Pedemales blocks (figs, 1.3 and
2.1). Sampling in the Esmeraldas Block was hindered by a paucity of outcrops, most of which are
chemically altered. Similarly, no outcrops of mafic or volcanic rocks have been reported in the Santa
Elena Block, and the Cretaceous sedimentary rocks are strongly folded, rendenng tilt corrections
complicated. The data presented here were acquired from the mafic, mantle-plume derived basement
(Pinôn Fm.), island arc derived lavas (Las Orquideas and San Lorenzo fins.), and the Calentura,
Cayo, Guayaquil, and San Mateo sedimentär}' fms. (see Appendix 1 and figs. 2.1-4).
The tectonic relationships between the blocks remains unclear at this point, and hence the
data acquired from each block arc presented and discussed separately for the mafic and volcanic
lithologies, as well as for the Cayo Fm.
3.2 Selection of sites
The Ecuadorian coastal forearc is composed of more than 30 stratigraphie formations,

which span the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods (Appendix 1, figs. 2.1-5). The suitability of these
formations for paleomagnetic analyses was evaluated using the following criteria:
3.2.1 Structural criteria
Structural control is of prime importance for any paleomagnetic study applied to plate
tectonics, because the significance of any primary NRM is only revealed when its direction can
be projected in tilt-corrected coordinates. A successful tilt-correction must reproduce the original
54 r\
paleo-horizontal plane using reliable attitude markers at a sampled site.
In the unfolded external forearc, the attitude can be precisely estimated in the sedimentary
formations using the bedding of sedimentary strata. Although the bedding plane may not correspond
exactly to the paleo-horizontal, it is still considered as the most reliable indicator of a horizontal
attitude. Attitude indications can also be derived from pillow lavas, lava flows and jointed columnar
orientations (figs. 2.6-8 and 2.12), although they are not considered to be as reliable as sedimentary
bedding. Intercalated sedimentary layers in volcanic edifices provide the most reliable structural
information for attitude correction (Fig. 2.13). A regional correction acquired from nearby
sedimentary sections is applied when no structural infonnation can be directly deduced at a volcanic
site. The generally low bedding plane inclinations observed in the external forearc (<30°) render it
particularly appropriate for paleomagnetic analyses. However, our first paleomagnetic tests of mafic
basement rocks in the Western Cordillera failed because the rocks are strongly deformed, precluding
the identification of the paleo-horizontal plane.
3.2.2 Lithologie criteria

Individual grain size and cooling rate only have a minor influence on the paleomagnetic
characteristics of mafic, crystalline rocks. However, the potential to preserve primary magnetic signals
in detrital grains in sedimentary rocks is a function of grain size. Coarse-grained sedimentary rocks
(e.g. coarse sandstone) normally do not yield reliable magnetic data. The geometrical orientation of
individual grains deposited in high-energy conditions may be dominated by the kinetic energy of
the environment, as opposed to orientation driven by the Earth's magnetic field. Furthermore, unless
the rocks arc rapidly cemented, their natural high porosity allows their magnetic record to be altered
by recrystallisation, impregnation and precipitation of diagenetic minerals. Therefore, wc avoided
sampling sedimentary lithologies with grain sizes coarser than 1 mm.
Lithologies with medium grain sizes (e.g. siltstones and fine sandstones) may also be at least
partially affected by sedimentary mechanisms, but they are generally considered to yield reliable
primary magnetic information. Furthermore, the determination of clast imbrication orientation via
magnetic anisotropy studies can provide information relating to the depositional hydrodynamic
conditions. Consequently, medium grain sized sedimentary lithologies generally yield useful
paleomagnetic data.
Fine-grained sedimentary rocks arc theoretically ideal candidates for paleomagnetic
analyses. Calm depositional conditions permit the orientation of the grains to be dominated by their
magnetic properties, and hence be strongly influenced by the Earth's magnetic field. Therefore, silt-
sized components of turbidite deposits were sampled whenever encountered, although the marls and
shales were too fragile to allow proper oriented sampling.
3.2.3 Alteration criteria
Most of the sampled igneous and sedimentary rocks were not altered, with most of the
igneous mafic rocks being free of secondary chlorite and epidote.

Sedimentary rocks with a red colouration have been exposed to an oxidising environment
during deposition via diagenetic reactions or by a secondary mechanism such as chemical weathering
55
close to the surface. Typical primary and secondary oxidising reactions can produce either hematite
and/or sulfides, and only a paleomagnetic fold test could indicate which type of magnetisation is
imprinted in a rock. Therefore, given that oxidation caused by surface exposure is an important
process occurring within the tropical climatic conditions of the study region, red coloured sedimentary
rocks were avoided during the sampling campaigns.

Fine grained and dark sedimentary rocks (black to greyish limestones and siltstones rich in
organic matter) were sampled when possible because the presence of organic matter implies that the
rock has been maintained in anoxic conditions, which is favourable for the conservation of magnetic
oxides such as titanomagnetite.
3.2.4 Formations selected
3.2.4.1 PiMn Block
The Pinôn Block (figs. 2.1 and 2.2b) hosts a continuous stratigraphie succession extending
from the extrusion of die mafic basement during the Late Turonian/Early Coniacian to the deposition
of the Middle-Late Eocene Ancôn Fm. (although there may be a paraconformity during the Early
Eocene, see chapter 2). Consequently, The Pinôn Block has been sampled extensively for analysis
by the paleomagnetic method. Every formation spanning between, and including the basement rocks
and Late Eocene sedimentary rocks has been sampled, following the criteria cited above.
3.2.4.2 San Lorenzo Block
The sedimentary cover of the San Lorenzo Block (figs. 2.1 and 2.3) is interrupted by an
angular unconformity between the Late Cretaceous and Middle Eocene, and therefore we have
analysed fewer formations, covering a more restricted age range, than in the Pinon Block. The
volcanic lithologies of the Pinon (Fig. 2.7) and San Lorenzo (figs. 2.12-14) fms., and sedimentary
lithologies of the Cayo (Fig. 2.17) and San Mateo (Fig. 2.24-26) fins, were sampled.
3.2.4.3 Pedemales Block
Very few unaltered outcrops that satisfied the sampling criteria were found in the Pedemales
Block (figs. 2.1 and 2.4a). A few sites, however, were sampled in the volcanic Pinôn and San Lorenzo
fins., (Fig. 2.8) and in the sedimentary Cayo Fm.
3.2.4.4 Esmeraldas Block
No outcrops found in the Esmeraldas Block satisfied the selection criteria outlined above,
mainly because of pervasive oxidising alteration.
3.2.4.5 Pallatanga Block
A paleomagnetic survey of die Cretaceous formations emplaced in the Pallatanga Block was
perfonned to allow a comparison between the flat, coastal forearc, and structural blocks exposed in
the Western Cordillera. However, the structural criteria could not be fulfilled in the Pallatanga Block,
and consequently the survey was abandoned at an early stage.
56
3.3 Sampling and preparation

The standard sampling procedure, which was applied to most sites, consisted of drilling 6
to 15, 25mm wide cores, using a gasoline-powered drilling machine (Fig. 2.20). Core orientation
and bedding attitudes were measured with a Silva magnetic compass, and a sun compass whenever
possible. For all sites, the deviation between sun and magnetic compasses was not significant, i.e.
less than 2°, a value which is in the range of errors typically associated with sun compass readings.
The extracted cores were cut into 22mm long specimens, and, depending on the lcngtii of the initial
core, between 1 and 4 specimens could be extracted from a single core.
When drilling was not possible, 4 to 10 orientated hand-picked samples were taken. This
procedure can be applied to outcrops where the lithologies arc fragile and/or brittle, and is obviously
necessary when the location is too remote to transport the drilling equipment. The oriented hand
samples were then held together in the laboratory using glue, which facilitated aligning the oriented
surface to a horizontal position. A vertical drilling machine was then used to drill 25mm diameter
cores, which were again cut into 22mm long specimens.

The rock material that remained after the cutting procedure was used for measurements of
isothermal remanent magnetisation (IRM) and high field magnetisation.
3.4 Magnetic properties of the lithologies
3.4.1 Introduction
Paleomagnetism is useful for plate tectonics reconstructions when the primary natural
remanent magnetisation (NRM), which is carried by ferrimagnctic minerals, can be precisely

acquired. Stepwise demagnetisation of a specimen in the laboratory is a useful technique for isolating
the stable natural remanent magnetisation, but docs not indicate if this component is primary, or a
later, secondary imprint (Butier, 1992). The study of a lithology's magnetic mineralogy provides
relevant information not only on die origin of the stable remanent magnetisation observed, but also
on the nature of the magnetic anisotropy (which may be used for structural and/or sedimentological
purposes).
Thcprincipalfcrromagncticmincrals,whichrctainstablemagnetisations,aretitanomagnctitcs,
hematites, and magnetic sulfides. A brief discussion of these mineral phases is presented below:
Titanomaqnetites are the most common rock-forming ferrimagnetic minerals. Their presence is
often considered as an argument in favour of a primary origin for an observed stable magnetisation.
However, magnetisations in titanomagnetite can also be reset by heating to temperatures above the
mineral's Curie temperature, in which case a secondary stable magnetisation may be imprinted in the
rock when it cools, and the original primary magnetisation is no longer recorded. Alternatively, the
heating of a rock originally containing sulphides to temperatures above 400°C can chemically form
magnetite. Titanomagnetite is the main phase found in die volcanic and volcanoclastic Cretaceous
and Tertiary formations in the Ecuadorian forearc. The undeformed, very low-grade metamorphic
nature of the external forearc (Raharijohana, 1980; Lebrat, 1985; Reynaud ct al., 1999) argues in
57
favour of a primary origin of the stable magnetisations recorded.
Hematite is common in a majority of the lithologies investigated in this study. Primary (titano-)
hematite crystallises in volcanic rocks which cooled in an oxidising environment. However, various
different mechanisms can give rise to a component of (titano-) hematite in detrital rocks. The stable
magnetisation recorded by hematite that forms during the early stages of diagenesis is generally
considered to be primary because the time difference between sediment deposition and diagenetic
magnetisation is insignificant on geological timescales. Secondary hematite is commonly produced
by fluid circulation in porous and/or fractured rocks, and by weathering of a rock subsequent
to its exposure. In this second scenario the stable magnetisation observed is not related to the
origin of the rock, or may be the result of the interaction between a primary and secondary stable
magnetisations.
Magnetic sulfides, such as pyrrhotite or greigite commonly fomi in a reducing environment by

hydrothermal activity or biogenic activity, and they are highly reactive in oxsidising conditions.
Consequently, if these minerals are found associated with well-preserved organic matter, then it is
reasonable to assume that they record a primary stable magnetisation.
Goethite is also known to record stable magnetisations, and is commonly found in altered rocks.
The magnetic mineralogy and properties ofthe rocks sampled during this study are presented
in this chapter. The minerals which record the stable magnetisation (i.e. ferromagnetic minerals)
are very small (single or pseudosingle domain size) and hence it is difficult to recognize them
with a standard pétrographie microscope. Therefore rock magnetic methods have to be utilised for
identification, which include high field magnetisation, isothermal remanent magnetisation (IRM),
and the measurement of magnetic low field susceptibility during thermal demagnetisation (see
section 3.5). Here, the measurement methods, and the implications of the results concerning the
nature of the stable magnetisations (presented later in the chapter) will be discussed.
3.4.2 Curie temperature analysis

High field magnetisation analysis using a Curie balance is a convenient method to determine
the magnetic mineralogy in the samples based on Curie temperature measurements. In each sampled
site consisting of volcanic rocks, which are rich in ferromagnetic minerals, one sample was crushed
to agrain size of l-2mm. The coarsergrains were selected analysis to minimise the surface-to-volume
ratio, and subsequently minimise the quantity of oxidised material, which forms on the surface of
the grains during analytical heating. The separates were heated and measured using a home-made,
horizontal Curie balance (Exnar, 1997), which is housed in the Laboratory for Natural Magnetism
at the ETH Zürich, and a VFTB balance in the Paleomagnetic Laboratory of the University of
Munich. The Curie temperatures were detennined from tiiennomagnetic curves (figs. 3. la-c). When
the presence of only one ferromagnetic phase is detected (figs. 3.la-c), the Curie point is taken
58
a) Wehrlite -
03LL70C b) Gabbro -
03LL56C c) Pillow basalt -
03LL59A
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 TfC] 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 T [°C] 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 T [°CJ
d) Columnar basalt - 04LL75B e) Massive lava flow -

03LL28E f) Curie temperatures histogram
TC2 -
520"C
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 T [°C] 100 200 300 400 500 600TfC] 400 500
Curie Temperature [nC]
P'ig. 3.1. Curie temperature analyses (appliedfield: 0.2T).A distinct group oflithologies (a, wehrlite, Pihon or
Las Orquideas Fm.; b, gabbro, Pihon Fm; c, pillow basalt, Las Orquideas Fm; all samples are from the Piiïôn
Block) shows thermomagnetic curves with high Curie temperatures. A second group (d, columnar basalt,
Pihon or Las Orquideas Fm., Pihon Block; e, massive lavaflow, Pinôn or San Lorenzo Fm., Pedemales Block)
ofthermomagnetic curves reveal two distinctferromagnetic phases; the first one with low Curie temperatures
(Tcl) is interpreted as (titano-) magnetite with a high Ti content, and the second one with high Curie temperatures
(TJ could be either pure magnetite or maghemile. It is not possible to say if the phase revealed by T was part
of the mineralogy before the start of the analyses, or if it formed during the heating by oxidation, (f) Histogram
of Curie temperature determinations. When two Curie temperatures were observed in a sample (i. e. Fig. 40d-
e), only the lower Curie temperature was considered. Two groups are clearly represented: the low temperature
group is typical for (titano-) magnetite with a high Ti content (300-400°C), and the high temperature group
has a low Ti content (500-600°C), and is interpreted as being almost pure magnetite.
close to the inflection point where the intensity reaches a local or global minimum. Several samples
yielded two thermomagnetic curves, which indicates the presence of two magnetic phases (figs.
3.1d-e). The lowest Curie point was detennined in such cases by extrapolating the curve to the
abscissa, as shown in figs. 3.Id and 3. le, which provides an approximation of T,. The second phase,
with Curie temperatures (T2) ranging between 500 and 600°C is interpreted as to be the conversion
product of (titano-) magnetite or maghemite (with fairly high Ti content) into rather pure maghemite
by oxidation during the heating, or during the initial cooling of the rock. The Curie temperatures
inferred from the high field magnetisation analyses can be divided into two groups (Fig. 3. If).
The first group consists of only one phase, which yields Curie temperatures ranging between
500°C and 600°C. This phase is interpreted to be pure magnetite. Such behaviour was commonly
59
observed in coarse-grained wehrlites (Fig. 3.1a) and gabbros (Fig. 3.1b), and also in some fine¬
grained pillow basalts (3.1c). The presence of pure magnetite (with low Ti content) in gabbros
and wehrlites is normal, and can be explained by crystal-melt fractionation (Zhou et al., 2000).
Pure magnetite in fine-grained volcanics, however, is often related to post-crystallisation oxidation.
However, oxidation of the rim of a basalt pillow is common (Kent and Gee, 1996), and occurs after
a time that is not significant on a geological timcscale. Therefore we can assume that in both cases
the natural remanent magnetisation was imprinted during, or within a short time period of magmatic
crystallisation and cooling.

The second group reveals Curie temperatures that range between 250°C and 400°C (dashed
lines on figs. 3.1d-e). They represent (titano-) magnetites or maghemite with a high Ti content,
which are abundant in fine-grained volcanic rocks that cooled rapidly and did not undergo oxidation.
Such low Curie points were commonly found in columnar basalts (Fig. 3. Id) and massive lava flows
(Fig. 3.le).
Summarising, the Curie curves reveal two distinct ferromagnetic phases. One phase has a
Curie point ranging between 300 and 400°C, and is interpreted as representing (titano-) magnetite
or maghemite (with a high Ti content) fomied during post-crystallisation, thcnnal relaxation of
the rock. The other phase, which is interpreted as being pure magnetite or maghemite, has a Curie
point ranging between 500 and 600°C, and probably fomied by oxidation soon after, or during the
cooling.
3.4.3 Isothermal Remanent Magnetisation (IRM) and hysteresis properties

Magnetic hysteresis cycles and acquisition curves of isotiiermal remanent magnetisation
(IRM) were measured using the J-meter coercivity spectrometer at die Institute of Geophysics,
ETHZ (Jasonov ct al., 1998). IRM acquisition curves have been measured at 0.05 mT (0.5 Oe)
steps up to 500 mT (5000 Oe), and subsequently in the reversed back-field up to the same field
magnitude. During the same measuring process, the induced magnetisation was measured in order to
obtain all hysteresis parameters: the coercive force Bc, the coercivity of remanence Bcr, the saturation
magnetisation M and the saturation

,
remanence Mrs (data summarised in Appendix 3a).
Twelve samples from the Cayo Fm. were selected. The weakest (03LL21B, 03LL21C,
03LL24A, 04LL73A, 04LL73F, 04LL89A and 04LL89D) and the strongest low-field susceptibilities
(03LL50B, 03LL51D, 04LL72D, 04LL81C and 04LL88E) were chosen in both, the Pinôn and San
Lorenzo blocks.
IRM acquisition curves and their derivatives arc shown in figs. 3.2a-b and figs. 3.2c-d
for samples from the Pinôn, and San Lorenzo blocks respectively. All samples rapidly saturated
at fields below 1500 Oe (figs. 3.2a and c), which is interpreted to reflect a single ferrimagnetic
mineralogical component, which is (titano-) magnetite. As expected, the samples with the strongest
low-field susceptibility (see Fig. 3,2e) show the highest saturation magnetisations. The rock magnetic
signature corroborates the volcanoclastic nature of the Cayo Fm., and suggests the natural remanent
magnetisation has a detrital origin.

The ferrimagnetic susceptibilities are much greater than the paramagnetic susceptibilities
in every sample by a factor of 20 or more (Fig. 3.2e), except for samples 04LL73A (10 times) and
60
- Fm. - - Fm. -
a) IRM acquisition Cayo Pinon Block c) IRM acquisition Cayo San Lorenzo Block e) Susceptibility values
0 081 1 1 1 1
04LLSSE Sample Name &.m [c.g.s.3 Xfatri' Zpara

03LL21B 1.13E-04 27.83
03LL21C 9 47E-05 22.76
03LL24A 1.00E-04 57.8
04LL50B 7 39E-04 201.36
=\04LL81C
04LL51D 1 49E-03 4869.28
03LLS1D 04LL72D 2 75E-04 25
04LL73A 7 09E-05 10.22
04LL73F 4 13E-05 6.17
Q4LL81C 2 33E-04 52.95
04LL88E 3 70E-04 37.79
04LL89A 1 37E-04 44.63
04LL89A
03LL24A 04LL89D 8 12E-05 40.2
04LL73A
03LL21C
04LL73F
04LL89O
1000 2000 MOO 4000 5000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
FteW [Oe] Field [Oe]
AIRM Fm. - Pinon Block - Fm. -

San Lorenzo Block
f) Day plot
b) acquisition -Cayo d) AIRM acquisition Cayo
14E-4, 1 1 1
SD
{ |
PSD
81C 21B
•
V4AJ
8SA. .6.°873F
66E/ 7iA
89D 7dD
MD
1000 1500 0123456T8
Field [Oe]
Fig. 3.2. (On previous page) Rock magnetic parameters of the Cayo Fm. (a) IRM as a function of the applied
fieldfor samples of the Pinôn Block show rapid saturation ((titano-) magnetite), (b) IRklacquisition gradient
plotted against the applied magnetic fieldfor samples within the Pihon Block reveals peaks below 500 Oe (low
coercivity (titano-) magnetite), (c) IRM as a function of the appliedfieldfor samples of the Pihôn Block shows
rapid saturation ((titano-) magnetite), (d) IRM acquisition gradient plotted against the applied magnetic field
for samples within the San Lorenzo Block reveals peaks below 500 Oe (low coercivity (titano-) magnetite)
(e.) Ferrimagnetic low field susceptibility %hm, i.e. the. difference between low field susceptibility and the
paramagnetic susceptibility as determined by the linear gradient of the induced magnetisation curve at
fields between 3000 and 5000 Oe, corresponds well to the saturation IRM of the samples. %. predominates
the paramagnetic susceptibility % strongly (ratio %fr/% >> 1). (J) Most samples plot mainly in the
m
pseudosingle domain (PSD) field on the Day et al. (1977) diagram, and only a few plot in the multidomain
(MD) field.
Û4LL73F (6 times). Thus, the magnetic anisotropics from the Cayo Fm., which will be presented
later in this chapter, are only controlled by the ferrimagnetic minerals.
The hysteresis parameters were projected on a Day plot (Day et al., 1977), which provides
relevant infomiation concerning the ferrimagnetic grain size populations in a sample (Fig. 3.2f). A
majority of the samples yield one group that plots in the pseudo-single domain (PSD) area. Sample
03LL5 ID yields multi-domain (MD) behaviour, as does sample 03LL21C to a lesser extent, Primary
natural remanent magnetisations are likely to be imprinted in most of our samples from the Cayo Fm.,
because it is harder to remagnetise PSD than MD regions. For example, a comparison of samples
03LL50B (siltstone, PSD) and 03LL51D (sandstone, MD), which were sampled a few meters apart
from each other in the same section, reveals different NRM directions (Fig, 3.3), confirming this
hypothesis. The NRM appears to be primary at site 03LL50P (siltstone, figs. 3.3a-b) because it
yields mixed polarities during demagnetisation. A stable NRM can be observed at site 03LL51P
(sandstones, figs. 3.3c-d), but the direction in tilt coordinates is different from that at site 03LL50P.
Furthermore, the NRM directions at site 03LL51P plot very close to flic direction of the present
Earth magnetic field, before tilt correction. Therefore, it is likely that in this example the MD grains
no longer carry a primary NRM, and that only the PSD grains of sample 03LL50B, which are more
resistant to remagnetisation, still carry a primary NRM. We can conclude that the PSD (titano-)
magnetite, observed in most samples of the Cayo Fm., yields a primary NRM.
3.5 Natural remanent magnetisation (NRM)
3.5.1 Demagnetisation procedure

Two paleomagnetic techniques, which are based on progressive demagnetisation of a sample,
are commonly utilised to establish the stable long-lasting and hopefully primary NRM within that
sample.
Alternating field demagnetisation is best applied to samples, which yield a low coercivity
magnetic mineralogy, and typically contain a single magnetic phase of variable grainsize. This
technique was used to demagnetise all volcanic sites, for which high-field magnetisation showed
a single titanomagnetite ferrimagnetic phase, These sites are found in the Pinôn, Las Orquideas,
62
Pig. 3.3. Representation of the natural remanent magnetisations (NRM) recorded in two sites 03LL50P (a-b,
volcanic siltstone, Cayo Fm., Pifiôn Block) and 03LL51P (c-d, volcanic sandstone, Cayo Fin, Pinôn Block)
of the Pihôn Block, using equal area projections. Circles represent stable. NRM components from individual
specimens, and stars represent site mean directions (Fisher, 1953). Black symbols are utilised for lower
hemisphere representation, and white symbols for upper hemisphere representation. Interpreted projections
(b and d) are. plotted after structural attitude corrections. The southerly NRM directions in Pig. 3.3a were
interpreted to have recorded a reversed period of the Earth 's magnetic field, and were therefore inversed for
interpretation on Fig. 3.3h. Although both sites were sampled in the same section, a few meters apart, the tilt
corrected NRM directions are statistically different and not compatible. The NRM recorded in site 03LL50P
is considered to be ofprimary origin because anti-parallel NRM directions are recorded by PSD grains (Fig.
3.2f). The NRM recorded in site 03LL51P is considered to have a late, secondary origin because the NRPI
directions are close to today s Earth magnetic field, and the NRhl is residing in MD grains (Fig. 3.2f).
and San Lorenzo fins. The specimens responded well to a 9 demagnetisation step procedure, which
utilised 5 mT incremental steps between 0 to 20mT, and subsequently lOmT incremental steps up
to 60mT.
Demagnetisation by stepwise heating is frequently used for samples which have a high
coercivity and a wide range of unblocking temperatures. In this study, all sedimentary rocks were
demagnetised using a 14 step heating procedure, which utilised 50°C incremental steps between 0
and 500°C, and subsequently 25°C incremental steps between 500 and 575°C. For each step, up
to 32 specimens were placed in a magnetically shielded oven, heated 45 minutes, and then cooled
to room temperature (which took approximately 45 minutes). The low-field susceptibility of each
specimen was measured between each step (utilised to detect changes in the magnetic mineralogy
during heating, see next paragraph), in addition to die natural remanent magnetisation. The stepwise
heating method is advantageous because it can detect a primary magnetisation, which has been
overprinted by secondary magnetisations. However, die procedure is time consuming compared to
the alternating demagnetisation method.

All NRM measurements were acquired in the Laboratory for Natural Magnetism, ETH
Zürich, using a 3-axes DC-SQUID rock magnetometer (2G Enterprises model 755R) equipped
with in-line, 2-axes degaussing coils. The magnetometer, heating oven (TD48, ASC Scientific) and
susceptibility meter (KLY-2, Agico Inc.) are all housed in a passive-type, shielded room.
63
Fig. 3.4. Site susceptibility as a function of temperature for related rock specimen demagnetisations, (a) Site
03LL22P (volcanic siltstone, Cayo Fm., Pihon Block) yields stable susceptibilities up to 500°C followed by a
decrease (magnetite destruction), (b) Thermal demagnetisation of specimen 03LL22BA yields a stable NRM
(interpreted as primary) above 200°C. (c) Site 04LL88P (volcanic sandstone, Cayo Fm., Pihon Block) yields
increasing susceptibilities until 500°C, with the appearance of a new phase (possibly (titano-) magnetite) with
rising demagnetisation temperature. This phase, however, is converted to a less magnetic phase at temperatures
above 500°C. (d) Thermal demagnetisation of specimen 04LL88BB shows constantly changing directions.
No stable NRM can be isolated, (e) Site 02LL13P (organic siltstone, Las Masas Fm., Pihon Block) yields
stable and very low susceptibilities at temperatures below 400°C, when a strongly magnetic phase appears
(maghemite). (f) Thermal demagnetisation ofspecimen 02LL13EB yields constantly changing directions, and
no stable NRM can be isolated. Sites with the characteristics of subfigures (b), (d), and (j) were discovered
from further paleomagnetic analysis.
3.5.2 Thermal alteration tests
The low-field susceptibilities did not change during thcnnal treatment for most sites (Fig.
3.4a). Typically, a stable NRM was carried by (titano-) magnetite, and a small decrease in susceptibility
could be observed at approximately 500°C (figs. 3.4a-b). We were also able to detect when new
magnetic phases formed during the heating procedure. The occasional and progressive increase in
susceptibility between 25° and 500°C, followed by a drop during the latter steps, probably reflects the
formation and final destruction of (titano-) maghemite during heating (Fig. 3.4c). The newly fomied
mineral overprints the primary signal inconsistently, generating changing, unstable NRM directions
on orthogonal vector plots (Fig. 3.4d). The additional susceptibility diagrams showed a spectacular
64
increase between 350°C and 400°C (organic siltstone, Fig. 3.4e), which was probably caused by the
destruction of sulphides. This usually occurred within sites that yielded very weak susceptibility
values prior to heating, and tiiis type of magnetic lithology always yields unstable magnetisation
direction projections (Fig. 3.4f). It was discarded from further paleomagnetic analysis, like the type
presented in figs. 3.4c-d.
3.5.3 Field tests of NRM
In addition to laboratory tests, the primary and secondary nature ofthe NRM can be evaluated
using paleomagnetic field tests (Butler, 1992), which are briefly mentioned below.
The fold test is analysing if the stable magnetisation was imprinted prior to or after folding.
Unfortunately, such a test could not be performed in this study because the deformation of exposed
Ecuadorian forearc is mainly brittle, and no folds have been observed.
The conglomerate testdiagnoses magnetisation withaprimary origin when the magnetisations
carried by individual pebbles yield random directions. However, we were unable to locate a site that
hosts a suitable conglomerate.

Reversed magnetisation, associated with complementary anti-parallel normal magnetisation,
indicates that the original magnetisation has remained undisturbed with time. Associated reversed
and normal magnetisation directions within sites that were corrected for different tilt orientations
could be observed in the Las Orquideas (Fig. 3.5a), San Lorenzo (Fig. 3.5b) and Cayo fms. (Fig.
3.5c). Therefore, the stable NRM at those sites was interpreted to have a primary origin.
Fig 3.5. Equal area projection, after tilt correction, of rock specimens that yield anti-parallel stable
magnetisations, (a) Site 02LL2P, Microgabbro, Las Orquideas Fm., Pihon Block, (b) Site 04LL75P, columnar
basalt of the San Lorenzo Fm., San Lorenzo Block, (c) Site 03LL22P, volcanic siltstone, Cayo Fm., Pihon
Block.
65
3.5.4 NRM Measurements
3.5.4.1 Pinôn Block
3.5.4.1.1 Volcanic basement
Measurements of the Pinôn and Las Orquideas fms. are presented together because it is
difficult to distinguish them in the field. A total of 11 sites were sampled from the mafic, volcanic
basement, which includes 2 sites in the Pinôn Fm. (03LL56P and 03LL57P), 2 sites in the Las
Orquideas Fm (02LL02P and 03LL59P), and 7 sites which could not be confidently attributed to
one or the other formation (see Appendix 3b.1). Almost all of the specimens yield one major stable
component, which trends towards the projection origin (Fig. 3.6a). The initial NRM intensities range
between 0.04 and 5 A/m (Fig. 3.6a), with the exception of sites 02LL02P and 03LL59P, which yield
values as low as 10"4 A/m (Fig. 3.6b). In some cases, a second component can be observed between
0 and 20 mT (Fig. 3.6b). The stable NRM directions acquired from any particular site are tightly
grouped, as revealed by the ap5 statistical parameter (Fisher, 1953) of the site mean directions, which
are smaller than 10° at every site (Appendix 3b. 1 and Table 3.1). When the stable components are
projected in a tilt-corrected coordinate system, most sites yield very shallow inclinations and NE
declinations (Table 3.1). At one site (03LL59P), the declinations plot towards the SW, opposite to
the north-easterly general trend. Furthermore, site 02LL02P yields reveals NE and SW anti-parallel
declinations, which are connected with shallow inclinations (Fig. 3.5a).
3.5.4.1.2 Calentura Fm.
Due to the scarcity of outcrops, and their high degree of alteration, only two sites could be
properly sampled in the Calentura Fm (Appendix 3b.2 and Table 3.1).

Site 03LL49P responded well to thermal demagnetisation and one stable component,
which directed towards the projection origin was consistently observed (Fig. 3,6d). Tilt corrected
stable magnetisations reveal shallow inclinations and N-E oriented declinations (Table 3.1). The
susceptibilities remained stable through all the heating steps, with a slight decline after the 300°C
step.
Site 03LL52P yielded stable components, altiiough they did not trend towards the projection
origin (Appendix 3b.2). Both in situ and tilt corrected projections reveal a stable magnetisation
with shallow inclinations and declinations, oriented toward northerly directions. These stable
components are scattered to some extent (a9S =

17.3). Magnetic susceptibility values increase after
300°C, indicating that a new ferrimagnetic phase formed during heating.
3.5.4.1.3 Cayo Fm.
Twelve sites of the Cayo Fm. in the Pinon Block were collected and thermally demagnetised
(Appendix 3b.3). The data acquired at heating steps > 350°C revealed a stable component that trends
towards the origin of the orthogonal vector plot, at every site. Tilt corrected stable inclinations
yield shallow equatorial values (Table 3.1), and declinations point either to N and NE, or S and
66
Fig. 3.6. NRM demagnetisation curves in tilt corrected coordinates Open symbols are used for vertical,
and full symbols for horizontal components, (a) AF demagnetisation of specimen 03LL57FA (gabbro, Pihon
Fm., Pihon Block), showing only one NRM component, (b) AF demagnetisation of specimen 03LL59AB
(microgabbro, Las Orquideas Fm., Pinôn Block) with a stable NRM above 20m'T (bold line, interpreted as
primary), and a secondary NRM component between 0 and 20mT (dashed line), (c) AP' demagnetisation of
specimen 04LL75DB (Columnar basalt, San Lorenzo Fm., San Lorenzo Block), with a stable NRM (interpreted
as primary) above 15mT. (d) Thermal demagnetisation of specimen 03LL49CA (sandstone, Calentura Fm,,
Pihon Block), which yields a stable NRM at temperatures above 250°C (interpreted as primary), (e) Thermal
demagnetisation of specimen 03LL50AA (volcanic sandstone, Cayo Fm., Pihon Block), which yields a
secondary NRM component at temperatures between 50°C and 200°C (dashed line). The primary NRKJ is
shown at temperatures >300°C. (f) Thermal demagnetisation of specimen 03LL54EA (sandstone, Guayaquil
Fm., Pihon Block), which tentatively yields a stable NRM at temperatures between 25° and 250°C. (g)
Thermal demagnetisation of specimen 03LL41DA (sandstone, San Mateo Fm., San Lorenzo Block). A stable
NRM (interpreted as primary) is revealed at temperatures 200°C. (e) Thermal demagnetisation of specimen
02LL12BA (calcarenite, San Eduardo Fm., Pihon Block), which does not yield a stable NRM. (f) Thermal
demagnetisation ofspecimen 02LL13EB (organic siltstone, Las Masas Fm., Pihon Block). A stable NRM can
not be recognized.
67
Block Fm. Site Attitude D« I» D. I, n k «« Polarity Longitude Latitude
Piflôn Piflôn 03LL23P 210/20' 38 2 -33 37 3 -18 2 14 182 8 28 normal 620723 9771346
Piflôn Piflôn 03LL56P 190/20* 69 9 -17 66 3 -63 3 165 2 96 normal 610094 9787726
Piflôn Piflôn 03LL57P 190/20* 74 3 -15 71 -5 7 13 316 4 23 normal 610094 9787726
Piflôn Piflôn Û3LL60P 190/20 58 -0 2 58 2 51 8 30 9 10 1 normal 593900 9783200
Piflôn Piflôn 04LL79P 200/20* 33 8 -24 1 32 6 -46 5 69 8 92 normal 569070 9794611
Piflôn Piflôn 04LL80P 200/20* 32 2 -14 7 31 B 49 10 50.5 69 normal 568641 9794576
Piflôn Las Orquideas 02LL02P 210/15* 41 -12 S 41 22 10 65 6 6 mixed 616503 9774003
51 -23 5 47 4 -7 9 8 63 3 7 reversed 609698 9784622

Piflôn Las Orquideas 03LL59P 190/20*
Pinôn Calentura 03LL49P 216/20 29 5 -21 9 30 -2 6 155 54 normal 595636 9775610
Piflôn Cayo 03LL21P 210/15 104 -6 3 103 78 12 52 4 6 normal 616974 9764235
15 3 57 7 23 12 8 normal 617096 9762022

Pinôn Cayo 03LL22P 210/15 152 -8 8
Piflôn 131 -23 2 132 -2 3 11 168 11 normal 630097 9759647

Cayo 03LL24P 200/20
Piflôn Cayo 03LL25P 200/20 91 -18 2 9 03 7 20 5 137 normal 630097 9759647
196/15 217 -27 4 21 2 -12 5 6 98 68 mixed 621174 9761746

Piflôn Cayo 03LL50P
Piflôn Cayo 04LL76P 192/34 47 6 -37 1 40 -7 9 4 41 14 5 normal 591450 9776566
Piflôn Cayo 04LL81P 178/25 14 4 -39 3 11 1 -15 1 7 147 1 7 reversed 580902 8775478
Piflôn Cayo 04LL82P 270/04 21 4 -14 3 20 8 -10 7 89 2 64 reversed 582222 9776789
Piflôn Cayo 04LL83P 134/05 46.6 -8 a 45 9 -9 13 36 8 69 normal 582338 9777845

Piflôn Guayaquil 03LL54P 200/17 353 7 -5 7 353 4 96 4 29 5 172 mixed 617018 9759224
San Lorenzo Piflôn 03LL42P 240/17* 43 6 -104 43 7 59 6 154 4 54 normal 549477 9883134
San Lorenzo Piflôn 03LL43P 180/30* 63 -20 57 2 -47 9 181 5 38 norma! 537175 9852492
San Lorenzo Piftôn 03LL44P 180/30* 64 -19 2 58 4 4 5 7 469 1 28 normal 537830 9852419
San Lorenzo Piflôn 03LL45P 180/30* 61 6 -23 4 54 5 -7 2 6 76 3 77 normal 538101 9852461
San Lorenzo Piflôn 03LL46P 180/30* 64 2 -24 7 66 -9 5 7 151 7 49 normal 538101 9852461
San Lorenzo Piftôn 04LL86P 245/32 43 6 -19 5 47 6 1 6 11 59 8 6 normal 526697 9846178
San Lorenzo San LorBnzo 02LL06P 297/33 80 -25 85 3 1 5 7 76 7 75 normal 546730 9876750
San Lorenzo San Lorenzo 04LL74P 270/20 74 1 -20 7 75 2 -1 4 11 549 62 reversed 549515 9886601
San Lorenzo San Lorenzo 04LL75P 240/17* 76 1 -20 1 75 2 -3 7 12 47 64 mixed 534764 98840S6
133 -29 2 24 4 -9 7 11 191 33 reversed 522902 9835430

San Lorenzo Cayo 04LL72P 257/36
San Lorenzo -28 7 30 2 -10 8 8 52 9 7.1 normal 522433 9834418

Cayo 04LL73P 262/32 20 3
San Lorenzo Cayo 04LL87P 277/32 11 2 -21 9 21 9 -15 6 6 32 8 11 9 reversed 528953 9848853
316/11 98 -103 12 -16 7 8 44 8 84 normal 532007 9830187

San Lorenzo Cayo 04LL89P
San Lorenzo -28 2 178 -12 8 8 137 8 47 reversed 522902 9835430

Cayo 04LL90P 257/36 5 1
San Lorenzo San Mateo 03LL41P 242/17 73 0 6 1 97 7 14 7 163 mixed 546815 9883626
Pedemales Piflôn 02LL08P 245/42* 70 3 •45 5 68 7 24 10 63 5 61 normal 615398 4866
Pedemales Piftôn 03LL29P 310/21* 133 3 -39 132 7 -18 10 184 7 36 normal 614365 4927
Pedemales Cavo 03LL27P 320/21 135 9 -22 8 136 3 -1 9 5 20 8 172 reversed 614777 6053
Table 3.1. NRM site mean directions given by m situ declination (DJ and inclination (IJ, tilt corrected
declination inclination and related Fisher parameters and k (Fisher 1953), including the number
(DJ, (IJ afS
ofspecimens (n) per site, and the measuredpolarity. Declinations and inclinations are always given as normal
polarity data. Only those sites where the NRM is considered to be primary, and aw is < 20°, have been
tabulated The structural information utilised for tilt correction (altitude) at each site is indicated using the dip
azimuth/dip convention. Sites where tilt correction could only be determined from neighbouring outcrops are
marked with an asterisk. Geographical longitudes and latitudes are listed in UTM coordinates (WGS84).
SW directions. Anti-parallel stable magnetisations were observed (figs. 3.3a and 3.5c) at two sites
(03LL22P, 03LL50P).
Numerous specimens yielded a secondary component, which was removed during heating
between 200 and 300°C (figs. 3.4b and 3.6e). Thermal susceptibility diagrams show overall flat
trends, with a systematic drop in susceptibility above 450°C (Fig. 3.4a).
Samples collected within 10 km of the city of Guayaquil (Ring road, 03LL21-22P; Duran,
03LL24-25P; Guayaquil city, 03LL50-51P) yield magnetisation intensities, which range between
0.01 to 1 A/m. These values are significantly higher than those yielded by specimens collected
from the west of Guayaquil, in the central part of the Pinôn Block (Las Mercedes, 04LL76P; Rio
Bachillero, 04LL81-85P), where the initial NRMs range between 10'7 and 10"3 A/m. However, we
were not able to propose a reasonable explanation to account for tiiis difference.
3.5.4.1.4 Guayaquil Fm.

Four sites were collected in the Guayaquil Fm. (Appendix 3b.4), which yielded a very weak
and partly stable to unstable NRM during stepwise heating. The partly stable NRM observed in sites
68
Chapter 3
Paleomagnetism
03LL55P docs not aim towards die projection origin, and

03LL54P (Fig. 3.6f and Table 3.1) and
hence it is difficult to attach any significance to the directions. Anti-parallel stable magnetisations at
site 03LL54P suggest that the weakly recorded NRM may be primary. The NRM intensities range
fromlO-'tolO'A/m.
The susceptibility values at site 03LL11P did not change during heating at temperatures
lower than 400°C, although it rapidly increased at higher temperatures because of the formation of
a new ferrimagnetic phase. The susceptibility values at site 03LL54P, the decreased at temperatures
above 400°C, confirming the presence of a ferromagnetic phase, which was detected during thermal
demagnetisation.
3.5.4.1.5 San Eduardo Fm.
One site was sampled in the San Eduardo Fm (Appendix 3b.5), which did not yield a stable,
natural remanent magnetisation during heating (Fig. 3.6h). Susceptibilities arc either diamagnetic or
have very low intensities, which range between 10-7 and 106 cgs. The susceptibilities increased at
temperatures above 400°C, reflecting die fonnation of a ferrimagnetic mineral.
3.5.4.1.6 Las Masas Fm.
Similar to samples from the San Eduardo Fm., samples in the Las Masas Fm. (Appendix
3b.6) did not yield stable NRM components during stepwise heating (Fig. 3.6i). Tie specimens yield
low susceptibilities (about 10s cgs) below 350°C, which increase sharply at higher temperatures,
(Fig. 3.4e) indicating that sulphide minerals, which are typically found in organic rich sedimentary
rocks, arc being destroyed.
3.5.4.2 San Lorenzo Block
3.5.4.2.1 Volcanic basement
Atotal of 20 sites were drilled in the volcanic basement of the San Lorenzo Block. Three sites
were drilled in the Pinôn Fm. (03LL44P, 03LL45P and 03LL46P), five sites in the San Lorenzo Fm.
(02LL06P, 03LL20P, 03LL37P, 04LL74P and 04LL75P), and twelve sites have not been assigned
to a specific stratigraphie formation (Appendix 3c. 1). Sixteen sites yield a single, stable NRM
component, which trends towards the origin of orthogonal vector diagrams during demagnetisation.
Tilt corrected, mean site directions are tightly grouped (a95<10°; Table 3.1). However, four sites
In
yielded data which is significantly dispersed (03LL37P, 03LL38P, 03LL40P, 03LL48P). some
cases, a secondary component could be observed during the first three to four demagnetisation steps
(03LL33P, 03LL37P, 03LL38P, 03LL43P, 03LL46P, 04LL75P, sec Fig. 3.6c). The tilt corrected,
stable NRM directions of sites with known attitude yield very shallow negative inclinations The
declinations consistently point between northeast and east, although one site points to the west
(04LL74P), and one site exhibits anti-parallel east and west directed declinations.
The initial NRM intensities are very strong, and typically range between 0.1 and 100 A/m.
Only a few sites yield lower NRM intensities (02LL04P, 02LL05P, 02LL06P).
69
Paleomagnetism
Chapter 3
3.5.4.2.2 Cayo Fm.
San Lorenzo Block (Appendix 3c.2). A

Seven sites were drilled in the Cayo Fm, of the
stable NRM component could be observed at six sites during stepwise heating. With the exception
of site 03LL39P, these components are consistent within site (ags < 10°, sec Table 3.1). Tilt corrected
inclinations vary between slightly positive and slightly negative values at every site. Two sites yield
declinations, which point between north and northeast, and three sites have declinations pointing to
the opposite, between south and soutiiwest directions. No stable magnetisation could be identified at
site 04LL88P (3.4c-d). NRM intensities vary between 0.0005 and 2 A/m.
The susceptibility values only show a slight increase between 200°C and 450°C (except for
> 450°C, in
site 04LL88P, where the values increase strongly), and rapidly reduce at temperatures
all of the samples.
3.5.4.2.3 San Mateo Fm.
Two sites were sampled in the Eocene San Mateo Fm (Appendix 3c.3), and one site,
Tilt corrected
03LL41P, yielded stable natural magnetisations during stepwise heating (Fig. 3.6g).
inclinations yield equatorial to low positive values (Table 3.1). The declinations clearly point towards
the north, although two specimens yield south to south-westerly directions (which are interpreted to
Site 03LL47P consists of 3 specimens, which yielded stable

be associated, antiparallel directions). a
NRM during step-heating, although it does not trend towards die origin of the orthogonal vector
plot. The initial NRM intensities vary between 0.01 and 0.02 A/m at both sites.
behaviour suggests that mineral phase started to fonn at

The thermal susceptibility a new
temperatures between 250°C and 350°C, which is marked by a strong susceptibility increase in most
specimens.
3.5.4.3 Pedemales Block
Due to poor exposure and badly preserved outcrops, only 5 sites could be sampled in the
Pedemales Block. Unfortunately, we were unable to differentiate between the mafic, mantle plume-
derived basement, and the overlying island arc-volcanic rocks. Therefore, the results yielded by the
volcanic lithologies will be presented together.
3.5.4.3.1 Mafic and volcanic basement
Four sites were drilled in the mafic, volcanic basement ofthe Pedemales Block. All specimens
responded well to alternating field demagnetisation (Appendix 3d.l), and the samples only yield
one consistent natural remanent magnetic direction, with aw values for the site mean direction of
the
<10° (Table 3.1). After tilt correction, shallow inclinations prevail, and declinations point to
northeast and the southeast, respectively (sites 02LL08P and 03LL29P). NRM intensities range
between 0.01 and 6 A/m at sites 02LL07P, 03LL28P and 03LL29P, and between 0.0002 and 0.009
at site 02LL08P.
3.5.4.3.2 Cayo Fm.
Only one site could be sampled in the Cayo Fm. of the Pedemales Block (Appendix 3d.2),
70
and the rock samples yielded a stable NRM at temperatures above 150°C, which aim towards the
origin. After tilt correction, the site shows low to equatorial inclinations, and the declinations point
towards the NW (Table 3.1). The NRM intensities range between 0.001 and 0.004 A/m.
The susceptibilities remain stable during heating, with a slight decrease at temperatures
above 350°C.
3.6 Paleomagnetic results
3.6.1 Mafic volcanic basement
Mafic, volcanic basement rocks of the Pinôn and San Lorenzo blocks yield similar stable
NRM directions, with declinations of the plateau and arc rocks averaging 30°-70° of clockwise
rotation (Fig. 3.7 and Tables 3.1-2). The mineralogical investigations usually revealed a single
normally (titano-) magnetite, and the associated mixed
ferromagnetic phase ferromagnetic, which is
directions only occur within a few sites (02LL02P and 04LL75P, see figs. 3.5a-b). Therefore, the
considered to be primary. Most
stable NRM directions yielded by demagnetization experiments are
sites sampled in the basement have normal polarity, and probably recorded the Earth's magnetic
field the normal magnetic chron C34n (Candc and Kent, 1995), which corroborates the
during
(See section 2.2.4). The normal polarity inclinations
basement crystallization ages of ~89 Ma
are
between 10° and -10° (Fig. 3.7 and Tabic 3.1). The notable dispersion of
consistently shallow,
declination values may be due to secular variation of the Earth's magnetic field, and may
partly
also reflect an inaccurate determination of the structural attitude because the applied tilt corrections
were estimated using magmatic structures (pillow lavas, flows, columnar joints), or via measuring
the dip of proximal sedimentary strata. For those sites where orientation structures or sedimentary
bedding could not be measured in the section or outcrop, we only took the site NRM directions into
consideration if the site was located in areas that i) were affected by no or minor faulting, and ii)
were within 5 km of the closest site where tectonic attitude corrections could be recognized from
field relationships. Alternatively, the observed dispersion may be the result of vertical axis rotations
Such transcurrent faulting has been reported to take

related to post-accretionary, strike-slip faulting.
place within several accreted oceanic blocks located to the west of the Romeral Fault in Colombia
(Burke, 1988; Estrada, 1995; MacDonald et al., 1996), see Fig. 1.3.
Author Block Fm D. I, K Q(5fl D. 1. k. «91. n
This work Piftôn Pinon 50 -18.1 19.9 12 7 48.2 -3.9 22 7 11.9 8
This work Piftôn 20.2 -19 27.5 10 19.6 -4.2 32.5 9.2 9
Cayo
This work San Lorenzo Piflon 63 2 -20.8 39.5 8.3 61.3 -2.4 31.5 9.3 9
This work San Lorenzo Cavo 11.8 -23 6 72.8 9 21.3 -13.2 122.4 6.9 5
This work Coast Pinon 57 -19 7 24.5 7.4 S5.2 -3 1 23.9 7.5 17
This work Coast Cavo 17.3 -20.7 33.8 69 20.2 -7.5 40 7 6.3 14
Rooerchetal.. 1987 Coast Pifïôn 66 3 -18 15.1 8.5 69.7 -10.1 12.6 9.3 21
directions coastal Ecuador, listed by block and formation, compared with

Table 3.2. Paleomagnetic from
results reported by Roperch et al. (1987). Results given are m situ declination (DJ, inclination (IJ and related
1953), tilt corrected declination inclination ks (Fisher, 1953),
and related and
a95 andk (Fisher, (DJ, (IJ a95
including the number of sites (n) considered for each computation. Only sites from the Pihon and San Lorenzo
blocks, the NRM of which considered primary and have < 15° for the site mean directions, are
was as a
a9%
presented.
71
Formations Tilt corrected inclinations & declinations
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
02LL02P
i—li» I i 03LL266P
-10 o 10 20 30 40 so 60 70
KEY Inclinations Declinations Age range of the formations and associated NRM
HH Contactart-Santonian EIZZ3 Eocene
Normal polarity I—O—< I I
WM Santonian-Maastnchtian iBBl Maastnchtian-Paleocene
Reversed polarity I——I I——I WEM Late Turontanôniaaan B^H Campantan-Maastnchtian
Fig. 3.7. Stable NRM site mean directions of the Pihon, San Lorenzo and Pedemales blocks. Diamonds
indicate sites magnetised during normal polarity periods, squares indicate sites where at least one specimen
was magnetised during a reversed polarity period. Horizontal bars represent afs statistical errors (Fisher,
1953). Open symbols are used for inclinations, bold symbols for declinations. Note different scales for (i) the
Pedemales Block and (ti) the San Lorenzo and Pihôn blocks. Only those sites where the NRM was interpreted
to be primary, and with a
aM statistical error of the site mean of<20° are shown.
72
Three sites in the Pedemales Block yield shallow, tilt corrected inclinations (Fig. 3.7 and
Table 3.1) and the declinations are notably dispersed between 60°h and 140°E, which arc compatible
to those derived from the Pinon and San Lorenzo blocks.
The paleomagnetic data acquired from the volcanic basement are similar to those reported
Roperch ct al. (1987; sec Table 3.2). Both studies reveal sites in the region of Guayaquil in the Las
Orquideas Fm. (in this study sites 02LL02P and 03LL59; figs. 3.5b, 3.7 and Table 3.1), which yield
reversed NRM. Given the new radiometric ages of the basement rocks, and our revised stratigraphie
assignment of the Calentura Fm. (see section 2.3.6), it is very unlikely that these reversed sites were
magnetized during the Early Cretaceous. We propose that the reversed NRM was recorded after the
long normal 34n magnetochron (see Fig. 2.10b), which ends at the Santonian-Campanian boundary.
Therefore, these reversals document arc-related magmatic activity during the Late Cretaceous, at
times younger than 84 Ma, thus revising previous suggestions of the stratigraphie extension of the
Las Orquideas Fm. (Benitez, 1995; Reynaud ct al., 1999; see section 2.5.4).
3.6.2 Calentura and Cayo fms.
The finer-grained rocks of the volcanoclastic turbidite beds (siltstones to fine sandstones)
of the Cayo Fm. preserve an extremely precise detrital record of the paleomagnetic field (Fig. 3.7,
Tables 3.1-2). 'lhe data from the Cayo Fm. were only acquired from the middle and upper members
because the lower members are too coarse to permit proper sampling. The Cayo Fm. is widely
accepted as being derived from the erosion of a volcanic arc (Benitez, 1995; Jaillard et al., 1995),
and IRM analysis indicates a simple ferrimagnetic mineralogy, which is only composed of (titano-)
magnetite (similar to the basement, volcanic ferrimagnetic mineralogy). Therefore, the magnetisation
recorded by the Cayo Fm. is interpreted to be detrital. The presence of anti-parallel magnetisations at
sites 03LL22P (Fig. 3.5c) and 03LL50P (Fig 3.3a-b) suggests the NRM has a primary origin. Only
one site from the Calentura Fm. Yielded interprétable data, which will be discussed together with the
data from the Cayo Fm, in the Pinön Block.
Normal polarity declinations in the Cayo Fm. in both the Pinön and San Lorenzo blocks,
change from north-easterly to northerly directions, as the sections arc traversed upwards. The
changes are particularly sharp in two continuous sections (04LI.83-81P in the Pifiön Block, Fig.
3.7; 04LL73-72P and 04LL90Pin the San Lorenzo Block, Fig. 3.7). Within the Pinön Block, sites
(M-LI.83-8IP were all sampled in the Rfo Bachillero (northwest of Guayaquil, sec fable 3.1), over
a stratigraphie thickness of about 2000m. Site 05LL83P, which lies immediately above the coarse
member of the Cayo Fm., was dated with planktonic foraminifera, and yields a depositional age
of 73 to 70 Ma (Radotruncana subspinosa, Rugolruncana subcircumnodifer, and Globotruncana
aegyptiaca, det. M. Caron, Fig. 3.8). Similarly, site 05LIÜ1F yields a depositional age of 71.5-
70.5 Ma {Akathotnphalus intermedins, Globotruncanita sluarli, Radotruncana subspinosa, det. M.
Caron, Fig. 3.8). The reversed interval recorded at this site is consistent with the depositional age,
and indicates that the NRM was acquired during polarity chron C32n. lr or C31.r (Fig. 3.8). Site
04LL83P was deposited either during chron C32n.2n or C32n.In. Late Campanian depositional
ages recorded by a previous study (Romero, 1990) in a section of the Cayo Fm. in the San Lorenzo
Block, sampled between Salango and Puerto Cayo (sites 04LL72P, 04LL73P and 04LL90P; Fig.
73
3.7), are coeval with our depositional ages in the Pinön Block. Conclusively, we identified 20-50°
of clockwise rotation taking place between 73 and 70 Ma in the Pifiön Block, and a similar change
is observed during the same period in the San Lorenzo Block. The observation of constant, low
declination values in the uppermost part of the Cayo Fm. in both blocks suggest that only minor
rotations (e.g. 10°) occurred after the Cretaceous.
The Cayo Fm. was sampled at one site in the Pedemales Block (03LL27P), which yields
declination and inclination values that arc similar to the nearby basement site (03LL29P). The
reversed nature of the NRM and its directional similarities with the associated basement site indicate
that the Cayo Fm. was deposited prior to any clockwise rotation of the block.
The shallow inclinations obtained from the Cayo Fm. in the Pinön Block lie in the same
range as those found in the basement volcanic rocks (Tables 3.1-2). The Cayo Fm. in the San I .orciizo
Block average slightly higher inclinations than in the Pinön Block, but they arc compatible with the
values in the basement volcanic sites. However, because fewer sedimentary sites were analysed in
the San Lorenzo Block, we consider the latitude computed from the NRM inclination of the Pinön
Block rocks as being the most reliable.
Foraminifera species
04LL83 04LL81
S 2
66
67
68
69
70
1-71
I j-72
jl73
I-74
1-75
Fig. 3.8. Correlation diagram showing depositional ages for sites 04LL83P and 04LL81P (volcanic siltstones,
Cayo Fm., Pihôn Block). The. gray fields indicate the solutions that satisfy planktonicforaminifera associations
[according to Premoli Silva and I erga (2004)J, and the measured magnetostratigraphy [according to Cande
and Kent (1995)]. Stage boundaries are from Gradstein etal. (2004). See Appendix 2 for detailed descriptions
of the fossils.
74
3.6.3 Guayaquil Fm.
Few specimens yield a stable remanent magnetization, but they consistentiy show shallow
inclinations, and declinations that point either to the north or south. Although the stable NRM are
very weak, and do not clearly trend towards the origin of the vector plots during demagnetization,
the presence of specimens showing normal and reversed NRM argues against a recent origin linked
to surface alteration within site 03LL54P (Table 3.1). A primary NRM origin, however, cannot be
considered with confidence.
3.6.4 San Eduardo and Las Masas fms.
The San Eduardo and Las Masas fms. are characterised by a general absence of stable
NRM.
3.6.5 San Mateo Fm.
Two sites sampled in the San Mateo Fm. provided specimens which yield stable NRMs.
However, the stable NRMs are very weak and do not clearly trend towards the origin of the vector
plots during demagnetization. However, they record reversed patterns, thus revealing a primary
NRM, which is unlikely to have a recent origin (Table 3.1).
3.7 Anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS)
3.7.1 Introduction
The mineral ferro-, para-, and diamagnetic mineral grains composing a rock are never
really isotropic concerning their physical properties. Induced magnetization from a grain placed
in a magnetic field varies in function of the orientation of the grain and the related applied field.
Consequently, if shape determines anisotropy, a grain's low-field susceptibility is strongest when the
grain is aligned along its maximum elongation axis. A rock composed of grains, which are arranged
following a preferred orientation, is characterized by anisotropy of its magnetic susceptibility
(AMS). If the preferred orientation results from sedimentary deposition, cooling in a lava flow, or
from tectonic deformation, AMS measurements provide information concerning the geometry of the
processes. AMS can be characterised geometrically by an ellipsoid with three principal axes (Tarling
and Hronda, 1993) K (k,) > K., (k ) >
v
K .
(kj, each axis being defined by
x & J
a direction and an
7
max
v
v inter 2/ mm y
intensity (equal area projections as in Fig. 3.9). Mean directions with associated standard deviation
(large symbols with bounding ellipses on Fig. 3.9a. 1 and 3.9b. 1) were determined for every tensor
in each site using the method of Jelinek (1978). The following information, relating to the shape
of the anisotropy ellipsoid, can be obtained from the AMS equal area projection: (i) the anisotropy
ellipsoid is triaxial if the three principal axes are spatially clearly defined (i.e. the standard deviation
ellipses do not overlap as in Fig. 3.9a. 1), and (ii) it is biaxial if only one axis is well defined, and
the standard deviation ellipses of the two other axes overlap (Fig. 3.9b. 1), then the shape is either
strongly oblate or prolate. To further define the shape of the anisotropy ellipsoid, we systematically
calculated the corrected anisotropy degree P' (Jelinek, 1981), and the shape parameter T (Hrouda,
1982) as follows:
75
Fig. 3.9. Magnetic .susceptibility anisotropy (AMS) for sites 03LL24P (a, volcanic siltstone, Cayo Fm., Pihon
Block) and 04LL73P (b, volcanic sandstone, Cayo Fm., San Lorenzo Block), (a.l) Equal area projection of
AMS at site 03LL24P, all axes are projected on the lower hemisphere. The large symbols and their associated
standard deviation ellipses represent the principal axes mean directions (Jelinek, 1978), All three principal
axes are well defined, and the AMS is characterised by a triaxial ellipsoid. The standard deviations of the k1
(light grey area), k2, and k} ( dark grey area) do not overlap. In this case, the axis k, is the best one defined,
(a. 2) Shape parameter (T) plotted as a function of anisotropy degree (P ') at site 03LL24P, after Jelinek
(1981). The ellipsoid is oblate, and has a higher degree of anisotropy than site 03LL73P. (b.l) Equal area
projection ofAMS at site 03LL 73P, all tensors are projected on the lower hemisphere. The large symbols and
their associated standard deviation ellipses represent the principal axes mean directions (Jelinek, 1978). The
minimum axes (kj are well grouped, and the intermediate (k) and maximum (kj axes are distributed within
a girdle at 90° from the minimum directions. Consequently only the azimuth of the mean direction k3 (dark
grey area) is well defined, (a.2) Tversus P'at site 03LL73P The ellipsoid is oblate, and has a lower degree of
anisotropy as compared to site 03LL24P.
76
P' =
exp V{2[(nrr|m)2 + OVV' + (%^J2V
and
T =
r2di2-Ti3)/(Ti1-Ti3)j-i
where T], =
ln(k,), r\2 =
ln(k2), r\3 =
ln(k3), and T]m =
(i^+i^+i^ß
Plotting T as a function of P' the shape of the anisotropy ellipsoid and the anisotropy degree (Fig.
3.9a,2 and 3.9b.2) (Tarling and I Irouda, 1993).
Typical undeformed sedimentary fabrics are expected to show oblate AMS ellipsoid with
k< axes oriented more or less perpendicular to the bedding. The horizontally oriented k, axes are
often related to current directions (Tarling and Hronda, 1993). Deviations of k, from the vertical by
up to 40° and gently dipping axes have been reported in suspended load deposits (e.g. turbidites,
Rusnak, 1957; Spotts, 1964; Sakai ct al., 2002). l'his type of imbrication or sedimentary tiling gives
further evidence about current directions and possibly the place of sediment source. Nearly all of the
anisotropy ellipsoids evaluated in this study show typical sedimentary fabrics and plot in the oblate
field of magnetic anisotropy (Fig. 3.9a, b, Appendix 3).
3.7.2 AMS Measurements
All the directional data discussed in this chapter refer to AMS tensors projected on an equal
area projection, after in situ and structural attitude corrections. A detailed data table can be found
in Appendix 3e. The results acquired from the Cayo Fm. in the Pinön, San Lorenzo and Pedemales
blocks, are presented and discussed together for convenience.
3.7.2.1 Calentura Fm.
Both sites sampled in the Calentura Fm (Appendix 3b.2) yield an oblate anisotropy fabric,
with low (P'-l.Ol; 03LL49P) to moderate (P'-l.OS; 03LL52P) degree of anisotropy. The anisotropy
ellipsoid at site 03LL49P is triaxial (Fig. 3.10a; Appendix 3b.2). The principal axes k2 and k3 show
very gentle inclinations and are oriented towards the ESE and NNE respectively. The minimum k3
axes are steeply inclined towards the SW. Site 03LL52P yields sub-horizontal k, and k2 axes with
badly defined azimuths (their horizontal standard deviation ellipses overlap). The minimum k3 axis
is statistically not different from the vertical (the standard deviation ellipse overlaps with the vertical
axe).
3.7.2.2 Cayo Fm.

All of the sites sampled in die Cayo Fm. (Appendices 3b.3 and 3c) yield an oblate fabric.
One site is nearly isotropic (04LL76P) and shows highly dispersed AMS axes, and is therefore
not utilised further in this study. Seven sites have AMS degrees higher than average (03LL24P,
03LL27P, 03LL51P and 04LL84P, 04LL87-89P), and the majority of sites show average AMS
degrees comprised between 1.05 and 1.1.
Nearly all AMS ellipsoids are triaxial, with the exceptions of sites 03LL21P, 03LL27P,
04LL73P, and 04LL87P (appendices 3b.3, 3c.2, 3d.2; Fig. 3.10 b-d). k, and k2 yield consistently
77
a) Calentura Fm.
Pinon Block
04LLB2P
b) Cayo Fm.
Pinön Block
c) Cayo Fm. d) Cayo Fm.
San Lorenzo Block Pedemales Block
03LLUP 03LLS5P
e) Guayaquil Fm. f) Las Masas Fm.
Pinön Block
V—) (
Ik
Pinon Block
*:*""""J
78
Fig. 3.10. (On previous page) AMS of the sites selected for sedimentary imbrication analyses. For each site,
a single, well-defined horizontal azimuth of the ellipsoid axes was chosen as an imbrication indicator. The
following criteria were applied: (1) the imbrication direction is provided by the azimuth ofkt or k3 (Rusnak,
1957; Spoils, 1964; Rees and Woodall 1975); (2) the azimuth ofk} can be used as an indicator (dark grey area)
only if its standard deviation ellipse does not contain the vertical referential; (3) kt can only be utilised as an
indicator (light grey area) if its standard deviation ellipse does not overlap the k2 standard deviation ellipse;
with the previous criteria, principal axis with the smaller standard
and (4) in the case that both k; andk} comply
deviation projected to the horizontal was picked (the axis selected and its horizontal standard deviation are
bound with a dashed line). Results summarized in Table 3. Only sites where criteria 2 and/or 3 were validated
are shown, (a) Calentura Pin., Pihon Block (b) Cayo Fm., Pihôn Block, (c) Cayo Fm., San Lorenzo Block, (d)
CayoFm., Pedemales Block (e) Guayaquil Fm., Pihon Block, (f) Las Masas Fm., Pihôn Block.
shallow inclinations at all of the sites. The maximum axes, k ,

are inclined towards north to east at
most sites, when statistically different from k,. However, they are inclined towards south to west
in sites 03LL22P, 04LL81P, 04LL83P, 03LL39P, 04LL89P, towards north to west in site 04LL85P,
and towards south to east in sites 03LL27P and 04LL90P (Fig. 3.10b-d). Minimum k3 axes are
well defined in every site, and they cannot be differentiated statistically from the vertical at sites
03LL21P, 03LL27P, 03LL51P and 04LL83P (Fig. 3.10b-d). In other sites, k3 minimum axes steeply
dip towards north to west (03LL21P, 03LL22P, 03LL39P 04LL82P, 04LL84P, 04LL87P, 04LL88P),
towards south to west (03LL24P, 03LL25P, 03LL50P, 04LL73P, 04LL90P), towards north to east
(04LL81P, 04LL89P), and towards south to east (04LL85P).
3.7.2.3 Guayaquil Fm.

All four sites of the Guayaquil Fm. (Appendices 3b,4, 3e and Fig. 3.10e) yield an oblate
anisotropy fabric, with well-developed anisotropy degrees (P'~l.l at all of the sites).
The long and intermediate k, and k2 axes are gentiy dipping, but their azimuths are not
tightly defined, although in sites 03LL54-55P they are poorly, but statistically distinguishable. The
minimum steeply inclined and in all sites the directions not different from the
k3 axes are mean are
vertical. At site 02LLllPthc dispersion of each AMS tensor is large, and they will not be considered
further.
3.7.2.4 San Eduardo Fm.
The principal AMS axes of the magnetic susceptibility at the single sampled site in the San
Eduardo Fm. (Appendices 3b.5, 3e) yield inconsistent directions, although the anisotropy degree
shows moderate to fairly high values.
3.7.2.5 Las Masas Fm.
The only site sampled in the Las Masas Fm. (Appendices 3b.6, 3e; Fig. 3.1 Of) yields an
oblate fabric, with a high anisotropy degree. The mean maximum axis is well defined, and gently
dips ESE. The mean minimum anisotropy axis , being clearly different from the vertical, is steeply
inclined toward NW.
79
3.7.2.6 San Mateo Fm.
The AMS has an oblate ellipsoid shape, with a low to moderate degree of anisotropy
(Appendices 3c.3 and 3e). The maximum and intermediate axes are gently dipping, but are never
statistically distinguishable from each other. The minimum axes are steeply inclined, and cannot be
distinguished statistically from the vertical. In general, the orientation of the anisotropy tensors is
not sufficiently defined to warrant further interpretation,
3.8 AMS interpretation and results
The generally unfolded nature of the coastal blocks was described in chapter 2, although
other studies have shown that the coastal blocks experienced minor prehnite-pumpellyitc facies
metamorphism (Raharijohana, 1980; Lebrat, 1985; Reynaud 1999). All of the sedimentary sites
were carefully sampled away from any block boundary (i.e. > 10km), and it is likely that the rock
fabric measured via AMS relates to the original depositional trends, rather than to post-diagenesis,
tectonic deformation.
The sedimentary rocks were deposited in high energy systems within turbidity currents
(see chapter 2). Previous studies of the fabrics observed in suspended load deposits conclude
that the mineral grains statistically show an up-current imbrication. The long grain axes (k^ are
preferentially aligned within the flow direction, and statistically dip downwards gently towards
up-current directions (Spotts, 1964; Rees and Woodall, 1975). In addition, small grain axes (k3),
although steeply inclined, are preferentially aligned within the flow direction, and dip statistically
towards the down-current direction (Rees and Woodall, 1975; Sakai ct al., 2002).
The observations can be applied to grains characterized by both oblate and prolate shapes
(Rusnak, 1957). Linking imbrication mechanisms in suspended load deposits to the AMS fabrics
observed in the coastal Ecuadorian forearc clastic rocks, we suggest that the dip azimuth of kj indicate
the up-current direction. Conversely, the dip azimuth of k3 indicates the down-current direction.
3.8.1 Cayo and Calentura fms.

The NRM and anisotropic alignments of the Cayo and Calentura fms. are extremely similar
(Appendix 3e; figs. 3.10a-d, 3.11;Table 3,3).

Following the criteria presented above and in Fig. 3.10, a characteristic dip azimuthal
direction was selected at each site for paleocurrent interpretation. The selected AMS principal axes
and their associated dip azimuths are listed in Table 3.3. The mean direction of imbrication for each
site was cither given by (i) the dip azimuth direction of k ,

or alternatively by (ii) the reversed dip
azimuth direction of k3 (03LL21P, 04LL72-73P, 04LL87P, and 04LL89-90P). Because the blocks of
the Ecuadorian coastal forearc experienced a vertical axis rotation during the deposition of the Cayo
Fm. (see section 3.6.2), a correction related to the amount of rotation (NRMDe) recorded in each site
has to be applied. The resulting imbrication direction is referred to as the "original imbrication".
The original imbrication directions are listed in Table 3.3, and arc presented on a rose diagram
in Fig. 3.11a. Most sites show NE trending original imbrications, suggesting that the palcocurrents
were flowing towards SW. However, opposite S and SE imbrications, which arc also reported from
suspended load deposits (Sakai et al., 2002), may be partly attributed to overlapping kj standard
80
Site NRM^ Tensor AzimuthT Site imbrication Original imbrication
03LL49P 30 k1 116.5 116.5 86.5

03LL21P 10.3 k3 347.5 167.5 157.2
03LL22P 15.3 k1 224.8 224.8 209.5

03LL24P 13.2 k1 72.7 72.7 59.5
03LL25P 9 k1 76.4 76.4 67.4

03LL50P 21.2 k1 58.2 58.2 37
03LL51P -
k1 55.7 55.7 34.5
04LL81P 11.1 k1 235.1 235.1 224

04LL82P 20.8 k1 42.4 42.4 21.6
04LL83P 46.1 k1 235.2 235.2 189.1
04LL84P -
k1 71.2 71.2 25.1
04LL85P -
k1 285.5 285.5 239.4
03LL39P 9 k1 179.7 179.7 170.7
04LL72P -
k3 243.5 63.5 39.1
04LL73P 30.2 k3 213 33 2.8

04LL87P 21.9 k3 319.6 139.6 117,7
04LL88P 21.9 k1 80.2 80.2 58.3
04LL89P 12 k3 1.3 191.3 179.3

04LL90P 17.8 k3 256.7 76.7 58.9
03LL27P 136.3 k1 113.1 113.1 336.8
Table 3.3. Mean directions of clast imbrication in the Cayo Fm., deduced from AMS (see Fig. 3.10). The
table indicates; NRM,,,.., the. stable tilt corrected NRKJ mean declination determined for each site; tensor
the AMS principal axis selected to represent the imbrication indicator; Azimuthr the azimuth of
component,
the AMS principal axis selected; Site imbrication, the azimuth of imbrication within each site (AzimuthT is
inverted by 190° when given by kj; Original imbrication, the original azimuth of imbrication after the site
imbrication was rotated by the angular difference ofNRM and geographic North. The original imbrication
direction at site 03LL39P was calculated using NRM of site 03LL25P because both sites have the same
age.
a) Original grain imbrication azimuths

for the Cayo and Calentura fms.
N
A.
/ 2"^\
(JT)
\&
Flow direction
Pig. 3.11. Rose diagram of the original imbrication azimuths of the Cayo Fm. Most of the azimuths point to
directions between NNE and ENE, thus indicating that the sediment was deposited by paleocurrenis flowing
towards SSW to WSW.
81
deviation ellipses (Fig. 3.10). We conclude that the clastic source of the Cayo and Calentura fms.
were transported in paleocurrents flowing towards SW.
3.8.2 Guayaquil Fm.
In the absence of well-defined azimuth directions for k3 at sites 03LL54P and 03LL55P,
and the large dispersion of the k, directions (standard deviation ellipses almost overlapping those of
significance of k, directions. Therefore, the SSW flow direction
k2 do not give much credit to the
proposed by Mej ia ( 1997) for the turbiditic currents from which the Guayaquil sandstones deposited
cannot be confirmed or dismissed by this study.
3.8.3 Las Masas Fm.
The only site sampled in the Las Masas Fm. provides a very well defined triaxial AMS. The
fine silty grains were most probably deposited on a deep sea fan by paleocurrents flowing toward a
WNW direction.
3.9 Conclusion
The data presented in this chapter have important implications for (i) the geographic origin
and the Late Cretaceous tectonic history of the coastal blocks in Ecuador, and (ii) the location of the
source rcgion(s) of the clastic sediments that were deposited in the Calentura, and Cayo fins. Any
models of the geological evolution of the coastal forearc must take the following into account:
-The mafic crystalline which assembles of the coastal blocks (Pinôn Fm.) extruded at an equatorial
to very low southern latitude. No significant latitudinal shift can be observed during the Late
Cretaceous.
-Magnetostratigraphic data acquired from the Pinôn Block, combined with micropaleontological
evidence, indicates that island arc activity, represented by the Las Orquideas Fm., was active after
84 Ma (end of the long normal polarity chron C34n).
-The stable NRM components of the coastal blocks record a tectonic event that produced 40-50° of
clockwise rotation in the Late Campanian, from which 20-50° occured between 73 and 70 Ma.
-Equatorial, NRM directions of normal and reversed polarity recorded in the Guayaquil and San
Mateo fins, do not show signs of significant rotation during the Tertiary.
-The anisotropy of magnetic low field susceptibility (AMS) observed in the sedimentary formations
reflects the clasts imbrication geometry, related to deposition from a high energy, turbiditic flows.
-Study of the sedimentary imbrication via AMS measurements of the Cretaceous volcanoclastic
rocks indicates transport and deposition via paleocurrents flowing mainly towards SW, prior to
rotations.
82
Provenance
Chapter 4
4. SEDIMENT PROVENANCE ANALYSIS USING HEAVY MINERAL ASSEMBLAGES
4.1 Introduction
The bulk grain composition of clastic deposits is a function of the chemical and physical
weathering of a parent catchment, the transport distance (and integrated kinetic energy during
material, and the depositional conditions within basin. Therefore,
transport) of the detrital a we
assume that the detrital assemblage reflects the mineralogical composition of its source regions,
although the detrital signal presumably reflects changes occurring in the basin catchment. One aim of
framework for accretion of the tectonostratigraphic blocks, and

this study is to determine a temporal
of continental
useful evidence for that can be acquired by identifying and dating the first appearance
sources in the silisciclastic record of the allochthonous blocks. Jaillard et al., (1995; 2004) assumed
that the timing of appearance of quartz grains within sedimentary rocks above the allochthonous
basement indicated the timing of accretion. However, the formation of quartz is clearly not restricted
to continental environments, as it commonly occurs, for example, in fractionated sequences of ocean
island arcs. Therefore, the presence of quartz grains is not a reliable proxy for determining the
of accretion in the coastal Ecuadorian forearc. Systematic analyses of the heavy mineral
timing
in each formation will help to constrain the and paleogeography of the
assemblages contained nature
contemporaneous catchments that were eroding (Mange and Maurer, 1992). A number of samples
from the Neogene Basins were also analysed to provide a more complete dataset.
4.2 Methodology
Samples typically consisted of ~1 dm3 of sandstones and coarse silts. After crushing the
isolate the 2-4mm size fraction, which immersed
samples with a jaw crusher, sieves were used to was
in a solution composed of 10% acetic acid until the calcareous cement dissolved, and the grains
were isolated and clean. Occasionally, the fraction had to be washed and sieved (0.063-0.4mm) to
remove the clay, and those samples were cleaned in an ultrasonic bath in distilled water to improve
minerals
the cleaning process. After the dissolution of the cement and/or the matrix, the heavy
gravimetrically separated from the 0.063-0.4mm size fraction using liquid bromoform (p
=
were
2.9gcnr3). The dense fraction was mounted on glass using piperin (refraction index =
2.67), and a
cover glass. The mount was heated in an air oven for 8 minutes at 200°C, until the piperin became
brown at the edge of the cover glass. The mounts were subsequently analysed using a pétrographie
microscope, and between 200 and 300 grains (when possible) were counted using the mid-point
ribbon method (Van der Pias, 1962).
4.3 Results
4.3.1 Presentation of the heavy mineral groups identified in the coastal forearc, and their
possible significance
ZTR group: zircon, tourmaline, rutile (commonly referred to as the ZTR assemblage) with additional
brookite, anatase and titanite (and occasionally apatite) have their provenance mostly in granitic
83
Provenance
Chapter 4
to dioritic and very low grade (ortho)gneiss terranes. Their presence may be correlated with the
presence of continental crust within the

catchment region. The ZTR assemblage is also commonly
produced by reworking of older sedimentary rocks, leading to the passive enrichment of rounded
zircon grains, due to elimination of less stable grains.
Common metamorphic mineral groups: In ascending order of metamorphic grade, common
mctamorphic minerals include pumpellyitc (low grade), epidote, clinozoisite, zoisite, chloritoid
(medium grade), and amphibole, kyanite, sillimanite and staurolite (high grade). Garnet may be
derived from both medium and high grade metamorphic source rocks, depending on the mineralogy
ofthe protolith. A metamorphic assemblage, which is usually associated with ZTR minerals, indicates
the exhumation of composite continental crust portions, which experienced variable metamorphism.
A metamorphic source is commonly accompanied by the presence of muscovite, biotite and chlorite
grains in the mounts, which are not counted in detail.
Hornblende group: minerals from the amphibole group can be derived from a wide range of magmatic
rocks. The optical distinction of different amphibole phases is often very

and regional metamorphic
difficult, and only a crude scheme may be applied. So-called green and brown hornblendes occur
in intermediate and acidic alkaline intrusive and volcanic rocks, and are the main constituent in
indicative of basaltic rocks.

amphibolite (high grade) metamorphic rocks. Red amphiboles are
pétrographie microscope is also

Pyroxene group: A similar problem of limited recognition using a
encountered when resolving die pyroxene group. Diopsidic augite and hypersthene are interpreted
here to be derived from basic and mafic rock types commonly found in oceanic basement and
frequent! in ultramafic, mafic and intermediate magmatic rocks

volcanic arc complexes. They are
(basalts, andésites, gabbros, dolerites, wherlitcs, peridotites), and less frequent in metamorphic
rocks (e.g. gneisses, granulites). We have not acquired geochemical data from pyroxenes in the
Ecuadorian coastal forearc, although geochemichal analyses of detrital diopsidic augites from the
Western Cordillera (Vallejo, 2007) confirms this general statement.
Basic metamorphic mineral group: In principle, tremolitc is often the product of regional
metamorphism of siliceous dolomites. However, when associated with minerals of the epidote group
diopsidic augite and hypersthene (and assuming lack of
(epidote, clinozoisite, zoisite), and with a
continental metamorphic grains), we assume that these minerals were derived from hydrothermal
altered/metamorphosed, mafic, magmatic rocks (Mevel, 2003).
The use of heavy mineral associations to derive the identities of the source rocks is tentative
because the mineral assemblages are scarcely diagnostic of any particular tectonic environment.
Rather, the heavy mineral assemblages can be used to augment hypotheses tiiat have been developed
using several other techniques (e.g. geochronology and paleomagnetism). Our interpretations are
guided by the assumption that paleotcctonic processes may have juxtaposed source rocks, which have
different origins. Different stability of mineral species during weathering, transport and diagenesis
84
Provenance
Chapter 4
will drive selective elimination of less resistant ones. Consequently, associations dominated by very
unstable mineral species point to the strong dominance of the correlative parent rocks:
is characterized by minerals of the ZTR group and the common

a) Continental association:
continental crust levels and their

metamorphic mineral groups, derived from upper and intermediate
sedimentary cover of various age. The presence of multicycle zircon grains is documented be the
increased presence of many rounded zircon grains. The supplying rocks may have been dominated
by the heterogeneous, multiphase mctamorphic South American continental margin.
b) Oceanic basement and arc association: is characterized by the presence ofminerals ofthe pyroxene
and hornblende groups. The potential source rocks include the mantle-plume derived rocks (Pinôn
and intraoceanic volcanic rocks (San Lorenzo, Las Orquideas and Rio Cala
and Pallatanga fins.), arc
fins.). The presence of trcmolite and epidote group minerals suggest that the mafic source regions
were metamorphosed, or hydrothermally altered.
c) Continental arc association: includes a variety of hornblende and pyroxene minerals. These
minerals cannot be discriminated from the minerals derived from oceanic crust and intraoceanic arc
source rock occurrences (see above), unless adequate geochemical investigations have been carried
out.
d) Volcanic association: hornblende minerals in association with apatites and biotites of specific
characteristics. The association of idiomorphic zircon, apatite and biotite is common in explosive
volcanic deposits (ignimbrites, tuffs and bentonites) and most likely reflects contamporaneous
continental arc volcanic activity.
The results of each block are presented separately below. Within each block, the samples arc
in
introduced and described following their stratigraphie order. The heavy mineral data is presented
appendix 4, and in Figs. 4.1 and 4.2.
4.3.2 Santa Elena Block
The of die Santa Elena Block investigated in the Azucar and

heavy mineral content was
Ancôn groups, thus covering a time span from Paleocene to Late Eocene (figs. 2.1 and 2.2a).
Two samples in the Azucar Group are characterised by a dominance of minerals from the
metamorphic group (Fig. 4.1), along with a significant amount of ZTR minerals. Oceanic-derived
assemblages were not detected in these samples.

Five samples of the Ancôn Group (respectively coming from the Clay Pebble, Soccoro, Seca
and Punta Ancôn fms.) were analysed (Fig. 4.1). Except for the Punta Ancôn Fm. where volcanic-
derived green and brown hornblendes dominate the assemblage, all the samples in the Ancôn Group
contain equal proportions of minerals of the ZTR and metamorphic groups.
85
Provenance
Chapter 4
San Lorenzo Block
f 05LL345
05LL430
PR
04LL309
San Mateo Fm Eocene

04U306
03LL269 -t: t- V -
-
,' J ^
'
-'f.~z -' '

>
'
'
'- ~
-j' J—98
04LL340
\. 03LU86
03LL143
Cayo Fm
05LL430
Campanian Maastrtchtlan
021X13
Ancôn Fm - Eocene
03LL240
Las Masas Fm Eocene LM
03LL254
03LL252
Guayaquil Fm 03LL251
Maastrlchtlan Paleocene 03LL247
1. 02LL17
Cayo Fm -Camp Maasfr 02LL15
Calentura Fm - Sant Con 03LI241
30% 40% 50% 60%
Prograso Basin
I I 1 1 1 1 1 I 1
05LL434 * « « »
»K-a.*.1.».1.».'.1.».'.».1.'.».1.1.».4.*.».».'.*.'.'.*.'.'.»!^»«!«
i i i i i i i
Progreso Fm Miocene i
05LL433 111 II11 **»»+<*xxxkxxxxkmx**k t!»M»MK*!»S!»Mà .

A
.
* * * * ÄÄEÄÄ
i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
El Consueto Fm Mtocëne 05LL437

i i i i i i i i i
Villingtoa Fm - Miocene 05LL436

1
^^^^^
1 1 1
'
1 1 1,1
' '
05LL435 îflfl 1 k »*|xxxxxx*|r

'
',',-'.
'
'
,*, ' *, I. > MüfflBBUI
Zapotal Fm Miocene
-
-
, , , \
-
, \
1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1
I I I I I
30% 40% 50% 60% 90%
Santa Elana Block
Punta Ancon Fm - Eocene 02LL20
Seca Fm Eocene 05LL442
f 05LL441
Soccoro Fm Eocene I
L 05LL439
Clay Pebble Fm - eocene 05LL438
f 05LL431
Azucar Gr - Paleocene <
02IL18
Kay 0% 20% 30% 40% 50%
Ba>V Zircon rr.*.*l Garnet

u h -
.1 Green + Brown Hornblende
.
Clinozoisite
Monazlte ^ N * H Epidote + Zoisite +
rE*H] Red Hornblende
Tourmaline f ( U*7Q Chloritoid

HB D,ops,dlc Augite
I Rutite
| ESS! Staurolite
LE23 Hypersthene
Brooklte + Tltanlte + Anatase I I', '
. 1 Kyanite Sillimanite
| | Others
Apatite I û*11 I Tremolita
86
Provenance
Chapter 4
Fig. 4.1. (On previous page) Heavy mineral assemblages quantified in the Santa Elena, Pihôn, San Lorenzo
blocks, and in the Progreso Basin. To the left of the diagrams, the formation names, the stratigraphie attribution
and the sample numbers are given. The numbers to the right of the bar diagram, relate to the locations of the
samples in Fig. 4.3. See table in Appendix 4 for the complete data set. Following the general occurrence of
the mineral in different geodynamic settings, a continental, metamorphic, and oceanic derivation is suggested
here and in the text.
4.3.3 Pinön Block
We determined the heavy mineral content of the Calentura, Cayo, Guayaquil, Las Masas,
and Ancôn fins., within the Pinôn Block, which collectively span the Coniacian to Late Eocene (figs.
2.1 and 2.2b).
The Late Cretaceous Calentura and Cayo fins, are characterised by volcanic arc assemblages,
because their heavy mineral assemblage is dominated by diopsidic augite, and brown hornblende
(Fig. 4.1).
The heavy minerals assemblage within the Guayaquil Fm. is composed of green, brown and
red hornblende, diopsidic augite, and a significant proportion of bodi volcanic and authigenic apatite
(Fig. 4.1). Samples 02LL17 and 03LL254 contain between 4 and 9% of rounded zircons, and a few
tourmalines, brookites, baryte, fish teeth, biotite and feldspars were observed.
Fm.
A dramatic change in the detrital signal is observed from the Paleocene Guayaquil
to die Eocene Ancôn and Las Masas fms. (samples 03LL240 and 02LL13, Fig. 4.1). During the
Eocene, the detrital mineralogy is dominated by a continental assemblage, represented mainly by an
abundance of ZTR and metamorphic group minerals.
4.3.4 San Lorenzo Block
Both the Cayo and the San Mateo fms. were investigated in the San Lorenzo Block, which
span the Campanian to Maastrichtian, and Eocene stages respectively (figs. 2.1 and 2.3).
The heavy mineral assemblage of the Cayo Fm. in the San Lorenzo Block contains more
is similar to the Cayo Fm. of the Pinôn Block (Fig. 4.1, also
than 90% of diopsidic augite, which sec
section 4.3.3). Odier minerals, which account for less than 5% ofthe total heavy mineral assemblage,
include green and brown hornblende, apatite, and rare zircon.
The detrital signature of the San Mateo Fm. is characterized by diopsidic augite, apatite,
brown and green hornblendes (Fig. 2.1), which commonly encountered in volcanic and arc-derived
assemblages. Samples 04LL340 and 03LL186 contain a significant proportion of lnetamorphic

minerals, widi between 6% and 8% of grains belonging to the epidote group, and a significant
proportion of trcmolite (-15%) in sample 03LL186. Epidote is the only occurring heavy mineral in
sample 05LL345. Sample 04LL306 contains a significant amount of quartz, along with idiomorphic
apatite. The association of tremolite with minerals of the epidote group, diopsidic augite and
hornblende, suggests that the San Mateo Fm. was sourced from an oceanic arc, which in part
experienced metamorphic, hydrothermal overprint.
87
Provenance
Chapter 4
4.3.5 Pedemales Block
We analysed the heavy mineral content in die Cayo and the Punta Bianca fms., of the
Pedemales Block, which span the Campanian to Maastrichtian, and the Eocene respectively (figs.
2.1 and 2.4a).
The heavy mineral assemblage of the Cayo Fm. is mostly composed of diopsidic augite and
hypersthene (Fig. 4.2), which are commonly encountered in oceanic and arc-related assemblages.
Siliciclastic rocks of the Punta Bianca Fm. have similar compositions to the Cayo Fm.,
and their heavy mineral assemblages are dominanated by diopsidic augite, hypersthene, and brown
and green hornblendes (Fig. 4.2). The remaining portion (less than 5%) is composed of apatite and
anatase. Quartz was systematically found in the heavy mineral concentrate.
4.3.6 Esmeraldas Block
The heavy mineral content of the Ostiones, Zapallo, and Pambil fms. was determined, which
span the Middle Eocene and Oligocène periods within the Esmeraldas Block (figs. 2.1, 2.4b and 4.2).
The heavy mineral content of all of the formations is dominated by brown and green hornblendes
account for -45%), with minor proportions of

(except in sample 05LL406, where hornblendes
A few zircons, tourmalines, and apatites observed. Quartz
diopsidic augite and hyperstene. were
grains were observed in all of the heavy mineral concentrates.
4.3.7 Progreso Basin

The heavy mineral assemblage of part of the Progreso Basin has been determined by
El Consuelo and Progreso fms. (figs. 2.1 and 2.5).
analysing the Neogene Zapotal, Villingtoa,
All the samples contain a mixed assemblage of continental and arc-derived assemblages,
which occur in variable proportions (Fig. 4.1). The continental and medium- to high-grade
dominate the oceanic assemblages. However, brown and green
metamorphic assemblages generally
hornblendes are the most abundant heavy minerals in the Punta Ancôn Fm. (05LL437).
4.3.8 Manabi Basin
The Tosagua, Choconcha and Guayacan fms. were all deposited in die Manabi Basin during
the Miocene (figs. 2.1 and 2.5).
Two samples of the Tosagua Fm. contain different heavy mineral assemblages (Fig. 4.2).
05LL426 has oceanic/arc-rclated assemblage, composed of hyperstene and brown
Sample an
hornblendes, whereas sample 05LL427 yields a mixture ofcontinental and mctamorphic assemblages,
minor of brown hornblende and hyperstene (-7%). The samples of the
with only a proportion
Guayacan (05LL422) and Choconcha (05LL421) fms. are dominated by brown and red hornblende,
also present.
diopsidic augite and hyperstene, altiiough zircon, tourmaline, garnet and epidote are
4.3.9 Borbôn Basin
We analysed samples of the Borbôn Basin, which were deposited during the Early Miocene
to Pliocene period (Viche, Angostura, lower and upper Onzole fms., see figs. 2.1 and 2.5). Tlieir
with less than 20% of red
detrital compositions are dominated by green and brown hornblende,
probably derived from oceanic

hornblende, diopsidic augite and hyperstene, which were an source.
88
Provenance
Chapter 4
Esmaralda« Block
i I i i
"
I 1 r i
v :,'/ ^m*
"
v :.'/
r ^ - *
PambfiFm -Eocene ^
^ *"
05LL416 '/ X
\ / - v ',' **
\ / \',' *
\ \ %
1 1 1 1 i i
f Q5LL406 '", Vi4" ^ w""" "i'." ^/"'"', ~,*,^ ,

'' K,*! "/SIX
Zapallo Fm -
Eocene t 1 1 1 1 i i i
'
-,'HS
'
'--.
* ' '
--'. ^ :.*
[_ ft '-"-.
"
05LL413 "
,-"
'-'-u „" ,
^ ,* ",""
-
'
,-^ -.' - .^
1 1 I I I I 1 t t
t tÄPEWllÄWWB
'
*
\
'
IIIKV* .'
'
'»'
' " '
Ostiones Fm * Eocene Q5LL400 - ' ** \ »' S
'
"* ' ^
\ / ^ ' " ' ^ \
S * ' y >i s
^ * i s \
s
i 1 1 1 1 I 1 1
Barbon Basin
1 1 1 1 1 1 T 1 1
Upper Onzole Fm -
Pliocene 05LL418 imiiii»r-,- ;-V-'.-,-.- ;:.-'-.-.- ..v. •-,'.- .w-.1-.-.- ...v-..-,-.- .w-. ^tn
i i t i i i i i i
'- ''.'-) -' ', ~t.'--.' '-'',- -,U 4 *stINBMl

'
Lower Onzole ' Miocene 05LL419 Hill -

»
'
1/ ', ' .- -t' »
'
/ ', %.--..' t '
i ii
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
.
'(**ri^
( i *. \
^ .î.*,i *(
*
05LL411 inrTrt"<j,'. .* './

* * *
', 'î'^-v '( .î^^ vî'v^v ^
^
i i i i i
Angostura Fm Miocene < i i i i
0SU410 IUI,
'
' ''
;, i ' * - ,
'
^ "*
;, i / * , ,
'
^ %
^ i / \ ^ ,
'
^ *
^ i / * , %
'
'
'A^,*\^v'^ f mvä1IB9I1* *
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Viche Fm -
Miocene 05LL409 h1* ".' % h' /*"'
" '
*
*' ,*-"
~
*
"
»
*' .""
m
'"...' t~.'
~
*
s
»
-' j-'
" '
-
.
^' ,** ~," *lt
. k
i i i i i i i
i i
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
PadarnalH Block
Punta Bianca Fm * Eocene i
03LL153
L 05LL423
CayoFm C 03LL127
Campanian -
Maastnchtian \_ 02LL21
Manabi Baaln
1 1— 1 1 —1— 1 1 i i
Guayacan Fm - Miocene 051U22 n*r„"jv -'--- r,s.- *

*
'"/ .. 1 1* * "
'*"/ * 1 l* *
*
' '/ .. 1 l~ .*
* '" / , ^J>"
'
1 1 1 1 1 1
Choconcha Fm -
Miocene 05LL421 II .-,V .-v. .;',- .. * /*'. -V,^ *- /s'. .V," ** i^'. ."."." ,
- /-'. .P^KÄ
1 I l l l l
05LL427
Ê l l 1 l 1
Tosagua Fm - Miocene
05LL426 i .-.--: --•-,.-,-.;, ~ '-'
", >. ~l'-
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 l 1 1 l
Kay
Zircon r|W1 Garnet

s p" 7 '
t1 Green + Brown Hornblende
V~*~A Epidote Clinozoisite

Monazite
f. + Zoisite +
Tourmaline i IVVJ Chloritoid

j,fE2a Red Hornblende
B— Olopsld.CAugite
KJ
S
Rutile
1 ESSi Staurolite
O [ES Hyperstnene
Brooktte + Titanite + Anatase J'.'.l Kyanite Sillimanite
Apatite [ ;"*11 Tremolite
Fig. 4.2. Heavy mineral assemblages quantified in the Esmeraldas, Pedemales blocks, and in the Borbôn and
names, the stratigraphie attribution and the sample

Manabi basins. To the left of the diagrams, the formation
numbers are given. The numbers to the right of the bar diagram, relate to the locations of the samples in Fig.
4.3. See table in Appendix 4 for the complete data set. Following the general occurrence of the mineral in
continental, metamorphic, and oceanic derivation suggested here and in

different geodynamic settings, a is
the text.
89
Provenance
Chapter 4
ZTR and metamorphic group minerals (zircon, tourmaline, chloritoid and garnet) were only found
in small proportions. Hexagonal biotite, quartz, and feldspar were observed in abundance in these
samples.
4.4 Discussion
A synthesis of the results, including the depositional age of die samples, their heavy mineral
assemblages and geographic locations, is shown in Fig. 4.3. The palcoflow directions shown on figure
4.3 were derived from information presented in this study, and compiled from Moreno (1983), Meija
(1997), Benitez (1995) and Jaillard et al. (1995).
The heavy mineral assemblages found in the Cretaceous formations of the coastal forearc are
arc-derived (Fig. 4.3). They are characterized by a total absence of minerals, which are commonly
found in continental and medium- to high-grade crystalline sequences.
The mineral in the Cayo fomiation is typical for that obtained from mafic and
assemblage a
ultramafic oceanic and arc source terrane (Fig. 4.3). Benitez (1995) utilised Ti/(Ca+Na) and Ti/Al ratios
to propose that this volcanoclastic sequence was related to the formation and erosion of an island arc.
Unfortunately, the geochemical data they used is not available. However, synchronous volcanoclastic
and island activity suggests that depocenter-source relationship existed between the
deposition arc a
We have been able to establish consistent

Cayo and San Lorenzo/Las Orquideas fms., respectively. a
transport direction (Fig. 3.11; Fig. 4 3), although it is difficult to determine the paleogeographic
spatial relationships between the active arc, and surrounding depoccnters. In dépendance of the basin
morphology, which can hardly be depicked from the fragmentary outcrops, the sediment distribution
can occur from parallel to orthogonal with respect to the arc axis.
The Guayaquil Fm. contains arc-derived assemblages, but in addition, a significant proportion
(>5%) of rounded zircons were observed in two samples, which may be derived from secondary
may be reworked from the Yunguilla Fm. from Paleozoic rocks

sedimentary cycle. The zircons or
currently exposed in the Eastern Cordillera).

exposed along the paleo-continental margin (which are
of high-grade metamorphic and continent-derived minerals in the Azucar

The high proportion
Group suggests that the Santa Elena Block was close to the Soutii American continental margin during
the Paleocene. Early Cretaceous garnet amphibolitcs and blueschists, which are partly composed of
situated south of
garnet, kyanite, zoisite, clinozoisite and rutile, crop-out in the Amotape Complex,
the Gulf of Guayaquil (Fig. 1.1; Bosch et al., 2002). Sedimentological observations from the Azucâr
rotation
Group indicate northward paleocurrents (Moreno, 1983), and despite possible vertical-axis
Fig. 4.3. (On next page) Digital elevation map ofthe coast (Souris, 2001) showing the location of the analysed
samples for lhe provenance study, and the Ecuadorian drainage basins. Circles represent the samples-
others. Arrows indicate pre-
containing a low proportion (<5%) of continental detritus, and triangles indicate
rotation transport directions: Campanian-Maastrichtian (green; this work); Eocene (orange; Benitez, 1995;
and this work); Maastrichtian-Paleocene (purple; Moreno, 1983; Meija, 1997). Modern drainage basins:
1, Rio Mira Basin; 2, Rio Cayapas Basin; 3, Rio Esmeraldas Basin; 4, Rios Portoviejo and Chone Basin; 5,
Rio Basin; 6, Rio Jubones Basin; 7, Rio Napo Basin; 8, Rio Paslaza Basin; 9, Rio Morona Basin;
Guayas
10, Rio Santiago Basin, Abbreviations: CoF, Colonche Fault; CaF. Canande Fault; CTSZ, Chimbo-Toachi
Shear Zone; CPFZ, Calacali-Pujili Fault Zone; FF, Esmeraldas Fault; OF, Guayaquil Fault; MSZ, Mulaute
Shear Zone; PCF, Puerto Cayo Fault; PeF, Peltetec Fault. The Peltetec Fault is the Ecuadorian along-strike
extension of the Romeral Fault Zone in Colombia.
90
Provenance
Chapter 4
o°
-
2°
Key
B§§tÉll Eastern Cordillera © Pliocene
Drainage basin boundary ©/a Miocene
1-10 Modern drainage basins ®/a Eocene
River ©/a Maastrichtian -

Paleocene
River transporting continental detritus Campanian Maastrichtian

— —
-
Main faults in the of the Coniacian Santonian

region
-
late Cretaceous ocean-continent

« Sample number (see Fig. 4.1 and 4.2)
suture (see Fig. 1.3)
Block boundaries (see Fig. 1,3) / Subduction
W/JJk Oismembered, late Cretaceous

ocean-continent suture zone
91
Provenance
Chapter 4
of the Santa Elena Block, it appears reasonable that the clastic material of the Azucar Group was
derived from the Amotape Complex.
Two distinct Eocene source signatures have been identified. These are: (i) a continental
assemblage widiin the Santa Elena and Pinön blocks, and (ii) an oceanic assemblage within the San
Lorenzo, Pedemales and Esmeraldas blocks (including the minor presence of quartz grains and rare
continent-derived heavy minerals).
The compositions of dense detrital grains in the Santa Elena and Pinön blocks during
the Eocene are generally similar, although the Santa Elena Block contains a higher proportion of
mineral grains derived from continental crystalline and sedimentary sequences. Furthermore, the
sedimentary rocks in both of these blocks yield similar paleocurrent directions. Benitez (1995)
reported paleocurrents flowing towards the WSW in the Eocene Ancôn Group, which are similar to
the results obtained from AMS measurements of strata in the Eocene Las Masas Fm, (see Fig. 3. lOf,
and section 3.8.3), in die Pinön Block. Interestingly, high exhumation rates (>lkm/my) recorded in
the Eastern Cordillera during the Eocene (Spikings et al., 2000, 2001 and 2005) are coeval with the
deposition of these continental assemblages. Consequently, we propose that die Eocene sedimentary
formations in the Santa Elena and Pinôn blocks were both sourced from the Eastern Cordillera,
located to the east of the coastal blocks.
General WSW directed paleocurrents have also been reported from Eocene formations
within the San Lorenzo, Pedemales and Esmeraldas blocks (sec Fig. 4.3 and Benitez, 1995).
However, the heavy mineral assemblages were derived from die erosion of mafic rocks that may
have an oceanic origin, which contrasts with die source regions of the Santa Elena and Pinön blocks.
The coeval presence of quartz (e.g. see also Jaillard et al., 1995; Reynaud et al., 1999), is confirmed
in this study. The origin of the quartz is ambiguous because it is not accompanied by a significant
quantity of zircon or tourmaline, which would support derivation from evolved continental crust.
The most abundant minerals are diopsidic augite, hyperstene, brown and green hornblende, which
reflect reworking of crystalline, mafic igneous rocks. The partly important presence of epidot group
minerals, and tremolite in some of the Eocene samples (03LL186, 04LL340, 04LL306, 04LL345,
sec Fig. 4.1) of die San Lorenzo Block is the product of mctamorphic and hydrothermal alteration
of a volcanic basement. Field evidence indicates that the San Lorenzo Block experienced a period of
sub-aerial exposure during the Eocene (sec chapter 5), resulting partly in the erosion of its volcanic
basement.
The Oligocène is characterised by a large non-depositional or erosive hiatus in the coastal
forearc. Only one sample from the Pambil Fm. of the Esmeraldas Block was analysed (figs. 4.2 and
4.3), whose composition suggests that it was not derived from evolved continental crust, or related
metamorphic rocks.
The provenance pattern observed in the Miocene sedimentary fonnations is similar to tiiose
of die Eocene formations (figs 4.1-4.3). Only the southern Progreso Basin consistently shows a
significant mixed content ofminerals derived from continental, metamorphic, and volcanic sources. In
the Manabi Basin, one sample from the Tosagua Fm. (05LL427) revealed the presence of contincntal-
92
Provenance
Chapter 4
and mctamorphic-typc assemblages. All of the other samples from this basin were likely derived
from a mafic, crystalline rocks, that probably have an oceanic origin. However, denser sampling is
required to achieve a statistically more favourable hypothesis for die source of sedimentary rocks in
the Manabi Basin. The Miocene formations of the Borbon Basin contain oceanic-type assemblages,
similar to those observed in the other Eocene and Oligocène formations within the same block.
Rotation of the Pinön and San Lorenzo blocks during the Late Campanian does not
correspond with a change in the composition of the source regions. However, the earliest continent-
derived assemblages within the oceanic-derived, allochthonous, tectonostratigraphic blocks were
deposited during the Late Campanian-Maastrichtian, in a region that is now elevated within the
Western Cordillera (Jaillard et al., 2006; Vallejo, 2007). The relationship between block rotation
in the flat forearc, and continental deposition in more proximal regions of the Pallatanga Block, is
discussed in chapter five.
Summarising, this study shows that the southern coastal forearc has received a continuous
supply of detrital material from an eroding mass of evolved continental crust since the Paleocene in
the Santa Elena Block, and the Eocene in the Pinön Block. However, the northern coastal forearc
(San Lorenzo, Pedemales, Esmeraldas blocks, and the Manabi and Borbôn basins) has always been
isolated from continental sources, although a more detailed study of the Manabi and Borbon basins
is required to confirm this trend. Such a paleo-spatial distribution of continent-derived sedimentary

rocks shows agood correlation with the present-day drainage pattern (Fig. 4.3). Currently, amajority
of drainage into the Pacific of evolved rocks of continental crust, which crop-out in the Eastern
Cordillera, deviates towards the Gulf of Guayaquil. The only catchment, which incises the central
and northern Western Cordillera, and includes the Eastern Cordillera, is that through the Esmeraldas
basin. The remaining shoreline, situated west of 81°, is exclusively hosts rivers that drain ocean-
derived rocks, towards the Pacific Ocean. The present day drainage is also controlled by the Western
and Coastal Cordilleras, which strike in a N-S fashion, and divert continental drainage southwards
into the Gulf of Guayaquil.
4.5 Conclusions
Heavy mineral analyses were primarily utilised to evaluate the timing of accretion ofthe oceanic
blocks in the coastal Forearc. However, the data showed that fluvial drainage patterns since the
Eocene have essentially remained static, and a majority of sediment derived from the erosion of
the Late Cretaceous margin of the South American Plate has been transported southwards along
the continent-ocean basement suture. Therefore, it is clear that the presence of continental clastic
material cannot be used as a direct proxy for determining the timing of accretion (Jaillard et al.,
1995, 2004) in the forearc region. Additional important points include:
1. The Cayo Fm. was derived from erosion of the active and relict San Lorenzo and/or Las
Orquideas island arcs.
93
Provenance
Chapter 4
2. The high modal-proportion of metamorphic minerals, combined with northward flowing

paleocurrents in the Azucar Group, suggest is was sourced from Early Cretaceous
metamorphic rocks within the Amotape Complex.
3. The Eocene fms. of the Santa Elena and Pinön blocks are characterised by detritus sourced
from geochemically evolved continental crust. Tlieir deposition was synchronous with
increased exhumation rates in the Eastern Cordillera, indicating that the Las Masas and
Ancôn fins, in die Pinön Block, and the Ancôn Group in the Santa Elena Block were
supplied from the erosion of the Eastern Cordillera. Paleocurrcnt directions corroborate this
conclusion.
94
Chapter 5 Paleogeography and structural evolution
5. PALEOGEOGRAPHY AND STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION
5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents a discussion on the structural and paleogeographic evolution of the
coastal Ecuadorian forearc. The new geological evidence presented in this study will be interpreted
within a large-scale regional context, that includes rocks exposed in the Western Cordillera of
Ecuador and Colombia, and the Caribbean region. We will also discuss the validity of pre-existing
hypotheses, with respect to the new data presented here. Therefore, to facilitate the discussion, we
summarised stratigraphie correlation scheme for the oceanic blocks of the Ecuadorian
present a
external coastal forearc and the Western Cordillera in Figure 5.1. The locations of structural blocks
in the Western Cordillera were shown in Fig. 1.3, and the temporal correlation of stratigraphie units
within the Naranjal, Pallatanga blocks and the Macuchi Unit is adapted from Hughes and Bermudez
(1997), Boland et al. (2000), Hughes and Pilatasig (2002), Kerr et al. (2002), Jaillard et al. (2004),
Vallejo et al. (2006), and Vallejo (2007). Relevant data from the Caribbean region and die Northern
Andes will be progressively introduced and discussed in the chapter.
5.2 Cretaceous pre- and svn-accretionarv period
5.2.1 Late Turonian -

Coniacian (90-87 Ma)
Previous work has unequivocally demonstrated that the mafic, crystalline basement of the
coastal forearc, which is referred to as the Pinön Fm., originated above a mantle plume (e.g. Reynaud
et al., 1999; Kerr et al., 2002). Our own geochemical analyses (Fig. 2.9) confirm this interpretation.
Gravimetric surveys indicate that the thickness of die mafic basement is considerably more than
that of normal oceanic crust (Feininger and Seguin, 1983), corroborating its origin above a mantle
plume, assuming that thickening is not thrust related. A wide range of ages spanning the Jurassic
and the Albian have been proposed for the Pinôn Fm. (see section 2.2.4). However, a new step¬
wise Âr/Âr laser analysis of hornblende, extracted from a hornblende gabbro of the Piflôn Fm.,
yields a plateau age of 88.8±1.6 Ma (Late Turonian-Coniacian, figs. 5.1 and 2.9a-b), which is the
most accurate quantitative measurement of die age of the Pinôn Fm. Basalts and gabbros from the
Western Cordillera of Ecuador (Vallejo et al., 2006; Fig. 5.1), and the present day Caribbean Plate
(Sinton et al., 1998; figs. 5.2a and 5.3a), yield almost identical geochemical characteristics and ages
to that acquired from the Pinôn Fm.
Fig. 5.1. (Next page) Tentative of correlation between the blocks making up the Ecuadorian coastal forearc
(Esmeraldas, Pedemales, San Lorenzo, Pihôn and Santa Elena blocks), and the Western Cordillera (Naranjal
and Pallatanga blocks, Macuchi Unit). The position of the blocks is shown in Fig. 1.3. The content of each
blocks, and the stratigraphie interpretation from this work and others for the coastal forearc (see chapter 2),
andfrom Boland et al. (2000), Hughes and Pilatasig (2002), Jaillard el al. (2004), and Vallejo et al (2006)
for the Western Cordillera.
95
Ma
BORBON BASIN MANABI BASIN
Quaternary
Pli PROGRESO BASIN
NARANJAL BLOCK PALLATANGA BLOCK

10
CatecaU
1 Guaranda
Mio
Ibaira sections
ESMERALDAS BLOCK
Oll SAN LORENZO BLOCK STA. ELENA BLOCK

30
PEDERNALE3 BLOCK PfNON BLOCK
fHàBsfKà [Ssrj&arjeä
Eoc
50
Pal
Maa
70
Cmp
San
Con
mi
Cen
North Coastal forearc South Western Cordfttera
Alb Key
110
Cüashc sedimentary rocks with onty vofcantc basenent source '^ta9K sedmerrtar> rocke (subordinate coarse ciastE inpuS)
f ä>X ^4
Voyante afc volcamcs and serjurwnts ^ Continenti31 src systems
^
f >'*> 1
t 3 Umeetone fcrna/bons $ftmasy and ttcbidiSicJ
Apt VoScatitc basemanr. of vatabls geochemical Signature
Ciasfcc sedimentary rocks u fh s=anfPcsii( corhrtsHal baswêni source

Major uficortfo rrrty
Fust clastic sedunentary tomato's ^rth sienrfscarr cortinreital

Patacönfrjmulfy
basenenE sourca
Âs^ÂrTineraywïiolerock
eaati s age (T^s work; c oeîse vesical rota&pfl.
Lar$e
ante* U>Pb SHftlMP ztreon age (Vatteio «t ai 2006)

Paleogeography and structural evolution
Chapter 5
Shallow inclinations of the NRM recorded by die Pinön Fm. in the Pinôn, San Lorenzo and
Pedemales blocks (Fig. 3.7 and Table 1 ) suggest tiiat these blocks share a common mafic basement,
which erupted and crystallised at an equatorial to low southern latitude, thus confirming the earlier
study of Roperch et al. (1987). Recent propositions, which argued that some of the blocks (Piftôn
and San Lorenzo blocks in Ecuador, Gorgona Island in Colombia) originated in the southern Pacific
Ocean at latitudes of 26°-30°S (Reynaud et al., 1999; Lapierre et al., 2000; Kerr and Tarley, 2005),
are shown to be inaccurate in Ecuador. Unfortunately, the structural attitude of the volcanic rocks in
Gorgana Island can only be poorly constrained (Gansser, 1973), and hence tiieir recently proposed
southern Pacific origin, based on paleomagnetic data (Estrada, 1995), should be considered with
caution. Interestingly, shallow inclinations and clockwise rotations, which are widely reported from
the basement sequences in southern and central regions of the Caribbean Plate (MacDonald, 1990;
Acton et al., 2000; Fig. 5.3b) and Central America (Di Marco ct al., 1995; Fig. 5.3b), are similar to
our dataset.
Crystallisation of the basal Pinôn Fm. was rapidly followed by deposition of the pelagic
Calentura Fm. during the Coniacian and Santonian (section 2.3.6), although these sedimentary
rocks are presently only reported in the Pinön Block (Fig. 5.1). The paraconformable or possibly
conformable contact between the Pinön and Calentura fms. corroborates a Late Cretaceous age for
the Pinön Fm.
5.2.2 Santonian -
Middle Campanian (87-75 Ma)
Pelagic shales of the Calentura Fm. accumulated in a low energy, decp-sca environment,
until die Las Orquideas island arc system became active in the region of the present day Pinön Block.
The island arc sequence may have been active from the Early Santonian to the Middle Campanian
(Fig. 2.1), because reversed NRM polarities were recorded during cooling of the lavas. However, no
quantitative age data has been acquired. The initiation of arc volcanism is recorded in the field by (i)
die extrusion and intrusion of mafic volcanic rocks, and (ii) a dramatic change in sedimentary facies
from pelagic (Calentura Fm.) to volcanoclastic (Cayo Fm.).
Coniacian and Santonian pelagic sedimentary rocks have not been reported in the San
Lorenzo and Pedemales blocks, although the Pinôn Fm. in tiiose blocks was intruded by the San
Lorenzo island arc, which also gave rise to volcanoclastic deposition (Cayo Fm.; southern San
Lorenzo Block; sec Fig. 2.3a). Radiometric and fossil dating indicate that the San Lorenzo arc was
active between the Late Santonian and the Maastrichtian (see section 2.4.4). Taking in account
that: (i) Both the San Lorenzo and Las Orquideas fms. are the product of island arc activity, related
to intra-oceanic subduction (Fig. 5.2b), (ii) NRM analyses of both formations indicate that they
crystallised at the same latitude, and (iii) the new chronostratigraphy broadly argues for synchronous
magmatic activity in the San Lorenzo and Las Orquideas island arcs, we conclude that the San
Lorenzo and Las Orquideas fms. arc the product of the same island arc system. The Late Cretaceous
island arc rocks in the coastal forearc blocks will hereon be referred to as the San Lorenzo Arc,
following the terminology of Lebras (1987).
Thinning of the Cayo Fm. towards the NW (and its absence in the area of Manta: figs.
97
Chapter 5
2.2a and 2.3; Appendix 1), combined with the presence of Cretaceous voluminous volcanic activity
in the north of the San Lorenzo Block, suggests that the San Lorenzo Fm. represents the source
region for the clastic Cayo Fm. However, thickness variations in the Cayo Fm. may also be an
erosional artifact. Provenance analyses of the Cayo Fm. indicate that it was derived by erosion of
volcanic rocks that were isolated from continental crust, and was subsequently deposited in deep sea
fans by SW-oriented paleocurrents. The geometry and disposition of deep sea fans derived from a
topographic chain are controlled by the topographic characteristics of the ridge and its flanks, as well
Fig. 5.2. (a.l) Chondrite-normalised, whole rock, rare earth elements (REEs) content ofthe Pihôn (black lines,
from Kerr et al., 2002) and Pallatanga (range indicated by the light grey area, Kerr et al., 2002) fms. Contents
found in the Caribbean Plateau are shown in the ruled area (datafrom White et al, 1999), The three units have
similar REEs content, and aflat-type signature typically found in primitive lavas from oceanic plateaus, (a. 2)
Chondrite-normalised, whole rock, multi-elements. See Fig. 5.2a. 1 for legend. As for the REEs, the signature
exhibits a rather flat pattern, (b.l) Chondrite-normalised, whole rock, rare earth elements (REEs) content
of the Las Orquideas (long dashed pattern), San Lorenzo (short dashed pattern), Naranjal, and Rio Cala
fms. (dark grey area). The signatures show enrichment m light, incompatible elements (left of the diagram),
typical for arc lavas, (b.2) Chondrite-normalised, whole rock, multi-elements. See Fig. 5.2b.1 for legend. All
the formations show negative anomalies in Niobium and Titanium, a commonly observed characteristic in
subduction-related arc lavas.
98
Chapter 5
as the architecture of the basin. Unfortunately, these paleo-topographic parameters are unknown,
and hence we have insufficient information to both accurately, and precisely determine the relative
location of the volcanic source, or the axial orientation of die arc and hence the subduction zone, to
the location of the Cayo Fm.
A similar association of Late Cretaceous oceanic plateau, island arc, and associated
volcanoclastic rocks is found in the Naranjal and Pallatanga blocks of the Western Cordillera of
Ecuador (Pallatanga, Naranjal, Rio Cala, Pilatôn, Mulautc, Natividad and Colorado fms., sec Fig.
5.1), which is juxtaposed against the low lying forearc. These blocks host the Naranjal and Rio Cala
Arc sequences respectively, both of which yield Campanian magmatic crystallisation ages (Jaillard
et al., 2004; Vallejo, 2007). Furthennorc, mantle-plume derived basalts and gabbros of the Pallatanga
Fm., which yield a zircon U/Pb crystallisation age of 87.1+1.66 Ma, are found in the Naranjal and
Pallatanga blocks (Vallejo et al., 2006). Campanian pelagic sedimentation can only be found in the
Pallatanga block, where it conformably overlies the Pallatanga Fm. (Jaillard et al., 2004).
Fig. 5.3. (a) Frequency diagram of""'ArP''Ar ages measured on plagioclase and ground mass in the Caribbean
region, after Sinton et al. (1998), with U-Pb Shrimp age on zircon from the Pallatanga Fm. (Vallejo el al.,
2006), and '"'Ar/Âr age on hornblende (Luzieux et ai, 2006). Most crystallisation ages from the Caribbean
region range be teen 94 and 86 Ma. The samplesfrom Ecuador also plot in thisfield (see arrows). (b) Frecjuency
diagram of NRM inclinations reported in the Caribbean basins (MacDonald, 1990; Acton et ai, 2000),
(Central America (Di Marco et al, 1995), and this work. NRM inclinations from the three regions overlap in
the interval between 0 and 5°N, and are all compatible with a an origin of the CCOP in the equatorial Pacific.
The Ecuadorian forearc was situated in the southern part of the plateau.
99
Chapter 5
5.2.3 Late Campanian -

Maastrichtian (75-65 Ma)
Late Cretaceous 40-50° clockwise rotation around a vertical axis, in which 20-50° occured
between 73 and 70 Ma, has been identified in the Pinôn and San Lorenzo blocks. Clearly, the coastal
forearc experienced a significant tectonic rearrangement during the Late Campanian. The clockwise
rotations that arc recorded in the Pinôn and San Lorenzo blocks were coeval with the deposition of
detrital continental material in the Yunguilla Fm. within the allochthonous Pallatanga Block (Fig.
5.1; Jaillard et al., 2004; Vallejo, 2007), and correlate with the Romeral suturing event in Colombia
(Burke, 1988). Furthermore, magmatic activity within the Late Cretaceous, San Lorenzo island
arc system terminated in the Late Campanian to Maastrichtian period, indicating a cessation of
subduction beneath the mantle-plume derived basement rocks of the Pinôn Fm.
Hemipelagic sedimentation (Santa Elena and Guayaquil fins.) in the Pinön and Santa Elena
blocks occurred during the Maastrichtian, although no stratigraphie equivalent has been reported in
the northern San Lorenzo, Pedemales and Esmeraldas blocks. Hemipelagic siliceous limestones of
Maastrichtian to Paleocene age, similar to those observed in the Guayaquil Fm., are found in the
La Cubera Fm. of the Naranjal Block (Vallejo, 2007). The appearance of continental detritus on die
eastern side of the Pallatanga Block suggests that it was close to the South American Plate margin
during the Maastrichtian (Jaillard et al., 2004; Vallejo, 2007).
5.2.4 Discussion
The new data presented here suggest that previous hypotheses for the Cretaceous evolution
of tectonostratigraphic blocks in coastal Ecuador need to be revised. The basement sequence of all
of the blocks within the present-day Ecuadorian forearc extruded above a mantle plume, at some
time between 90 and 87 Ma, at an equatorial latitude (between 2°N and 5°S). Similar basement ages
and paleolatitudes of crystallisation are reported from basalts of the Caribbean Plate (Fig. 5.3) and
hence it is inferred that the basement of the Ecuadorian forearc blocks, originally formed part of die
Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic Plateau (CCOP). This statement implies that the CCOP fragmented
at some point after it formed. We can exclude previous suggestions (Reynaud et al., 1999; Lapierre
ct al., 2000; Kerr and Tamey, 2005) that some of the oceanic blocks emplaced in Ecuador originated
in the southern Pacific. A compilation of the Cretaceous paleolatitudes obtained by this, and previous
work reported from 62 sites in Caribbean basins and Central America (Fig. 5.3), suggests that the
basement rocks of the Ecuadorian forearc occupied a soutiiem position within the CCOP, before
accretion to the South American Plate margin, and subsequent fragmentation.
Two models, two of which are traditionally cited, and a recently proposed one, describe the
formation and evolution of the CCOP:
1) The "Pacific" models suggests the CCOP crystallised at an equatorial latitude between
95 and 85 Ma, within die Farallon Plate (Burke, 1988). After its extrusion, which may
have been related to the Galapagos Hotspot, a coherent mass of oceanic plateau rocks was
carriedtowards the cast, until it collided with the South and North American continents.
The distance between the site of extrusion of the large igneous province and the South
100
5 Paleogcography and structural evolution
Chapter
American margin varies greatly between the different alternatives proposed in this category.
Duncan and Hargraves ( 1984) propose that the CCOP formed above the Galapagos Hotspot;
contrastingly, Pindell et al. (2005) recently suggested that the plateau extruded close to the
South American Plate margin.
2) The "inter-American" model suggests the CCOP formed at a location between the North
and South American continents at an equatorial latitude, between 95 and 85 Ma, cast of its
current position (Meschede, 1988; Mcschede and Frisch, 1988). Following its extrusion,
the plateau drifted westwards with a low velocity relative to the North and South American
plates.
The "Pacific" model is supported by several observations made in this study. In addition, the
"inter-American" hypothesis fails because it can not adequately account for a tectonic event occurring
during the Campanian along the North Andean margin in Ecuador and Colombia. Consequently, we
prefer to utilise the hypotheses of Burke (1988), and Pindell et al. (1988), to account for the late
Cretaceous geological evolution of the Ecuadorian forearc.
Subsequent to its intrusion and extrusion during 95-85 Ma, the CCOP was carried approximately
eastwards (the distance travelled cannot be estimated with the current data) towards the South
American Plate margin, and eventually collided with it at about 73-70 Ma (Fig. 5.4; Spikings et al.,
2000; Jaillard etal., 2004; Luzieux etal., 2006; Vallejo etal.,2006). Several lines of sedimentological,
thermochronological and geochronological evidence constrain the time of collision. The suture
between mantle-plume derived rocks of the Pallatanga Block, and the paléo-continental margin
was overlain by continental derived detritus during the Late Campanian to Early Maastrichtian
(Yunguilla Fm.; Jaillard et al., 2004; Vallejo, 2007). The Pallatanga Block presumably represents
that section of the CCOP, which collided with the South American Plate margin. The coastal blocks
of the present day low lying forearc region were probably located in a more distal position relative
to South America. However, given that the coastal blocks underwent 20°-50° during 73-70 Ma,
which is coeval with the collision of the Pallatanga Block with the margin (Fig. 5.1), it is likely that
the same collision event caused die coastal blocks to rotate. The turbiditic sedimentary rocks, diat
seal the suture between the Pallatanga Block and the South American Plate, arc highly deformed,
which contrasts with the unfolded, gently tilted coastal blocks, possibly further testifying to tiieir
more distal position, relative to the suture. Subsequent to the collision, the bulk of the detached
Caribbean Plate displaced towards the NNE (Pindcll et al., 2005) and entered the gap between the
North and South American plates. The collision event resulted in rapid cooling and exhumation
of the paleocontinental margin of South America during 73-65 Ma (Spikings et al., 2000, 2001,
2005).
Figure 5.5 illustrates a new hypothesis for the paleogeographic locations of major
tectonostratigraphic elements within the CCOP. Because high topographic features were observed in
part of the San Lorenzo (Manta section) and the Pedemales blocks (voluminous volcanic sequence,
absence of pelagic sediments and reduced volcanoclastic cover), these regions were probably
101
Fig. 5.4. Proposed model for the early evolution of lhe CCOP between the Coniacian and Late Campanian,
when it collided with South America. The emplacement of the blocks along the SE margin of the CCOP is
shown in Fig. 5.5. Dashed lines indicate the hypothetical position of the CCOP in accordance to an extrusion
above the today Galapagos Hotspot. In order to collide with the South American margin at 75 Ma, the CCOP
needs to drift about 1700 km eastwards following its extrusion (e.g. -lOcm/y). Modified from Ross and Scotese
(1988) and Burke (1988).
in a close to the San Lorenzo Arc (El on Fig. 5.5). Less voluminous volcanic activity regularly
associated with siliciclastic sedimentation in the soutii of the San Lorenzo Block (Puerto Lopez
section) suggests a transitional position (E2 on Fig. 5.5) between the arc-proximal facies described
around Manta, and the arc-distant facies of the Pinön Block (E3 on Fig. 5.5; characterized by
alternating pelagic and volcanoclastic sedimentation). Lavas of die Rio Cala Arc, in die Pallatanga
Block, yield intra-occanic subduction related geochemical characteristics (Fig. 5.2b) and ages
(66.74±7.15 Ma, 40Ar/39Ar plateau on pyroxene, Vallejo, 2007) that are indistinguishable from those
acquired from the Las Orquideas and San Lorenzo fms., as well as a thick volcanoclastic cover
(Colorado, Pilatön, Mulaute and Natividad fins., Fig. 5.1). Therefore, the Naranjal and Pallatanga
blocks of the Western Cordillera may have occupied an intennediate position (E2), as seen on Figure
5.5. Subduction-related lavas capped by pelagic sedimentary rock of Campanian age, reported in
the Western Cordillera of Colombia along the Romeral suture (Spadea and Espinosa, 1996) may
102
5 Paleogeography and structural evolution
Chapter
and thick
represent the northern extension of the San Lorenzo Arc. The association of both pelagic
volcanoclastic sedimentary successions in the Pinôn Block, combined with a low volume of island
arc derived volcanic rocks, suggests that it was more distant from the active arc relative to the San
Lorenzo and Pedemales blocks. The contact between island arc rocks of the Rio Cala Fm. and
basalts of the Pallatanga Fm. is tectonic, and the arc rocks may have been tectonically emplaced
in their current position, juxtaposed against the Pallatanga Fm., during the Tertiary. The southern
stratigraphie sections of the Pallatanga Block do not contain island arc volcanic rocks, although
also Vallejo, 2007). Consequently, it
pelagic sedimentation is present (Guaranda sction, Fig. 5.1, see
is reasonable to suggest that the Pallatanga Block was located in the most distal position relative to
the San Lorenzo Arc, compared to other allochthonous tectonostratigraphic blocks, and was isolated
5.5. Block solution for the significance of the Ecuadorian forearc blocks within
Fig. diagram proposing a
the CCOP (snapshot at about 75 Ma in the Late Campanian, at about time of collision). An oceanic plate
subducting the CCOP is inferred from the presence of the San Lorenzo Arc on the margin of the Plateau.
From analytical results and field observation we could observe different environments: volcanic (El; Manta
section of the San Lorenzo Block, Esmeraldas Block), slope (E2; Puerto Lopez section of the San Lorenzo
Block Calacali, Guayabamba and Ibarra sections in the Pallatanga Block), forearc basin (E3; Pihôn and
blocks), and outer Guaranda section of the Pallatanga Block). The flow direction
Naranjal forearc (FA;
of the volcanoclastic deposits (Cayo Fm. in the coastal blocks) is deduced from AMS study (see sections
3,7-8). This diagram proposes a solution in accordance with volcanic and sedimentary facies distribution,
paleotopography, and a clockwise rotaion of 40-50° during the collision.
103
Paleogeography and stmctural evolution
Chapter 5
from the locus of volcanism, and its erosional products.
We propose that the various sections studied in the Pedemales, San Lorenzo, Pinön, Naranjal
and Pallatanga blocks can be placed within a progressive succession within the southeastern margin
of the CCOP, and represent, traversing from the NNW to the SSE, an island arc complex and its
forearc. The moderate clockwise rotations that occurred during collision (e.g. 40-50°), lateral facies
distribution, and provenance analyses support tiiis model. However, basement exposure along the
coast is sparse, and the western boundary of the Pallatanga Fm. is completely buried. Therefore, it
is difficult to identify the original stmctures along which the Ecuadorian blocks separated from each
unable
other, and possibly also from the south-eastern margin of the CCOP. Consequently, we are
collision with Soutii America, if the

to determine whether or not the blocks fragmented during or
present coastal forearc of South America separated from the CCOP as a single coherent block, and
fragmented after accretion.

The postulated southeastern position of the Ecuadorian forearc within the CCOP, prior to
collision (Fig. 5.4), confinns predictions made in earlier models (Burke, 1988; Pindcll ct al, 1988
and 2005). The presence of the San Lorenzo Arc (Fig. 5.2b) system on the southeastern border
subducting oceanic plate (figs. 5.4 and

of the plateau implies that the CCOP was over-riding a
5.5, Vallejo et al., 2006). Because no significant changes in NRM inclinations are recorded during
the Cretaceous (Fig. 3.7 and Table 3.1), we infer an approximate eastward motion of the CCOP
between its formation and subsequent collision with the South American Plate. However, significant
eastward displacement of the CCOP contrasts with the predicted northward drift of the Farallon
Plate during the Late Cretaceous (Pilger, 1984; Engebrctson, 1985). Consequently, if the CCOP
extruded above the present day Galapagos Hotspot, as has been previously invoked (Duncan and
Hargravcs, 1984; Vallejo et al., 2006; Luzieux et al., 2006), the northern Farallon Plate, offshore
the northern South American continent, may have had a different drift history from that determined
for the Farallon Plate in the southern Pacific (Pilger, 1984; Engebretson, 1985). A revision of the
in the eastern equatorial Pacific is necessary, otherwise complicated models which

plate motion
invoke decoupling between the CCOP and the Farallon Plate are needed to explain their contrasting
displacement vectors.
Alternatively, the CCOP could have formed at a location between the Galapagos hotspot and the
South American Plate, and would have had to drift a smaller distance eastwards than if it extruded
90 and 75 Ma,
above the Galapagos hotspot. Westward drift of the South American Plate during
Ma. In
may have caused the CCOP to collide with the South American continental margin at -75
this model, however, we can not exclude the possibility of a late, minor eastern drift of the CCOP, as
Engebretson (1985) suggests a dramatic change in Farallon plate motion from northward to eastward
at -75 Ma. This option would imply that die CCOP is not related to the Galapagos "hotspot". On the
basis of the data presented in this work, we are not able to distinguish between prolonged eastern drift
of the CCOP (i.e. the Galapagos model), and the hypothesis that the CCOP extruded significantly
closer to the Soutii American Plate than die location of the Galapagos hotspot.
104
5 Paleogeography and stmctural evolution
Chapter
5.3 Tertiary (post-accretionarv period)
5.3.1 Paleocene (65-56 Ma)

In the coastal forearc, Paleocene deposits are only found in the southernmost Santa Elena
and Pinön blocks. Both blocks record hemipelagic sedimentation during the Early Paleocene, which
contrasts with the Campanian-Maastrichtian coarse-grained Cayo Fm. in the Pinôn Block. Both the
Santa Elena and Guayaquil fins, can be correlated on the grounds of age and depositional facies
to the Paleocene La Cubera Fm. of the Naranjal. During the Late Paleocene, a drastic change
occurs in the Santa Elena Block with the deposition of the coarse, siliciclastic Azûcar Group. The
proximity of the Santa Elena Block to continental basement is confirmed by the abundance of ZTR
and common metamorphic minerals. Conglomerates and sandstones of the Azucar Fm. overlie the
strongly deformed, pelagic Santa Elena Fm., and consequently some authors proposed that the Santa
Elena Block underwent subacrial exposure and erosion due to an important accretionary event in
die Paleocene (Daly, 1989; Jaillard et al., 1995 and 2004). Subsequently, the blocks would have
experienced a period of subsidence in the Late Paleocene, thus creating a dcpoccntcr for die deposition
of the Azûcar Group. Our observations do not support this interpretation because: (i) we have shown
that the oceanic blocks in the southern Ecuadorian forearc had accreted to the South Amercian
margin by the Maastrichtian (ii) a Paleocene tectonic event is not recorded in the stratigraphie record
of the Pinôn Block, or in the Western Cordillera, and (iii) Late Paleocene / Early Eocene exhumation
has not been identified in the Amotape Complex, the Western or the Eastern Cordillera (Spikings
et al., 2000, 2001, 2005). We consider that the tectonic event recorded during the Paleocene in the
Santa Elena Block was not accretion, because we would expect to observe notable changes on a
regional scale, in Ecuador. Since the contact between the Santa Elena Fm. and the Azûcar Group can
not be physically observed, it is difficult to make any definitive statement about its nature. However,
taking in account that (i) E-W faults cutting the Azucar Group are broadly parallel to the axial planes
of the folds observed in the Santa Elena Fm. (Jaillard et al, 1995), and (ii) the massive conglomerate
and sandstones of the Azûcar Group are rather competent, as opposed to the thin-bedded and less
competent siliceous limestones of the Santa Elena Fm., we cannot rule out that the deformation was
post-Paleocene. The juxtaposition of plastic and brittle deformation is commonly observed when a
sharp rhcological change exists between two strata masses. The phenomena is widely reported in
compressive wedges, where underplating and detachment surfaces propagate along less competent
layers (e.g. Braathcn etal., 1999).
5.3.2 Eocene (56-34 Ma)
The Paleocene hiatus extends up to the Middle Eocene in the San Lorenzo, Pedemales,
and Esmeraldas blocks. The erosional nature of the unconformity in the San Lorenzo Block can
be observed in outcrops close to Manta, where the upper Middle to Late Eocene sandstones of the
San Mateo Fm. overlie gabbros of the mafic basement (Fig. 5.6a and b). Unconformable contacts
between the upper Middle to Late Eocene Punta Bianca and Zapallo fms., and older Cretaceous
formations can be seen in the Pedemales and Esmeraldas blocks respectively. During the Bartonian
105
Chapter 5 Paleogeography and structurai evolution
Fig. 5 6 (a) Photograph of the cliff exposing the contact between gabbros (Pinôn or San Lorenzo Fm.) and
sandstones of the San Mateo Fm. in the ( 'erro de Oro quarry, San Lorenzo Block 'The vertical distance
between the summit and the bottom of the picture is about 70 m. Gabbros at the foot of the cliff were sampled
for paleomagnetic analyses (site 03LL33P, ULM coordinates: 550570; 9883060, WGS84) (b) Sketch ofFig.
29a The irregular surface between the two formations is due to an erosive event before the San Mateo Fm
was deposited.
(Middle Eocene) and Pnabonian (Late Eocene), the San Lorenzo, Pedemales and Esmeraldas blocks
subsided below sea level, and were capped by a thick siliciclastic cover. Collapse stmctures within
the San Mateo Fm„ in the Picoaza quarry suggest it was deposited dunng tilting of the underlying
basement, indicating that the San Lorenzo Block was subjected to horizontal extension during the
upper Middle to Late Eocene (Fig. 5.7). Faults dipping to the east and northeast at angles varying
between 30 and 50°, in the Picoaza quarry. To the west of Picoaza, Middle to Late Eocene shallow
water limestones (possibly a ramp facies) overlie volcanic basement rocks (Fig. 5.8). Combining
our observations in the localities of Santa Rosa, La Sequita, Cerro de Hqja, Picoaza, and drill hole
data at La Calceta (Benitez, 1995), we have attempted to reconstruct the Late Eocene geological
relationships between the towns of Manta and Portoviejo (Fig. 5.8). While the highest horsts record
carbonate sedimentation (Santa Rosa), grabens, half-grabcns, and a low altitude horst are capped
by siliciclastic sediments, derived from the erosion of topographically high volcanic rocks, as
indicated by the volcanic assemblage in the heavy minerals. Summarising, we have shown that the
San Lorenzo, Pedemales and Esmeraldas blocks record a compressive event occurring in the Early
and/or Middle Eocene. This event was followed by an extensional tectonic event of Bartonian and
Pnabonian age. whose maximal strain axis was oriented between the east and northeast.
The occurrence of a hiatus spanning die Late Paleocene and Early Eocene in the Pinön
and Santa Elena blocks, as proposed by Jaillard ct al. (1995) and Benitez (1995), is not proven (see
discussion in die section 2.8), and biostratigraphic revisions are required
106
Paleogeography and structural oluuon
Chapter 5 e\
Fig 5 7 Contact between the San Loienzo and San Mateo fins m the Picoaza quarry San Lorenzo Block
fa) Photograph of the contact between basaltic pi/tow las as of the San I orenzo Fm and overlving turbiditic
sandstones from the San \ lateo Fm The tree m the center of the picture is about 5m high lhe foot of the cliff
Mas sampled for paleomagnetic analyses (site 04L174P VIMcoordinates 549515 9886601 WGS84) (b)
Sketch of Fig 28a Theflattening of the bedding toward the top of the sandstones shows the progressive nature
of the Focene unconformity in this locality During the deposition of the turbiditic sediments the volcanic
basement experienced tilting due to the activity of normal faults (which cuts the basement on the bottom left
of the sketch) (c) Detail of the contact between lhe San Loienzo F m (bottom right) and the San Mateo 1 m
(upper left) The scale is given by the person standing at the foot of the outcrop (d) Sketch ofFig 28c The
lavas of the San 1 orenzo Fm and the sandstones of the San Mateo Pm are separated bva normal fault Due
to syn-deposilional Eocene extension uncompacied sediments collapsed and w ere consequently deformed A
band of fault gauge indicates that the fault w as still being actn e after the compaction of the sediments
107
Chapter 5
Manta Portoviejo
-
Calceta
,„!,„ „-.. ^ J", ,.T„„T, „T^L—t^.
Puerto Cayo Fault

About 2 km
Key
X I.i J Siliceous limestones, Guayaquil Fm Ostiones Fm

.
Se
Maastrichtian -
Paleocene late Middle - Late Eocene
Volcanicla$tites, Cayo Fm Siltstones and

claystones San Mateo Fm
Santonian - Maastrichtian
late Middle -
Late Eocene
Basalts and gabbros, Piflôn & San Lorenzo fms
Sandstones
Late Turowan Maastrichtian
Fig. 5.8. Tentative reconstruction ofthe situation during the Late Eocene ofthe section between Manta and
Portoviejo, from the various sections observed: Santa Rosa (UTM coordinates: 542508; 9884768, WGS84),
La Sequita (UTM coordinates: 548235; 9886136, WGS84), Cerro de Oro (UTM coordinates; 550570;
9883060, see Fig. 5.6), Picoaza (UTM coordinates: 551151; 9886742, see Fig. 5.7), and drill hole "Las
Calceta" (coordinates not precisely known; see Benitez, 1995). The carbonates were deposited in shallow
water environments; most likely situated on horsts. The Santa Rosa and Cerro de Oro horsts were, additionally
to the Macuchi topographic range, sheltering the coastalforearc to the westfrom continental detrital input.
In the Pinön Block, massive turbiditic calcarcnitcs of die San Eduardo Fm. are diagnostic of
a drastic change in the depositional environment from pelagic, siliceous limestones ofthe Guayaquil
Fm. (Fig. 2.1). The origin ofthe turbiditic calcarenites ofthe San Eduardo Fm. (which partly contain
a reworked Early Eocene fauna, sec section 2.11.5) remains enigmatic because no carbonate deposits
are reported in Ecuador during the early Eocene. Feininger and Bristow (1980) proposed that the
Unacota and Tenefuerte fins, in the Western Cordillera could be the source for the San Eduardo Fm.,
although their Middle Eocene depositional ages argue against this hypothesis (Egüez, 1986; Vallejo,
2007). The transition from bathyal, silicious limestones (Guayaquil Fm.) to a shalcy depositional
facies in the Las Masas Fm., corroborates a general deepening ofthe basin environment. A significant
modal percentage of ZTR group minerals in siltstones ofthe Las Masas Fm., followed by a rapid
increase of continental detrital input during the Late Eocene (Ancôn Fm.), suggests that erosion rates
ofthe fractionated rocks increased in the Middle and Late Eocene.
During the Middle and Late Eocene, the Santa Elena Block received a significant quantity of
silisciclastic detritus from continental sources (Clay Pebble, Socorro, and Punta Ancôn fms.), which
contained a comparable heavy mineral assemblage to coveal sedimentary rocks found in the Pinon
108
Block (Fig. 4.1). Frequent slump stmctures observed in the Ancôn Group (see section 2.16) are
interpreted to result from stmctural extension ofthe basin. Notably, eroded continental material was
transported towards the southem Santa Elena and Pinön blocks, while, at the same time, the other
coastal blocks only record the erosion ofthe arc and oceanic basement (Fig. 4.1).
Significant stmctural rearrangements affected the coastal blocks during the Eocene, and
they can be correlated on a regional scale. In the Eastern Cordillera and the Amotape Complex,
elevated cooling rates occurred during 43 and 30 Ma (Spikings et al., 2001 and 2005). Subsequent
exposure and erosion ofthe continental basement is reflected in voluminous reworked material from
the Eocene onwards. This material is now represented as the Las Masas and Ancôn fins, in the Pinön
Block, the Ancön Group in the Santa Elena Block, and the Apagua and Rumi Cruz fms. (Fig. 5.1) in
the Western Cordillera (Vallejo, 2007).
Basalts and basaltic andésites of the Macuchi Fm. erupted through the late Cretaceous
basement sequence during the Eocene, along a N-S axis. However, the volcanic rocks have not been
studied in detail, and preliminary analyses yields both tiiolciitic and calc-alkalinc arc signatures
(Hughes and Pillatasig, 2002; Fig. 5.1). The temporal activity ofthe Macuchi Arc is poorly
constrained, although fossil data obtained from intercalated sedimentary rocks yields Middle to Late
Eocene ages (Hughes and Bermudez, 1997), and a recent ""Ar/Âr radiometric age from plagioclase
yields a maximum age of 42.6±1.3 Ma (2a; Vallejo, 2007). Previous workers suggested the Macuchi
Fm. erupted as part of an ocean island arc, and hance has an allochthonous origin (Kehrer and Van
derkaaden, 1979; Bladock, 1982; Egüez, 1986; Hughes and Pilatasig, 2002). However, the accretion
ofthe coastal blocks during the Late Cretaceous, combined with the present day spatial relationships,
favours an autochthonous origin (Vallejo, 2007). The Macuchi Arc would have formed a topographic
ridge, separating Paleozoic continental crust within the Eastern Cordillera from the San Lorenzo,
Pedemales and Esmeraldas blocks during the Eocene, which may account for the lack of siliclastic
continental detritus in those coastal blocks. However, this hypothesis assumes that the present day
spatial relationships between the Macuchi Fm, and the flat forearc region have been approximately
constant since the beginning ofthe Eocene.
5.3.4 Oligocène (34-23 Ma)

The Oligocène period is only represented by scarce rocks of the Pambil and Playa Rica
fins, in the Esmeraldas blocks, and possibly die basal member ofthe Zapotal Fm. in the Progreso
Basin. Therefore, the Oligocène history ofthe coastal forearc is mainly unconstrained, because it
is masked by a widespread hiatus, which may have been caused by an increase in elevation, driven
by rock uplift. Spikings et al. (2000, 2001, 2005) recorded elevated exhumation rates in the Eastern
Cordillera during 43-30 Ma, which partly overlaps witii the hiatus observed in the flat fore-arc.
In the Western Cordillera, the Oligocène period was characterized by widespread continental
arc volcanism, which gave rise to die San Juan de Lâchas Fm. and the Saraguro Group (Fig. 5.1; see
also Vallejo, 2007).
109
Chapter 5
5.3.5 Miocene (23-5 Ma)

A succession of Miocene extensional and compressive events (Steinmann, 1997;
Hungerbühler, 1997) have been documented throughout Ecuador. The Miocene Progreso, Manabi
and Borbôn basins, which crop-out in the coastal forearc, presentiy have emerged and submerged
components. The creation and rapid filling of Neogene basins in the coastal forearc was driven by
extension related to dcxtral strike-slip faulting within the coastal forearc (Daly, 1989; Benitez, 1995).
We have not studied the Miocene geological history in detail, although a geological compilation of
that period is presented in Hungerbühler et al. (2002).
5.3.6 Discussion
A compilation of new and previously published data shows that the Pinôn, San Lorenzo,
Pedemales, Pallatanga, and Naranjal blocks had already accreted to South America by the end of
the Cretaceous. We have also shown diat the timing of die earliest appearance of detritus derived
from evolved continental cmst is not a reliable proxy for the timing of collision witii the continent,
as has been assumed by previous authors (Jaillard et al., 1995, Reynaud et al., 1999). Therefore,
we have shown that previous hypotheses, which favour accretion to the continent during the Late
Paleocene (Daly, 1989; Jaillard et al., 1995; Reynaud et al., 1999), and/or the Eocene (Feininger
and Bristow, 1980; Egüez, 1986; Spikings ct al., 2001; Kerr et al., 2002) are inaccurate, and that
the tectonostratigraphic blocks accreted during a single event, during the Late Campanian. The
Esmeraldas Block is the least understood tectonostratigraphic package within the forearc, because the
age of its basement and the latitude at which that basement crystallised remain unknown. However,
similarities between the Esmeraldas block with the remaining blocks, such as the general absence
of defonnation, and similar stratigraphie successions, suggests the Esmeraldas Block may have also
originated within the CCOP.

The Tertiary tectonic evolution of the forearc follows the critical wedge taper model, as
has already been suggested by Daly (1989), for the post-Paleocene period. Hungerbühler (1997)
also utilised the critical wedge taper model to account for the evolution of the Cucnca Basin in
southem Ecuador. Witii the exception ofthe timing of accretion, and the addition of block rotation
in the coastal forearc, our interpretation does not fundamentally differ from that proposed by Daly
(1989).
The critical wedge model (commonly referred as the "wedge model") has proven to be useful
for interpreting large-scale kinematics within accretionary prisms (Davis et al., 1983; Stockmal,
1983). In an accretion prism, a wedge is characterized by a basal detachment at the interface with
the subducting plate, and an upper topographic surface, which dips towards the trench (Fig. 5.9). The
model postulates that the wedge constantly evolves towards a critical taper (0c) geometry, defined
by the slope ofthe topographic surface (a), die dip ofthe basal detachment (ß), the coefficient of
basal friction (x), the speed of convergence (t>) and some coefficients that depend on the physical
properties ofthe wedge (see Fig. 5.9). The critical taper (0 ) is reached when the gravitational and
compressive forces in every segment of the wedge balance the basal friction force. A wedge may
110
Chapter 5
become unstable due to a series of factors including mass transfer subsequent to erosion/deposition
processes, underplating, or changes in the kinematics of the subducting plate (e.g. the speed of
convergence and angle of subduction), and isostatic rebound. Once the edge is unstable, it will
deform until a new critical taper is attained:
-When the wedge is sub-critical (0 <

6c), internal deformation is required to increase the
surface slope angle. This can be achieved by horizontal shortening and vertical thickening
ofthe wedge, via tiirusting.
-When the wedge becomes supercritical (0 >

0c), internal defomiation is needed to decrease
the surface ofthe slope. Such a reorganisation is accommodated by horizontal extension
and vertical shortening of the wedge via extensional faulting, and/or erosion and transport
of mass in front ofthe wedge.
Unfortunately, we cannot quantify the evolution of 0c during the Tertiary, mainly because we do not
b)
a + ß = 6c
a + ßp = d>
0~%~ v
F"ig, 5.9. Model oforogenic wedge (a) and its parameters (b), redrawn from Daly (1989); a, surface slope;
ß, basal slope; Qc, critical wedge angle; p and <ï> are functions of lhe physical properties ofthe wedge; t,
coefficient of basal friction; v, convergence rate. Parameters as in Davis et al. (1983).
know the subduction angles of the Farallon and Nazca Plates beneath South America during this
time. Wc can, however, estimate the convergence rate between the plates witii plate reconstructions
diat are derived from mid-oceanic ridge spreading rates. The reconstruction of Pardo-Casas and
Molnar (1987) shows convergence rates between the Farallon and Nazca Plates, and the South
American Plate at the Ecuator, between 70 Ma and today (Fig. 5.10a). Fig. 5.10b indicates the
convergence direction ofthe plates. Plate convergence increases dramatically in the late Early Eocene
to early Middle Eocene, up to rates of about 200 mm/y between chrons 21 and 13, and in die Late
Oligocène, when it changed from about 50 mm/y up to 100 mm/y. According to the wedge model,
such periods of accelerating convergence increased % and consequently 9c, or, in other words, they
forced surface uplift. Conveniently, Early Eocene and Oligocène hiati in die coastal stratigraphy
coincide with periods of accelerating plate convergence, in accordance with the wedge model. An
attempt to illustrate the possible evolution ofthe critical wedge in the Ecuadorian forearc during the
111
Chapter 5
Chron b)
Present day trend of
6 7 1318 21 25 31
Ecuadorian margin
300 ..-I..I I I L 4U-|
t
250
a, Dextral
S
20° E* o
80- p~^ component
8 ç
100-
g> g 150
9> £
120-
100 -
Orthogonal
convergence
50- II 1 II 1 1
[ 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Age (Ma)
n 1 1—I—I—I—I
Sinistral
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Age (Ma) component
Fig. 5.10. (a) Convergence directions between the Farallon/Nazca Plate with respect to South America, with
uncertainty limits in
grey (Daly, 1989). (b) Convergence direction ofthe Farallon/Nazca Plate with respect to
South America throughout the Tertiary, with uncertainty limits m grey (Daly, 1989).
Eocene is shown in Fig. 5.11:
-The rate of convergence ofthe Farallon and the South American plates increased significantly
between chrons 25 and 18 (Fig. 5.1ia; snapshot during the Lutetian), reaching a maximum
of-200 mm/yr (Vj). The critical wedge angle increased to 9o] (only drawn qualitatively in
die figure), and the wedge became sub-critical. The Ecuadorian forearc became subaerial
along the coast during the Lutetian (48.6-40.4 Ma, Gradstein et al., 2004) exposure in the
Coast, and the Eastern Cordillera exhumed at elevated rates (>lkm/my; Spikings et al.,
2000, 2001 and 2005).
-
The convergence rate between the Farallon, Nazca and South American plates decreased
significantly between chrons 18 and 7 (Fig. 5.11b; snapshot during the Pnabonian), to a
minimum of-50 mm/yr (v2). Consequently, the critical wedge angle decreased to 0c2, and the
wedge became supercritical. Within Ecuador, the coastal forearc became submerged during
the Priabonian (-55 Ma, see Fig. 5.7), and siliciclastic rocks were deposited (Ancon Group,
Ancon, San Edurado, Las Masas, San Mateo, Punta Bianca and Zapallo fms). Elevated
exhumation rates in the Eastern Cordillera were still occurring during the Priabonian
(Spikings et al., 2000, 2001 and 2005), which may be attributed to longer response times to
changing stress regimes, caused by isostatic rebound.
An increase in convergence rates during the Late Oligocène can be attributed to the onset
of fragmentation ofthe Farallon plate into the Cocos and Nazca plates, at about 25 Ma (Lonsdale,
2005). However, although a change in plate convergence direction in the Eocene cannot be observed
in Fig. 5.10b, it is also reported (Lonsdale, 2005) that subduction of oceanic cmst under the South
American Plate became more orthogonal after fragmentation ofthe Farallon Plate, and in that way
contributed to an increase in the orthogonal velocity component.
112
Chapter 5
Finally, we conclude that there is a good correlation between changes in both the rates
and angles of convergence between the Farallon, Nazca and South American Plates, and surface
uplift in the neighboring South American Plate. However, given a lack of knowledge regarding
the angle of subduction, and the amount of material removed from the wedge by lateral strike-slip
displacement, this should be taken as a first order attempt to identify the driving forces responsible
for die geological evolution of the forearc region. Correlations between plate convergence rates,
and the exhumation ofthe buttressing plate (i.e. the Eastern Cordillera) are blurred because ofthe
Fig. 5.11. Diagram illustrating the possible evolution ofthe critical wedge angle (QJ and the internal stress
within the wedge during the Middle (a) and Late (b) Eocene. For the purpose of this discussion, a number of
basic assumptions had to be made; (i) the subduction angle ß, and (ii) the physical propertyparameter p (Fig.
5.8) were arbitrarily chosen as fixed parameters (constants). In this particular case, the critical wedge angle
varies in function ofthe convergence rate. The geometry ofthe subducting slab in the figure is arbitrary, and
corresponds to its current position between 0 and 2°S, inferredfrom todays Wadati-Benioff zone (Gutscher
et al., 1999).
113
Conclusions
Chapter 6
6: CONCLUSIONS
This study presents new radiometric, biochronologic, paleomagnetic and sedimentary provenance
data, aimed at formulating a model for the geological evolution of the low lying forearc region of
Ecuador. For correlations with the Western Cordillera we refer to results presented in Vallejo (2007).
The basement of all blocks consists of fragments of the crystalline, mafic rocks, which are derived
from the Caribbean Colombian Oceanic Plateau (CCOP). The following key points need to be
accounted for in any tectonic reconstruction ofthe Ecuadorian low lying forearc region:
1. The Pinôn Fm., which represents the mafic crystalline basement of allochthonous blocks
within the coastal region of Ecuador, crystallised at 88.8±1.6 Ma. New, and previously
acquired geochemical data, show that the Pinôn Fm. erupted from a mantle-plume, in an
oceanic environment.
2. Paleomagnetic inclination data show that the Piiïôn, San Lorenzo, and Pedemales blocks
crystallised in the equatorial Pacific (2°N-5°S). Lithostratigraphic similarities suggest that

the Esmeraldas Block shares a common history.
3. Soon after the plateau empted, the Santonian to Maastrichtian (85-70 Ma) San Lorenzo
Arc erupted through the southeastern margin of the plateau, due to generally west-dipping
subduction of MORB-crust beneath the buoyant oceanic plateau. Prevailing models ofthe
evolution ofthe Caribbean Plate collectively refer to those arcs as being part ofthe Great
Arc ofthe Caribbean (Burke, 1988).
4. Subsequently, the large igneous province was carried eastwards and collided with the South
American Plate during the Late Campanian (73-70 Ma). The collision event is recorded
by i) 20-50° CW rotations of tectonostratigraphic blocks within the coastal forearc during

73-70 Ma, ii) the deposition of continental detritus on the oceanic Pallatanga Block during
die Maastrichtian (Yunguilla Fm.), iii) high cooling and exhumation rates along die entire
palco-contincntal margin, which commenced at -73 Ma, and iv) the termination of island
arc volcanism (San Lorenzo Arc) during die Maastrichtian, caused by the plugging of
subduction during the accretion of a buoyant plateau.
5. The detritus eroded from the elevated paleo-contincntal margin since accretion of the
plateau has been preferentially distributed to the southern blocks (Pinôn and Santa Elena
blocks). The northern forearc blocks (San Lorenzo, Pedemales and Esmeraldas) were
isolated from a continental influx by a topographic barrier, similar to the drainage network
which exists today. The time of the earliest deposition of continental derived sediment on
die allochthonous blocks is not an unambiguous measurement ofthe time of accretion.
114
Conclusions
Chapter 6
6. The Early to Middle Eocene erosive hiatus recorded in the San Lorenzo, Pedemales and
Esmeraldas blocks in the coastal forearc is coeval with rapid cooling and exhumation in
the Eastern Cordillera (43-30 Ma), and clastic deposition in the Amazon foreland basin.
These observations also correlate temporally with periods of increasing convergence rates
between the Farallon and South American plates between 58-40 Ma, which was probably
the driving force for tectonic reactivation in the forearc at that time. Previous models that
attributed tectonism in the Andes and the forearc to accretion of oceanic plateau fragments
arc inappropriate.
7. An Oligocène hiatus, which is recorded in all of the tectonostratigraphic blocks of the
coastal region, largely correlates with increasing convergence rates between the Farallon
(which later broke up to form the Nazca Plate) Plate and the South American Plate between
36 and 10 Ma. This period includes the fragmentation ofthe Farallon Plate into the Nazca
and Cocos plates, with rearrangement of die plate dynamics. It is not evident if the hiatus is
non-depositional or erosive, although die latter case would imply that the outer forearc was
exhumed, possible by rock uplift, during the Late Oligocène, which may have been driven
by forces associated with the break-up ofthe Farallon Plate (~28-25Ma).
115
References
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128
Appendix 1 Geological map
Appendix 1
Geological Map
ofthe
Ecuadorian
coastal forearc
129
Punta
Rio
81 80' v,*"l*«0?»?*,ionM 79*
Esmeraldas -'^VÄL \
1"
TC&'J),
J
rAquil
Ci
Jfe"
Gulf
"^-^s>j of ^
Guayaquil
130
xtpuaddy j jboiSojooq dtfUI
Î
3 S O
I ?
Ï
a
S
3
-n
3
-n
I
m I I I Block Esmarafdas
111 I M
Basin Borbon
111
Block Podarnalas
3
3
i, ~
:- i s § s
f S 3
3
3 3
s ï s s
S S s s
-o o o J
BB »9 *
Hi
Basin Maniai» Black Loran» San
i*
cl ta
m S
s»
"
"-a
3
g> 111
3
1 3 Block Pinon
1 3
3 o} m s;
00 103
Basin Progreso
Block Elena Santa
Oligocène Cretaceous Late
in
Pig. ALL Geological map ofthe coastal Ecuadorian forearc between 1°N and 3°S. Compilation based on
previous works (S.N.d.G.y.M, 1969; Bixhy et al., 1970; Granja et al, 1970; Torres el al, 1973, Aguilera et
al., 1974a; Aguilera et al., 1974b; Carré etal., 1974; Savoyat et al., 1974; Torres and Marin, 1974; Huacho
et ai, 1975; Loachamin et al, 1975a; Loachamin et al., 1975b; Loachamin et al, 1975c; Torres et ai, 1975;
Huacho and Cevallos, 1979; Huacho etal, 1979a; Huacho etal, 1979b; Loachamin and Unda, 1979;
Torres and Marin, 1979; Evans and Argtiello, 1980; Evans and Cevallos, 1980; Loachamin and (Inda, 1980;
Marin and Sosa, 1980; Marin et al, 1980; CODIGEM and BGS, 1993; Whittaker, 1988; Benitez, 1995; Witt,
2001), and our own observations. The principalfaults are indicated with bold red lines, and their names are
indicated. Other faults drawn with red dashed lines. The localities mentioned in the text are indicated with
black dots. See the Appendix A 1.2 for key to formations.
Fig. A 1.2. Legend ofthe geological map ofthe coastal Ecuadorian forearc between l°N and 3°S (Pig. Al.l).
Time scale after Gradstein at al. (2004).
132
Foraminifera
Appendix 2
Appendix 2
Planktonic
foraminifera
133
Foraminifera
Appendix 2
im
Rosita fornicata Marglnotruncana

Position of 3 pseudolinneiana
<S&»
100 um 100 um
Globotruncana
aegyptiaca
200 um
Rugoglobigerina sp. Rugoglobigerina sp. Rugoglobigerina sp.
200 um 200 iim 200jim
Fig. A2.1. Pictures ofplanktonic foraminifera ofsamples 03LL238 (Calentura Fm.,

encountered in thin sections
89-84 Ma, UTM coordinates: 539510; 9850841, WGS84) and 03LL126
(Cayo Fm., 73-65 Ma, same location as
paleomagnetic sites 03LL24-25P:UTM coordinates: 630097; 9759647, WGS84). The associated interpretations
are drawn in the lower cases.
134
2 Foraminifera
Appendix
Globotruncana ventncosa Globotruncana Imneiana Globotruncana sp
' '
500 um 200 urn 200 urn
Abathomphalus
intermedius
Radofruncana
200 urn subspinosa

Globotruncanita sp Globotruncanita stuarti
200 \m\ 200 tim 200 urn
/';g 12 2 Picturesof planktonic foraminifera encountered m thin sections of samples 04LL3I5 (San I orenzo
Im Campanian-Maastrichtian same location as paleomagnetic site 04LL74P UTM coordinates 549906
9887061) and 041181P (Cava Fm 71 5-70 Xta III M coordinates 5H0902 9775478 H(rS84) Phe associated
interpretations aie drawn in the lowercases
135
Appendix 2 Foraminifera
Globotruncana Rugotruncana Globotruncana
aegyptiaca subcircumnodifer linn&ana
&2
1 '
200 jim 200 urn 200 um
Rugoglobigernia sp
' '
200 (im
Globotruncanita Rugoglobigenna sp Rugoglobigerina sp.

subspinosa
' ' 1 '

200 pm 200 jam 200 um
/•/# A 2 3 Pictures of planktonic foraminifera encountered in thin sections ofsamples 041L83D (Cayo F m 73-70
,
Ma, l IM coordinates 582338, 9777845) and 03LL304 (Cayo Fm .Campanian-Maastrichtian UTM coordinates
611334, 9769697, WGS84) The associated interpretations are drawn in the lower cases
136
Appendix 3 Paleomagiielism
Appendix 3
Paleomagnetic
analyses
137
Appendix 3 Paleomagnetism
Appendix 3a
Isothermal Remanent
Magnetisation (IRM)
Data Table
138
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139
Appendix 3b
Paleomagnetic data
NRM, AMS, and

Curie temperature
measurements
140
Annendix 3 -
Lerend ofthe figures related to paleomagnetic analyses
Data table
Specimen, specimen to which the data relates, N, number of demagnetization steps selected for the compulation of tlie stable
NRM vector, Attitude, site attitude used for tilt correction expressed by azimuth/dip (astensk indicates that tlie attitude is
from nearby outcrop), and I declination and inclination, and k related statistical Fisher parameters
a
Dg in situ mean
ra„g ,
(rishcr, 1953), Ds and Is, tilt corrected mean declination and inchnation, a95s and ks, related statistical Tisher parameters (bisher,
1953), M, NRM intensity, Polarity, polanty ofthe magnetic chron dunng which tlie NRM was acquired Plotting routine from
PaleoMac 6 1 (Cogné, 1993)
Ztjderveld plot
Orthogonal NRM vector projection during demagnetisation according to 7ijderveld (1967), in situ or tilt corrected Plotting
routine from PalMac 6 1 (Cogne, 1993)
Equal area projection (LAI')

NRM The data represent stable mean NRM directions (see results in the table), and tlie star lepiesents tlie site mean direction
(see bold line in tlie table) Open symbols on lower hemisphere, full symbols on upper hemisphere Tlie projections referred
to as 'Interpreted' have been plotted after corrections related to (l) tlie nature ofthe magnetic polanty recorded in the NRM
(NRM directions recorded during reversed polarity dirons were inverted), and (u) tlie structural attitude (see table) Plotting
routine from PaleoMac 6 1 (Cogne, 1993)
Anisotropy Maximum principal axes k1 (squares), intermediate principal axes k2 (triangles) and minimum pncipal axes
k? (circles) Large symbols and surrounding confidence ellipses (at 95% probability) represent mean directions and related
statistical parameters according to Jchnek (1978) All AMS principal axes have been plotted on the lower hemisphere Plotting
routine from PaleoMac 6 1 (Cogne, 1993)
Susceptibility vs temperature
Measurements were done after coolmg of the spec miens during the thermal demagnetisation procedure
I-P 'diagram
Shape parameter T (Hiouda, 1982) plotted as a function of tlie anisotropy degree P' (Jehnek, 1981) Plotting routine from
PaleoMac 6 1 (Cogne, 199?)
Curie point measurement
Induced magnetisation M (in a field of 0 21 ), plotted as a function of temperature Dashed lines are extensions of tlie
measurement curves if more than one ferromagnetic pliase can be identified their intersection with the abscissa have been
used to determine tlie Curie temperature Sample 04LL80E was analysed on a VFTB balance m the Paleomagnetic 1 aboratory
ofthe University of Munich All other samples were analysed using a home-made horizontal Cune balance in the Laboratory
for Natural Magnetism of tlie ETH Zurich (Exnar, 1997)
141
Appendix 3b. 1
Paleomagnetic data
Volcanic basement
and
island arc sequence
Pinôn Block
142
Site 03LL56P Site 03LL57P
Den taofe for the specimens fndtceUng » stmbn nsturwi wmnant mtgnetfsmtion
Data tab's Air (ha «pecftncn* tndtcmting m «Mua naft^'ram*/-" magna-ÏMtfon
Spaclmwi N Attitude o- «. D. L fm. k. H[Mm| Polarity
°1 -1
03LL56A 7 SfMCllFMII N Atfltuda 1. « k. O. 1. 0» k. MTAhmJ PoUrtty
190/20* 719 -14 1 1 S91 -42 1 015 Normal o,
03LLS6B 7 190(20* 69 2 23 9 04 636 -12 7 04 2.11 Normal 031L57AA 9 190/20* 77 S -14 7 04 74 1 -64 04 3 09-Q1 Normal
03LL56C 7 190120* 685 -12 9 06 663 -2 06 1 46 03LL57AB 5 130/20* 77 2 -13 4 OS 74 2 -51 08 3 2TE-01 Normal
Normal
3 19000* CO.) -17 03LL57BA 9 190/20* 78 7 -14 6 02 75 2 -67 02 2 62E-01 Normal

SHe average 1(5.2 9.6 6&3 «J 115 J a.s Mormal
03U.57B8 9 190/20* 73 6 -17 4 1 1 698 -7 9 1 1 2 56E-Q1 Normal
03LL57CA 9 190/20* 73 4 -15 9 04 699 -63 04 4 50E-01 Normal
03LLS7CB 6 190/20' 73 8 -13 7 09 71 -44 09 5 09E-01 Normal
Z^tServeldplot-Wt corrected EV>- NRM (In situ) EAP-«RM(to«-äfpret«C
03LL57DA 9 190/20* 663 -14 04 639 -2 4 04 3 26E-01 Normal
Specimen: 03LL56B 03LL57DB 9 1
190/20" 66 8 -15 7 63 -4 1 4 64E-01 Normal
03LL57EA 9 190/20* 79 -13 5 03 75 9 -5 6 03 9 0TE-01 Normal
03LL57EB 9 190/20' 76 B -131 1 1 74 -17 1 1 9 51E-01 Normal
03LLS7FA 6 190/20* 77 6 -13 3 03 74 5 -51 03 6 68E-01 Normal
03LLS7GA 8 190/20* 71 7 -15 B 03 68 4 -ST 03 515E-0I Normal
03LLS7GB 9 190/20* 73 6 -19 4 1 69 -9 7 1 416E-01 Normal
Snaavaraga 13 100/20* 74.3 -IS 2J 31«.4 71 -S.7 2.3 316.4 Normal
zgdwvstd plot-Tilt corrected EAP-MtH(tntito) EAP-NRM(lnterpr*t»d)

Specimen: 03LL57BA
Y. Up
°<0**
Curie Point measurement
Sample. 03LL56C
t1|*Vnj
Formation: Pinon
>!
Block: PirWi i
k
Locality: Nobol \
E Ûiïftl
0 100 200 300 -ifje 50C ÖD0
0610094
Uthology: Gabbro
Formvüon: Pinon
Age- 90-87 Ma
Block: Piflon
Locality: NobOl
978TT26
Coordliwtas:
0610094
Lithology: Gabbro
Ago: 90-37 Ma
Data leble for the specimen* Indtating a stsble natural remanent megnetlsatlon
Data tenia tor the specimens Indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation
Spadman N ArJHuda a* k. D. L a«. k. UtA/m] Polarity
>, i,
03LL56A 7 19O20* 71 9 -14 1 1 691 -12 1 0 15 Normal HTA/m]
03LL56B 7 190/20* 69.2 -23 9 04 63 6 -12.7 04 211 Normal 03LL57AA 190/20* 775 14 7 04 74 1 -64 3Ü9E-01 Normal
03U.S6C 7 190*20* 6B5 -12 9 06 66 3 -2 06 146 Normal 03LL57A8 190/20' 772 -134 08 74 2 -51 08 3 27E-G1 Normal
03LL57BA 190(20* 767 -14 6 75 2 -67 02 2 62E-01 Normal
Stte avéras* 3 10W30* es.» -17 16SJ 0.6 64.3 6J 165.2 «A Normal
03LIS7BB 190/20" 73 B -174 69 8 -7 9 2.58E-D1 Normal
Û3US7CA 190/20* 73 4 -159 04 69 9 -63 4 50E-G1 Normal
03LL57CB 190/20* 73 8 -137 09 71 -44 09 5 09E-Û1 Normal
- EAP -
Ztfrter-mfo* pk>t TBf corrected NRM (kl situ) BU>- HfW (Interpreted)
03LL57DA 190/20' 663 -14 04 63 9 -2 4 04 3 26E-01 Normal
Specimen. 03LL56B N
03LL5TDB 190/20* 653 -15 7 63 -4 4 64E-G1 Normal
03LL57EA 190/20' 79 -13 5 75 9 -5 6 9 07E-01 Normal
03LLS7EB 190/20* 76 8 -131 74 -47 9 51E-G1 Normal
03LL57FA 190/20* 775 13 3 03 74.5 -51 03 6 66E-01 Normal
03UL57GA 190/20* 717 -15 8 03 6B4 -57 03 5 15E-G1 Normal
03LL57GB 190/20* 73 6 -194 -9 7 4 16E-G1 Normal
Zijderveld plot-Wit corrected EAP NPH (In situ) EAP-NRM (Interpreted)
Specimen: 03LL5TBA
Curia Point measurement S«b Information
Sarnpte.MU.S6C
Formation: Pm6n
Hock: Pifion
Locality: Nocoi
0 100 20Q
9787726
300 «0 500 K0
0610094
Pi flon
Age: 90-87 Ma
Pifton
Locality: Nobol
9787726
Coordinate»:
0610094
LKhology; Gabbro
Age: 90-87 Ma
Data table (or the specimens Indicating a

a
stable natural remanent magnetisation Data table tor the specimens Indicating stable natural remanent magnétisation
Specimen N Attttude D. U < N

*-, -, o_ s m*. M[A/m] Polarity Specimen Mtrtude o». k. D. I. o_ k. M[AAn] Polarity
"r 1,
03LL59AA 9 190/20* 217 4 21 2 46 215 5 33 46 2.976-03 Reversed 03LL6OAA 4 165/20 546 •«6 25 536 06 25 2 S5E-01 Normal
0QLLS9AB 6 190/20* 215 192 25 213 5 1 25 2.696-03 Reversed 03U.6ÛAB 5 165/20 60 -17 6 57 549 -117 57 4156-01 Normal
03LL59CB 4 160/20* 2309 269 S3 2265 11 3 53 5 38E-02 Reversed 03LL60BA 4 165/20 49 4 -1 1 46 504 74 48 3 696 01 Normal
03LL59DA 7 193/20- 231 6 301 33 226 5 14 5 33 4 33E-02 Reversed 4
03LL60DA 165/20 62 12 34 63.2 55 34 2 73E-01 Normal
03LL59OB 7 190/20* 231 2 26 31 227 10 4 31 3 906-02 Reversed 03LL60DB 5 165/20 66S 12 16 67 7 4 1 8 5 30E 01 Normal
03LL59EA 8 190/20* 239 22 1 3.2 235 84 32 1 S7E-03 Reversed 03LL60EA 4 165/20 67 2 177 24 73 9 19 2 24 6 446-01 Normal
03LL59EC 8 190/20* 240 9 19 5 32 237 3 64 32 172E-03 Reversed 03LL60E6 4 165/20 698 66 27 72 4 e 27 4 36E-01 Normal
03U.59FA 7 190/20' 2416 20 2 49 237 9 72 49 7 09E-03 Reversed D3LL60FA 3 165/20 641 91 27 67 9 i« 27 4 036 01 Normal
SHe average 180/20* 51 -215 7 «M 47.4 -7.0 7 tan Reveraed t 1S5/20 61.7 IJ S.7 41 j
SHeaveraaa S-r-0 S.7 3.7 41J Normal
-
Zl/derveld plot Tilt corrected EAP -NRM (Insitu) -
Zr/rfen-eWpto« TW cofrectaoJ EAP- NRM (In ami) EAP-NRM (Interpreted)
Specimen: 03LL53AB
Specimen. 03LLSOAB M »
w
L«f
t
*t
re 3[r*.Ti
Ï IS^plTl
E Dow
DC*frT
Curie point measurement She utfofttntton

Curie point measurement SHe
Sampte: 03LL59AB
Sampte. 03U.60F
Las Orchideas
Piflôn f Las Orquideas
Pifton
Block: Piiïon
Locality: Petnllo
Las Mercedes
9764622
9780468
Coordinator
13614130
Pillow iava [basalt)
0 100 2GÛ 300 400 500 600 T TCI Pillow lava (basalt}
Lithology:
0 1« Î00 300 400 50Û e« T"C]
Upper Cretaceous
Age, Upper Cretaceous
Site 03LL70P Site03LL71P
Data table lor tin specimens Indicating a stabler,

Data tabto for ttoapecmiensindicatitTg
P. HÇAJm] PotarHy
04U70AA 4 Not known 443 -20 4 25 7.21E-01 Normal
04LL7ÎAA 6 Not known 391 -20 9 Î 1 2 93E-Ö1 Normal
04LL70AB 6 Not known 364 -186 1 9 5 766-01 Normal
04LL7ÎA8 6 Not known 335 -217 16 2 20E-O1 Normal
04LL70BA 6 Not known 21 -19 7 49 5 425-01 Normal
04LL7ÎBA 7 Not known 2BB -26 5 43 6 90.E-01 Normal
04LL70CA 6 Noi known 71 6 233 26 3 346-01 Normal
04LL71CA 6 Not known 24 5 -34 7 19 3 9ÛË-02 Normal
04LL706A 7 Not known 662 208 29 9 6364)1 Normal
04LL71CB 6 Not known 262 -33 25 416E-02 Normal
Sit»average 5 Hotkrwwn its
04LL71QA 8 Not known 338 -29 Î 1 7 2 89E-01 Normal
041X716A 6 Not known 323 -36 29 3 40E-01 Normal
04LL7Î6B 7 Not known 325 -35 3 t 3 7 19E-Ü1 Normal
Zgderrektplot-tnsmi EAP -NRM(Insitu) Curie point measurement 04LL71FA 7 Not known 30B -32 6 1 2 13E-01 Normal
Specimen: 04LL70AA Sample: 04LL70C 04LL71FB 6 Not known 303 -32 6 1 2 2 41E-Ö1 Normal
04U.71GA 7 Not known 364 -30 8 16 1 29E-OÏ Normal
04LL71GB 5 N<4 known 358 -31 2 1 5 1 12E-01 Normal
12 Hot known 12.1 -30A J.3 172.6
-
Zijdorveld plot In ami EAP -HRM(mxitu)
N
Specimen: 04LL71FA
Prftön / Las Orquideas
r°
Pinon
0 103 200 Î50 4K 503 ©DOTfC
Site information
Pinon I Las Orquideas Wehrlite
Block: Piriàn Upper Cretaceous
Locality: Sahire
0626622
Lithology: Wshrlite
Upper Cretaceous
f
(TJ
Data table lor the specimens a DaCa table for Hie apedmena Indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation
indicating stable natural remanent magnetisation
04U.77BA 3 Not known 29 9 -28 4 44 3 6Qe-0l NormaE 04LL79AA 4 200/20* 24 8 -23 5 4 24 4 -31 54 2B8E-01 Normal
04LL77CA 3 Not known 31 8 -30 4B 3-91 £-01 NormaE 04LL79C8 4 200Ö0* 36 7 -30 8 2.3 346 -11 5 23 2 566-01 Normal
04LL77OA 4 Not known 317 -11 1 3.2 7 45E-Q3 Normal 04LL79DA 4 200/20* 28 3 -27 6 4 7 27 4 -7 6 47 271E-01 Normal
04LL77DB 4 Not known 39 3 -36 26 7 38E-02 Normal 04U.79EA 5 2QO/2Q* 313 -18 2 31 307 1 4 31 164E-01 Normal
04a776A 3 Not known 545 -432 25 2-35E-01 Normal 04LL76EB 4 200/20* 475 -197 41 456 -16 41 2 2Œ-01 Normal
04LL77EB 3 Not known 447 -485 45 163Ê-01 Normal 33J) -24.1 OJt
04LL77FA 3 Not known 39 6 -26 4 6 1 Ö9E-Q1 Normal
04LL77FB 4 Not known 46 5 -30 4 29 2-74E-01 Normal
B Not tmown »J zgderveld plot-TTtt corrected EAP -NRM(insftu)

Specimen: 04LL79CB
*\ op
zyoenettplot- m sou EAP -NRMflnsHu) f

Specimen. 04LL77DB
Pinon / Las Orquideas
Piflon
il \
S
'if0 1 [AViä
Salrtre
9777046 y-
0625101
Wehrlite
Site Information
Upper Cretaceous
Formation: Pinon / Las Orquirieas
Block: Pinon
Locality: Villao
Coordin*»: *?"»
0569070
LltholDgy: Massive lava flow (basalt)
Ada: Laie Cretaceous
fc
Site 04LL80P
Data table for the tpeelment Indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation
Specimen N Attitude L D. L k. M[A/m] Polarity
°, ««. "l On.
04LL80AA 4 200/20* 33 9 -151 38 33 4 44 38 2 096-01 Normal
04LL80AB 5 200/20* 18 6 -15 5 25 186 45 25 3 77E-01 Normal
04LL80BA 3 200/20* 41 1 -214 32 39 6 -2 6 32 2 03E-01 Normal
04LL808B 4 200/20* 42 1 15 8 54 412 28 54 2 38E-01 Normal
04LL80CA 4 200/20* 20 3 9 86 20 3 11 86 3 10E-01 Normal
04LL80CB 2 200/20" 24 16 2 23 23 8 38 23 3 78E-01 Normal
O41LS0DA 3 200/20" 43 -1S1 65 418 04 65 6 90E02 Normal
04LL800C 3 200/20' tu 7 -215 64 42 9 -3 2 64 2 50E-01 Normal
04LL80EA 4 200/20* 27 03 14 27 5 19 5 1 4 3 50E01 Normal
04LL80E8 5 200/20" 28 5 12 3 28 28 3 75 23 3 56E-01 Normal
Site average 10 20D/20- 32.2 -14.7 4.9 31.3 31.3 49 4.8 31.3 Normal
Zllderveld plot Tilt corrected

- EAP - NRM (In tlW) EAP - NRM (Interpreted)
Specimen: 04LL8OAB
Oune point determination Site Information

Sample: 04U.BOE
Formation: Pift6n Las Orquideas
Block: Pirlon
Locality: Villao
Coortlnat«: ZÎ1Î?
0568641
Lithology: Massive lava flow (basait)
0 100 2« 300 4M 500 600 T

Aga: Upper Cretaceous
[X]
148
Appendix 3b.2
Paleomagnetic data
Calentura Fm.
Pinön Block
149
Site 03LL49P Site 03LLS2P
Data table for the specimens indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation
Specimen H Attitude D, k. 0. L a» k. H[Wm] Potorty
U[Mm] Polarity 1, °«l
03LL49BA a 216/20 345 2 03LL52AA 6 324/10 338 7 22 8 9 340 32 4 9 4 81E-04 Normal
176 346 23 2 4 18E-02 Normal
03LL52BA 7 206/10 S1 24 3 11 1 65 151 11 1 9 14E-05 Normal
03U49CA 7 216/20 24 3 24 4 23 25 3 -48 23 3 35E-02 Normal
03U-52CA 7 296/10 358 7 94 75 05 14 1 75 4 17E-04 Normal
03LL49DA e 218/20 33 27 3 24 33 3 7.3 24 4 91E-C2 Normal
s 03LL52CB 9 286ffl6 3589 10 9 171 01 126 17 1 1 32E-04 Normal
03LL49DB 216/20 35 9 23 5 24 359 35 24 4 94E-02 Normal
03LL52CO 12 296/10 9 7 -07 102 10 38 102 3 796-04 Normal
03LL49EA e 216/20 22 S 18 8 24 23 2 07 24 4 24E-02 Normal
03LL49EB a 216120 27 2 19 1 6 03LL52OA 8 286/06 0 4 38 12 6 01 22 12 6 3 09E-04 Normal
27 7 08 16 2 98E-02 Normal
03LL52EA S 260108 283 41 4 112 22 46 112 2 44E-04 Normal
29.5 -215
03LL52EB 7 260/08 0 3 17 8 43 27 161 43 3 08E-04 Normal
Stte average 1 1.9 -5J 17.3 112 U -t.0 17 3 10 3 Normal
-
Ztjdervetd plot Tilt corrected SAP- NRM (Interpreted)
-
Specimen 03LL49CA Zudetveld plot Tilt corrected EAP NRM (In situ) EAP- NRM (Interpreted)
Specimen 03LL52CA N N
Ln vs BAP -
Site
Susceptibtifty temperature anisotropy T-P1 diagram
O vs EAP- Site T-P
Soscepil'br'jry terrrpe»afaare anisotropy diagram
+
1C5
5/re rn/omratron
Site information
Calentura
Calerttura
Pinon
Pi dun
Locality: Rio Guaraguau

Locality- Guayaquil city dump
9775610
05S5635 9770100
0615000
Lrthology Organic sandstone
Age' 89-84 Ma
Age: 89-84 Ha
ix 3
Appendix 3b.3
Paleomagnetic data
Cayo Fm.
Pinön Block
151
Slte03LL21P Site 03LL22P
Data table for the spec fmens indicating a o

a
stable natural remanent magnetisation Data table for the specimens stable natural remanent
indicating magnetisation
SpecMMn N AMtude L. «* D. L Oh. K. K*A**1] Polarity N Attitude
R
">, "f Specimen D. - D. 1. n» K. rayum]
If °»i Polarity
03LL21AA 13 210/15 1 5 -14 4 65 25 -1 1 65 2 41E-02 Normal 03LL22M 5 210/15 8 5 -11 5 1 9 39 25 1 9 1 14E-01 Normal
03U21AB 9 210/15 102 -5 7 51 101 85 51 2 44E-02 Normal 03LL22AB 11 210/15 20 g -9 7 95 209 51 95 1 14E-01 Normal
03LI21AC 6 210/15 79 -14 62 SS 0 62 2 77E-02 Normal 03LL22EA 8 210/15 203 3 25 9 1 7 203 8 11 1 7 2 62E-02 Reversed
03LL21AD 10 210/15 51 16 3 59 62 -26 59 6 10E-O2 Normal 03LL22BB 13 210/15 210 28 5 128 210 135 126 1 75E42 Reversed
03LL21BA 11 210/15 11 6 26 5B 10 8 168 56 6 46E-02 Normal 03LL22CA 7 210/15 6 8 23 64 58 161 64 S68E-02 Normal
03LL21BB 10 210/15 17 3 -2 4 46 17 12 3 46 7 76E-02 Normal 03LL22CE 7 210/15 9 9 71 74 22 9 71 7 86E4T2 Normal
03LL21BC 6 210/15 137 -10 32 14 44 32 7 7SE-02 Normal 03L122DA 5 210/15 11 33 131 10 174 131 162E-01 Normal
03LL21BD 6 210/15 129 2 29 121 163 29 6 78E-02 Normal See average 7 210T15 15 J ta 12 » 23 «J S.7 12J 23 Mind
03LL21BE 9 210/15 122 -16 7 11 8 127 7 9 70E-O2 Normal
03LL21CA 7 210(15 46 36 6 43 97 6 2 47E-02 Normal
03LL21CB 8 210/15 354 7 -7 S 44 44 Tilt corrected EAP -
355 45 1 10E-02 Normal Zqdervetd plot- NRM (In situ) iEAP- HRM (interpreted)
03LL21OA 10 210/15 32 7 -3 7 67 328 11 3 57 2 22E-02 Normal
Specimen: 03LL22BA N «
See average 12 210/1S 10.4 -6.S 3 52.4 10.3 7.1 t 524 Normal
- EAP -*
Zijderveld plot Tilt corrected NRM (In situ) EAP- NRM (Interpreted)
Specimen 03LL21BA
EAP -
Susceptibility vs. temperature Site anisotropy T- P'diagram
Susceptibility v& temperature EAP- Site anisotropy T-P'diagram f
Site information
n: Cayo
Site mformation Block: Piflûn
Formation: Cayo Guayaquil ring road
9762022
Block: PirîDn CoardTnatea:
0S17O96
a
Siltstone
GuayaquP ring road
O
9764235 Ana: 3
0616974 £0
0q
Stltstone
Afle: Maastrichtian
Site 03LL24P Sue 03LL25P
a
Data table for the specimens Indicating astable natural remanent magnetisation Data table for the specimens stable natural remanent magnetisation
indicating
Spadmen N Attttuda ««. D. L Oaa k, UpUn' Polar*,
-*, «, *, Sped ni en N AUttuda «« n. (. Or» K H[Mn- Polartty
D, I, s
03LL24AA 12 200/20 359 2 212 4 02 -3 7 4 3 73E-02 Normal
03LL25BA 3 200/20 4S -101 86 46 77 66 4 64E-02 Normal
03LL24AS 12 200/20 4 188 16 46 -1 1 16 6 31E4J2 Normal
03UL25DA 13 200/20 91 6 41 82 237 41 2 47E-01 Normal
03LL24BA 9 200/20 40 9 19 38 40 41 38 S39E-02 Normal
030251» 11 200/20 75 4 27 67 21 6 27 3 03E-01 Normal
03U.24BB 13 200/20 43 6 -251 32 41 9 24 32 4 49E-Q2 Normal
03LL25EA 11 200/20 119 37 24 116 17 24 2 86E-01 Normal
03LL24CA 12 200/20 349 2 168 1 5 3503 39 15 2 44E-0Î Normal
03LL25EB 14 200/20 72 344 43 76 14 4 43 3 5ÛE-01 Normal
03LL24CB 14 200/20 351 1 179 38 352 4 31 38 4 04E-01 Normal Q3L12EFA 4 200/20 37 307 27 49 13 27 8 98E-02 Normal
03LL24CC 14 200/20 3529 166 29 3539 45 29 3 40E-01 Normal
03IX25EB 8 200/20 19 8 24 23 19 3 -6 1 23 136E-01 Normal
03LL24DA 10 200720 18 37 2 24 16 7 17 4 24 9 43E-02 Normal
Site avenge 7 20W20 3.1 -132 14J 11» ) OJ 13.7 20J Normal
03ti24DB 14 200/20 21 7 -35 39 19 9 1S3 39 î 55E01 Normal
03LL24EA 13 200/20 234 151 37 231 27 37 145E-01 Normal
03LL24EB 13 200/20 24 1 206 38 23S 28 38 1 23E-01 Normal
• EAP • EAP -
Zjjderveld plot TM corrected NRM {In sttu) NRM {Interpreted)
Sita average 11 200*20 13.1 -23.2 11 It« 1SJ A3 11 MJ Normal
Specimen-03LL2SEA
•
Zijdervetd plot Tltt corrected EAP -NRM(In Situ) EAP-NRM (interpreted)
Specimen G3LL24EA
vs EAP- Site T - P*
Susceptibility temperature anisotropy diagram
EAP -
Susceptibility vs temperature Site anisotropy T-P' diagram
at
••
1.06 F
Site information
Formation: Cayo
Block: Pmrln
Cayo
Locally: Ouran
Block: Prflrjn
9759647 *0
Coordinate*:
0630097
Locality- Ouran
Lithology: Sandstone
9759647
0630097
Age: Maastrichtian
Lithology: Pelrte
Age: Maastnchtian
Site03LL50P Site03LL51P >
"O
O
Data table for the specimens indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation Data table for the specimens indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation
Specimen H Attttuda ' «w B. 1. Oar. k. M[A/m1 Polarity

o, *|
03LL50AA 3 196/15 201 3 28 1 29 2008 13 2 29 8 04E-02 Reversed 03LL51AA 5 206/09 357 8 43 6 357 1 12 2 6 1 13E-01 Normal
03LLS088 7 196/15 207 7 39 4 67 2059 24 7 67 1 08E-Q1 Reversed 03LL51BA S 206/09 354 5 -86 35 3549 -09 35 5 10E-02 Normal
03LL50BC 3 196715 22 6 -26 6 12 7 222 -117 12 7 8 74E-02 Normal 03U.S1CA 9 208/09 339 1 88 62 337 7 14 9 62 7 42E-01 Normal
O3LL50CA 11 196/15 196 6 22 7 29 1984 77 29 2.12E-01 Reversed 03LL51CB 6 206/09 343 î 98 65 3416 16 3 65 3 66E-01 Normal
O3LL50CB 9 196/15 196 8 16 6 81 1987 1 7 81 144E-01 Reversed Item 343.1 3.6 43.7 347J 11.1 14.1 CT
03LLSOOA 7 196/15 2021 30 9 1 4 201 4 159 14 1.27E-01 Reversed
SMa average B 136/13 21.7 -27.4 1.1 » 2%2 -12.» 1.B 33 Mxad
EAP -
Zijderveldplot' Tilt corrected NRM (In situ) EAP NRM (Interpreted)
-
Specimen. 03LL51CA
Ztjdetveld plot Tilt corrected EAP NRM (In situ) EAP- «RM (Interpreted)
Specimen 03LLS0AA N N
A
oP
/
D;[rVn|
X
C 5 [A*r>]
e r****,
Susceptibility vs. temperature EAP- Site anisotropy T-P'diagram

£
5-s 3
^s.
Ita3 ~
Cx
-^
"
?<K3
Zi>~ 400 -ûGO

Tra
Srie rnrbrniaborr
Site information
Formation: Cayo
Forntatfori: Cayo
Block: Pifton
Block: Pifion
Locality: Guayaquil
Locality: Guayaquil
9761746
Coordfnatea:
9761746 0621174
Coordlnatee:
0621174
Uthotogy: Siltstone
00
Age: Upper Cretaceous
Cretaceous
3
Age: Upper
Site 04LL76P Site04LL81P
Data table tor the specimens indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation
N Attttuda D. L °rk «. a«. H[Aati] Polarity
Specimen ">, h k,
Specimen N Attttude o-* D, L o» k. M[/Um] Polarity
04U.76AA 7 192/34 51 7 -39 6 32 421 -11 3 32 146E-04 Normal D| -, •*!
04LL81BA 5 178/25 1686 415 1 8 1663 16 8 18 6 31E-05 Reversed
04LC766A 6 192/34 45 8 -43 16 367 -13 16 214E-04 Normal
7 04UB1BB 5 178/25 1821 41 6 1 6 181 2 16 8 16 6 9SE-05 Reversed
04LL76f38 192/34 418 -194 43 40 5 105 43 2 06E-04 Normal
04U.76CA 6 04O81EA 9 178/25 201 5 42 6 39 1961 19 2 39 5 66E-05 Reversed
192/34 53 -45 9 54 40 6 -17 5 54 1 656-04 Normal
04LL81EB 6 178Q5 191 6 40 26 1688 15 5 26 5 46E-05 Reversed
Site average 4 1.2*34 »» -J7.1 14,5 41 40 •7.3 14.5 41 Normal
04LL81FA 3 178/25 1952 399 27 191 6 15 7 27 5 49E-05 Reversed
D4LL81FB 8 178/25 201 346 28 1971 11 2 28 5 08E-05 Reversed
04LL81FC 8 178/25 199 9 333 3 1964 98 3 4 50E-05 Reversed
Zijderveid plot-Tift corrected EAP NRM (In situ) EAP- NRM (Interpreted)
Me average T 1TW2S 14.4 -3» S 147.1 11.1 -15.1 7 147.1 Revaraed
Specimen: 04LL76BA
plot - Titt corrected EAP •

Zijderveid NRM (In situ) EAP NRM (Interpreted)
Specimen; Q4LL81BA
ic 5 rA-rr-]
vs. EAP -
Susceptibility temperature SHe anisotropy T- P* diagram
Dowi
Susceptibility vs. temperature EAP- Sue anisotropy T-P'diagram
0 200 A 00 ax
TPC]
Srfe information
0 20Ù 4CO 6KJ

TTC.
Formation: Cayo
Site information
Block: Pifton
Locality: Las Mercedes Formation: Cayo

9776566
CooroJnate-i: Block: Piflùn
0591450
Lttnology: Pelite Locality: Rio Bachillero

o
9775478 3
'
Age: Upper Cretaceous a
0560902 00
Lithology: Siltstone
Age: 72-70 Ma
Data table for the specimens indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation Oata table for tlie specimens a stable natural remanent
P. L Specimen N Attitude L o«. 0. L Om. k, M[A/n] Polarity

a.,. K. P. Lcc—K. M[A/m] Polarity D, *,
04LL82DA 4 170705 193 6 101 193 3 55 7 53E-0S 04LL63AA 9 134/05 35 -11 2 28 341 -10 4 28 140E-04 Normal
04LL82DB 4 170*05 192 9 191 8 43 A 89E-0S 04LL83AB 4 134*35 23 5 149 32 24 8 166 32 1 27E-04 Normal
Reversed
04U82PC 4 170*35 196 11 3 195 6 68 7 02E-05 Reversed 04U83BA 9 134/05 55 5 -10 4 26 546 -11 3 26 9 30E-O5 Normal
04lles2ec 10 170/05 206 3 15 2056 109 A 97E-Ö5 Reversed 04IX83BB 7 134/05 59 1 -10 7 23 582 -12 23 8 S7E-05 Normal
04U82FA 4 170/05 207 4 20 9 2064 10 9 A 77E-A5 Reversed 04LL83DA 9 134/05 51 3 -16 26 49 9 -16 5 26 1 35E-04 Normal
04LL82FB 5 170*05 208 3 17 2 207 5 133 3 27E-06 Reversed U4LLB3DB 10 134/05 49 7 -9 8 25 48 8 -102 25 1 90E-04 Normal
04LL82FC 6 170*35 207 9 177 207 1 137 61SE-0S Reversed 04LL83OC 10 134/05 49 4 -13 7 27 482 -14 1 27 1 20E-04 Normal
Q4LL830D 9 134/05 491 -101 24 48 2 -105 24 2 01E-04 Normal
04U.83DE 9 134/05 48 3 -6 1 19 47 7 -65 1 9 1 83E-04 Normal
04LL63EA 9 134/05 37 2 -4 2 28 369 -3 5 23 1 53E-04 Normal
- Tilt corrected 04LL83EB S 134/05 347 -5 4 3 343 -4 6 3 1 64E-04 Normal
Zijdervetdplot EAP -NRM(I"situ) EAP- NRM (Interpreted)
04LLB3FA 9 134/05 565 -11 25 555 -12 25 9 23E45 Normal
Specimen: 04LLB2EC
04U.83FB 6 134/05 59 6 -18 9 16 57 B -20 1 1 6 B 05E-05 Normal
Site average 11 134n5 46.» -3.3 7 »J 43.1 -3.1 T 332 Normal
Tïft corrected EAP - NRM EAP -

Zijderveid plot {In situ) NRM (Interpreted)
Specimen: 04LLB3OD
. ie-1 OVm
vs. EAP ' Site T'P'

Susceptibility temperature anisotropy diagram
C"
Susceptibility vs temperature
Site information 0 2S! «C -OOo
Cayo Site Information
Bktcfc: Pi raon
FonngatfQ-n: Cayo
Block: Pifion
9776789
Coordfnal
0582222 Rio Bachillero
Locality:
Siltstone
9777Ö45
0582336
74-70 Ma
Age: 74-71 Ma
Site 04LL85P
Site 04LL84P
04U.85AA 4 210(24 102 95 3 68 31 8 3 1 50E-O4 Normal
04LL85AB 5 210/24 12 112 26 356 2 31 8 26 1 15E-04 Normal
04LL85AC 4 210f24 3 13 9 42 357 5 348 42 1 14E-04 Normal
MlA/m] Potartty 04LL85AD 4 210/24 99 19 3 4 43 41 5 4 1 29E-04 Normal
04LLB4AB 10 228*24 406 -139 41 40 7 9 9 4 1 1 75E 05 Normal 04LL85AE 4 210*24 85 18 2 32 3 40 1 3.2 1 03E-Q4 Normal
04UL84AA B 228/24 4B4 13 5 29 48 4 10 S 2 9 1 70E-05 Normal 04LL8SB8 4 210/24 32 25 1 5 05 23 7 1 5 î 35E-04 Normal
04LL858O 3 210/24 27 81 19 358 6 29 1 1 9 1S9E-04 Normal
04LL85CA 2 210/24 353 3 -13.6 23 354 3 59 23 4 79E-07 Normal
-
Zijdervekl plot Tttt corrected EAP -NRM(Insttu) EAP-NRM (Interpreted) 04LL85CB 3 210724 35B2 -12 8 1 358? 77 1 6 24E-07 Normal
Specimen: 04LL84AB 04U85CC 5 210*24 359 3 -22 4 74 1 9 -14 74 7 89E-07 Normal
04U.85CD 4 210(24 357 4 -15 2 6 358 5 52 6 S 16E-07 Normal
04LL85OA 7 210/24 68 -20 2 39 32 2 39 3S5E-07 Normal
A -P 04LL85DB 6 210/24 99 -3 7 93 88 186 93 3 33E-07 Normal
le-5G-W|
04LL85EA 5 210/24 74 72 43 41 29 2 43 144E-04 Normal
04LL85ES 4 210(24 6 15 6 37 06 37 4 37 1 26E-0- Normal
\ 04LL85FA 5 210/24 35BS 54 96 354 a 25 6 96 7 04E-O7 Normal

04LLS5FB 7 210/24 78 -1 9 9 62 20 3 9 8 64E-07 Normal
04ULBSFC 6 210/24 38 136 102 41 e 10 2 1 01E-06 Normal
\
04U.85GA 5 210/24 21 -12 6 34 25 87 34 4 72E-07 Normal
04U.85GB 9 210S4 62 -55 49 53 164 49 6 13E-C7 Normal
- EAP -
Zydervekt plot In situ NRM (In situ) EAP- NRM (Interpreted)
Specimen. 04U.S5BB
Susceptibility vs. temperature T-P'o3ao7arn
-»«»ff-if—'—-^-—*r7T.
\
\
S3
E DOW"!
T '
Susceptibility vs. temperature P' diagram
Site rororman'orr
Cayo
Pirlon
Rio Bacfiillero ^x
a
2UC 400 -r
9778501
0582493
Site Information
Siltstone
Formation: Cayo
84-70 Ma
Block: Pinon
Locality: Rio Bechr-Hera
9779015
Coordinate«:
0582576
LJlti-ology: Sandstone
64 -
A«* 70 Ma
Appendix 3b.4
Paleomagnetic data
Guayaquil Fm.
Pinôn Block
158
Site03LL11P Site 03LL54P
ct
3
-No stable NRM
03LL54DA 3 200/17 01 -2 4 1 8 359 5 13 6 1 8 1 98E-02 Normal
034.L54DB 2 200/17 86 3 19 78 19 7 19 1 69E-02 Normal
- 03U.54EA 7 200/17 161 4 8 33 1616 •54 33 2 90E-03 Reversed

Zijderveid plot Tilt corrected Susceptibility vs. temperature EAP- Site anisotropy
03LL546B 4 200/17 1545 14 9 31 165 8 1 31 2 86E-03 Reversed
Specimen: 02LL11AB
353.7 -3.7 23.3 ISM M
- EAP - NRM
Zydetveid plot Tilt corrected EAP -NRM (In situ) (Interpreted)
Specimen: 03LLS4EA
T - P' diagram
Guayaquil
Block: Pinon
EAP - T- P'
Susceptibility vs. temperature Site anisotropy diagram
Vi Locally.
*0
9760030
0604420
Lithology: Siliceous Imnesto-ne
Paleocene
Sue information
Formation: Guayaquil
Pinon
Locality: Guayaquil ring road TJ
9759224
Coordinate*:
0617018
Sandstone
era
fo
>
*o
Site03LL11P Site 03LL54P *o
»
Data table for the specimens indicating a stable naturai remanent magnetisation
-No stable NRM Specimen N Attitude <"«. D, I. On k. M[Afm] Polarity
D, ', *,
03LL54DA 3 200/17 0 1 -2 4 18 359 5 13 6 1 8 1 98E-02 Normal
03LL54DB 2 200/17 86 3 1 9 78 19 7 1 9 1 69E-02 Normal
- 03LL54EA 7 200/17 1614 8 33 161 6
Zijderveld plot Tilt corrected Susceptibility vs. temperature EAP- Site anisotropy -5 4 33 2 90E-O3 Reversed
03LL54EB 4 200/17 164 5 14 9 31 165 B 1 31 2 86E-03 Reversed
Specimen: 02LL11AB
Site average 4 353.7 -5.7 17.2 29.5 353.4 9.6 17.2 29.5 Uliad
-
Zijderveld plot Tilt corrected EAP -NRM (In situ) EAP- NRM (Interpreted)
Specimen: 03LLS4EA
T['C|
T -
P' diagram Site information
Block: Piflon
Susceptibility vs. temperature EAP- Site anisotropy T- P' diagram

0\ Locality: Cerro Blanco
o
976OO30
Coordmatea:
0604420
Lithology: Siticeous -limestone
Age:
Site information
Block: Ptrlon
Locality: Cantera San Luis (Guayaquil nng road)
9759224
Coordinates
0617018
O
Age: Paleocene
Data table for specimens indicating a stable remanent magnetisation Data table for the specimens indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation
Specimen N Attitude D, L "* 0. 1, a«. K M[A/m] Polarity -No stable NRM

S
03LL55EA 9 198/15 357 3 -17 5 42 3583 -34 4.2 1 39E-02 Normal
-
Tilt corrected EAP -
Zijderveld plot Susceptibility vs. temperature Site anisotropy
-
corrected EAP -NRM EAP -
Zijderveld plot Tilt (in situ) NRM (Interpreted) Specimen: 03LL58DB
Specimen 03LL55EA
w UP
_5c*^
^~-$- *^ T-
0 01 [Wrn]
j W 3e-3 [A.'m
7
TTC|
T - P' diagram Site information
Susceptibility vs temperature EAP Site anisotropy T- P' diagram

_U
Block: Pinon
Cantera
i Locality: Hormigonera
9759664
Coordinates:
0615346
Age: Paleocene
Site information
Block: Pinon
Locality: Cantera San Luis (Guayaquii nng road)
Coordinate: »f"?»
0617039
Age:
Site 03LL12P
Data table For the specimens Indicating s stable natural remanent magnetisation
-No stable NRM
Zijderveld plot -
TIU corrected Susceptibility vs. temperature EAP - Site anisotropy
Specimen: Q2LL12BA
1 M 4M >
in
T-P'diagram Site Information
Formation; San Eduardo
Block: Pifton
Locality: Cerro Blanco
9759581
CoordlrutH:
0605026
Lithology; Caicarenite
Agt: Eocene
162
Appendix 3b.6
Paleomagnetic data
Las Masas Fm.
Pinôn Block
163
Appendix 3 Paleoniagnelism
Site 02LL13P
-No stable NRM
Zijderveld plot - Tilt corrected Susceptibility vs temperature EAP - Site anisotropy
Specimen' Q2LL13EB
/Up
36 A (Atn] "-A
T[CJ
T-P'diagram Site information
Formation: Las Masas
Mr Block: Pinôn
Locality: Cerro Blanco
9759587
Coordinate«:
0604913
Lithology; Organic siltstone
As>: Eocene
164
Appendix 3c. 1
Paleomagnetic data
Volcanic basement
and
island arc sequence
San Lorenzo Block
165
o
Data table for the specimens Indicating a stable natural ramenant magnetisation
Data table for the tpeelment ImBcaUng a stable natural remanent magnetisation
Spoctman H Atttuo* °m *-. o. L «a k. M[Mrn] Polarity
o, >t
Q2LL4AB 9 Not known 227 -21 1 7 1 76E-03 Normal M[A*m*
02LL4BA 5 Not known 357 152 1 6 02LL5AA 3 Not known 3487 14 5 05 4 78E-Ü3 Normal
8 30E-04 Normal
02LL4BB 6 Not known 281 72 33 B93E-04 Normal 02UL5A8 e Not known 3S3 2 11 06 3196-03 Normal
02U.4CA 5 Not known 173 1 8 16 9 99E-04 Normal cœllsba e Not known 348S -06 OS 3 6BE-03 Normal
02U.4CB 6 Not known 205 71 1 9 1 19E-03 Normal B2LL56B 6 Not known 349 5 -2 6 09 6 26E-03 Normal
Q2LL4EA 6 Not known 207 12 4 3 9 54E-04 Normal 02LL5DA 6 Not known 337 7 -09 1 1 4 31E-03 Normal
U2LL4EB E Not known 18 8 24 3 29 7 70E-04 Normal 02LL5DB e Not known 338 9 33 09 4 31E-03 Normal
02LL4FA e Not known 21 8 88 24 1 02E-03 Normal Q2LL5EA 7 Not known 337 9 -ti 06 4 65E-03 Normal
02LL4FB 6 Not known 285 97 26 1 03E-03 02LL5EB e Not known 344 3 -2 7 06 5 01E-03 Nofmal
Normal
02LL4GA 5 Not known 21 9 24 6 07E-O4 Normal 02LLSFA 7 Not known 347 3 1 5 06 4 67E-Q3 Normal
02LL4GB 6 Not known 131 104 43 8 0ÎE-04 Normal Sit» Umragt 9 Mot known 343,1
iltaAmrao» 11 Not Hioani 23.1 9.S 4.B 7.2 Normal
Zgderveld plot-bt situ EAP -NRM(Insitu)

m site EAP - rim*
zydervefd plot (in alta)
Specimen-02LL5FA
Sample: 02LL4FA
^
Pinon / San Lorenzo
0*.
Formation: Piflôn / San Lorenzo
Block: San Lorenzo
Îgf 5e 41*^ Block: San Lorenzo

Locality: Mangtaralto
Locality: Cerro de Oro
9812982
9882790 0522120
CooroSnatea:
0550167
£ Ds.t.^1
Lithology: Gabbro
Aaa: Late Cretaceous
Age: Late Cretaceous
su
<JO
S
m
er.
>
a
*a
o
&
Data table for tna specimens Indicating a «taMa natural remanent magnetisation
Data table lor the specimens Indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation
Spadman N Attttuda L o* 0. l Oa. K. H [A/m] Polartry
D, S
02LLËAA
D. L a-, k, D. I, o«.
6 297/33 715 -28 9 24 7B2 -41 24 3 73E-03 Normal
02LL6AB 5 297/33 765 326 26 84 -58 26 2 57E-03 Normal 03LL2QAB 297/33 106 7 -39 46 108 9 -6 4 46 102 Normal
02LL6BA 8 297/33 1526 -229 1 85 5 5 1 03LL20BA 7 297/33 674 -459 16 82 4 -20 9 18 4 27 Normal
SSSE-03 Normal
02LL6BC e 297/33 638 -214 13 861 67 13 4 7DE-03 O3LL20CA 9 297/33 22 S -314 16 42 -28 8 16 4 63 Normal
Normal
02LL6CA 8 297/33 90 323 06 945 -2 7 06 03LL20DA 8 297/33 62 2 -34 9 2 5 73 5 -12 8 25 4 66 Normal
7 3BE-03 Normal
02LL6DA 9 297/33 724 -27 3 06 76 4 -2 3 06 6 42E-03 Normal O3LL20DB 9 297/33 55 2 -35 6 2 1 68 6 -16 2 21 3 83 Normal
Q2LL6EA 3 297/33 904 182 16 908 135 1 6 2 71E-03 Normal 2*r703 «I.« -40.S 2J.T 11A 75 J -H.1 ÏÎ.7 11.4
Sfte Average 7 »7IJJ 112 -M.2 6.9 78.7 «5.3 1.5 6-9 76.7 Normal
-
ZVdervetd plot TUt corrected EAP-NRM(In situ) EAP-NRM (Interpreted)
ZijovrveMpiot-m corrected EAP Specimen. 03LL20DB

-NRM(InSitu) EAP-NRM {interpreted}
up
Specimen: 02LL63A * °
P
W Up
•I» le-3 IA.T /"
1 rA-*rnf
,
i*Arn] \
•
-
- [-Vm]. E Ds-wi
Curie point n
Sampte: Q3U.20D
Curia point measttrvnent Formation: San Lorenzo
Site HtfontHttion
Sampfe: 02LL6DB
Block: San Lorenzo
Formation: San Lorenzo
Locality: La Pila
Block: San Lorenzo
9876750
Coordlnataa:
Locality: La Pila 0546730
9876750 Uthology: Pillow lava

0546730
0 1-33 20t 300 -400 5£C -SOU TfC! Late Cretaceous
Age:
Lithology: Pillow lava
Aoe: Late Cretaceous

0 1K 200 300 400 500 eOQ T^C] h0
>
*a
•a
ft
3
B*
Data table for Hie tpeelment Indicating a stable natural r Data table tar the spachnertt Indicaltng a ttabie natural remanent magnetisation
P. M[A*tn] Fokntty
03LL33AA 5 Not known 122 6 416-01 Normal 03LL35BA 6 Not known 358 2 224 17 B61E-01 Normal
03LL35DB 5 Not known 9 2 3 21E-01 Normal 03LL35CB 7 Not known 6 9 162 34 103 Normal
03LL33EB 6 Not known 10 8 2 74E-01 Normal 03LL35OB 6 Not known 344 9 -2 8 43 3 2ÎE-01 Normal
Stteaverag» 1 Notbiown MJt 104 1Î0.S 03LL35EB 7 Not known 4 5 179 22 142 Normal
4 Not known a.s m ie.i zoA
ZQderreldplot-msttu EAP -NRM(In situ) Curai poànf maaaurarmr-t

Specimen: 03LL33DB ZrJdannarVf pfot- TW corrected EAP -NRM(msitu) Curie point n
Sample; 03LL33D
Specimen: 03LL35EB Sample: 03LL3SE
0\ 0 lttjKC3O34O350rj6C0Trq
0 100 2» 300 «00 500 KET^C]
05 Site httui iijjtfon
Curie point measurement Site mformaBOn

Pinon / San Lorenzo
Sample: 03LL33E
Pifirin / San Lorenzo San Lorenzo
Block: San Lorenzo Locality: Puerto Cayo
9855400
Locality: Cerro de Oro
0527400
Coordlr*-*»: *^«° Basaltic flow

0560570
Lithology: Gabbro Upper Cretaceous

o toe kb 300 40a wo -xktfcj
Ago: Upper Cretaceous
£.
ET
o
3
>
a
m
3
&
Data table tor toe tpedment Indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation
Data table tor the tpedment tnaleattng a stable natural remanent magnetltasbon
Spoctmen N Attitude P. L a-. MAM PoUtrny

lAfm' PotaiHy
03LL36FB 7 03LL37DA 7 242/34 283 2 44 3 15 2714 161 15 31 2 Reversed
030732 27 8 27 2 2 2 28 -58 22 316 Normal
03LL37EA 7 242/34 258 -12.B 38 264 4 -45 38 261 Reversed
03U.37EB 6 242734 265 7 261 33 263 3 -5 4 33 121 Reversed
03UL37BB 5 242/34 127 2 5 7 17 1342 1B4 17 37 7 Normal
Zijderveld plot-Tilt corrected EAP-NRM (Interpreted) Curia point measurement 03LL37DB 4 242/34 292 6 41 1 13 279 3 161 1 3 314 Reversed
Specimen: 03LL36FB Specimen 03LL3SFB Sample: 03LL3SF 242-34 101 -1Ï.7
Zfjdermldplot-Tilt corrected EAP-NRM(Insitu) EAP-NRM (Interpreted)

Spec*7»-i; 03LL37BB
0 IDO 200 300 400 KC SOOTTCI

VC
Fm i nation: Pirïân / San Lorenzo
Site Information
Block: San Lorenzo
Foi ntallon: San Lorenzo

Locality: Mangäaratto
9812044 Block: San Lorenzo

*
0523566
Locality: San Lorenzo

Uthotogy: Lava flow (basalt)
9883244
Coordlnataa:
Afl": Upper Cretaceous 0510033
Pillow lava
Upper Cretaceous
0=
B.
Data table for the specimens Indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation Data table tor the tpedment Indicating a (table nafuraf remanent magnetisation
Soadman M Attitude B. L Or- «. D. L °» k. HuVml Polarity

03LL38A*\ 7 106M8 310 1 71 07 324 2 49 1 07 3 38E+01 Not known 03LL4OM 6 Not known 3447 -64 04 25 Not I
03LL38AB 6 IfJSWB 3065 6 31 3186 496 31 1 98E+01 Not known 03LL40BA 6 Not known 347 3 -16 1 02 55 4 Noll
03LL38BA 7 106746 78 4 -47 6 03 3506 -697 03 3 60E+01 Not known 03LL40SB 7 Not known 3447 -214 27 55 S Not
03LL38BB 5 1Q6M8 80 7 -467 1 5 352 9 -714 15 219E+01 Not known 03LL4OCA a Not known 257 4 86 06 13 4 Not I
03LL36BC 5 106/48 101 7 29S 05 1021 -184 05 2 60E+01 Not known 03LL40DA 6 Not known 51 3 -19 8 1 1 48S Not!
03LL36BO 5 106/48 103 2 302 05 103 5 -17 8 05 2 54E+01 Not known 03LL40EA 9 Not known 235 -112 22 684 Not I
03LL38DA S 106*48 124 3 -48 7 08 229 8 -75 6 08 3 39E+01 Not known
03LL38DC 6 106748 125 7 -41 9 22 202 4 -75 4 22 1 80E+01 Not known
03LL38EA 6 105/48 896 -64 03 79 2 -51 5 03 3 36E+01 Mot known
-
ZrJrJarvafc-r pJot In situ EAP -NRM(Insitu) Curie po/nf measurem
03LL38EB 6 106748 76 6 -17 5 44 516 -55 1 44 2 35E+01 Not known
Specimen: 03LL40DA Sample: 03LL4OD
VI Up
situ EAP -
Zgderveld plot-In NRM ffn iftuj Curia point measurement
Specimen: 03U.3SBD Sample: 03LL3BD
jf*^ 20 A.T
\
& \
ft
20'A-t
ff
n j-.
A E Dew*i 0 tOO 200 300 400 500 i
0G 200 3O0 4ÇO 500 600 T f-Ct

Site mfofntatlott
Down
Ptfiôn/San Lorenzo
Site Information
Blade San Lorenzo
Formation: Ptnön /San Lorenzo

Locality: Cerro de Hoja
Block: San Lorenzo »*»•»
******
0548815
Locality: Rio Pacoche
LHhoJogy: Columnar basalt
9883329
0515760
Lithology: Lava flow (basalt)
Age: U pper Cretaceous
<s
>
*o
2
S*
"a
Data table for tile specimens Indicating a atabfa natural remanent magnetisation
DvtttibbteforthespeGkriensinoycati
Specfenen N Attitude "» D. L Urn. < tflArnl] Polarity
Specimen N AttHude L 0, . k,
B, s °m *, 0, a*. k. MfA/rn] Polerny
03LL43AA 6 180/30* 635 -15 2 38 59 8 -07 38 196 Normal
03LL42AA 9 240/17* 449 157 02 42 8 32 02 7 05 Normal
03LL43AB 5 180/30* 643 -15 8 43 602 -15 43 2 24 Normal
03LL42AB 7 240/1 r 47 121 1 2 454 28 7 1 2 554 Normal
03LL43BA 7 180/30* 61 8 -16 3 3 57 B •09 3 2 27 Normal
03LL42BA 8 240(17' 47 4 -121 1 4 47 7 45 1 4 1 66 Normal
rj3LL43IM 6 160/30' 625 175 33 57 9 -2 3 33 1 7 Normal
03LL42BB 6 240/17* 506 -14 3 1 7 509 25 1 7 176 Normal
03LL43OB 5 180/30* 66 -189 45 60 2 -51 45 1 89 Normal
03U.42CA 7 240/17* 45 1 -13 9 29 456 26 29 1 66 Normal
03LL43EA. 6 180730* 626 -329 74 509 -161 74 1 36 Normal
03U-42DA 7 240/1 r 399 -9 6 42 40 64 42 1 49 Normal
031L43EB 7 180/30* 61 1 -25 9 31 529 -93 3 1 1 59 Normal
03LL42EA 5 240117" 414 -9 7 33 416 64 3.3 1 08 Normal
03LL43FA 7 180/30* 632 -17 1 8 5B7 -2 2 18 2 57 Normal
03LL42EB 3 240/17" 37 1 -2 6 68 36S 12 6 68 1 18 Normal
03LL43FB 6 180/30* 615 -20 2 36 55 6 -44 36 236 Normal
Sita average a 240/17* 44,1 -44 1.7 41.4 43.1 11 a Ï.T 414 Notr-tal
Site average * 180/30* tu -20 a,i HIS S7J -4.7 3.8 S7J Normal
-
Zydemldptot TSt corrected EAP -NRMflntitu) EAP-NRM (Interpreted)
ZfMamM plot- THt corrected EAP -NRM(Insitu)
Specimen: 03LL42DA
Specimen: 03LL43EB
1*4 tip
.1 !Mi|
Site Information
03LL42A Site htnji iijatfun

Sample:
Formation: Pifion / San Lorenzo
Pinôn / San Lorenzo
Block: San Lorenzo
Block: San Lorenzo
Locality: C-&1T0 de Hoja

-
Locality: Puerto Cayo jipijapa

.
9*883134
'
0543477 9852492
Coordinate«:
0537175
LKfwtogy: Columnar basalt
Lava flow (basalt)
SQO 200 300 «0 500 600 T['d
Upper Cretaceous
as
S
es
>
o
Data table for the tpedment Indicating a table natural remanent magnetisation Data table for the specimens Indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation
Specimen N Attitude . o«. D. (. B— k. MIA/m] Polanty
D, *,
03LL44AA 8 180(30' 62 8 -18 4 1 3 57 7 33 1 3 6 45E-02 Normal 03LL45CIA 8 180/30* 59 7 -23 2 0 3 105E*00 Normal
03LL44AB 9 180/30* 63 8 -23 5 1 5 582 82 1 5 5 54E-02 Normal 03U.45FA 180/30* 76 8 -20 9 0 9 1 31 E-KrO Normal
03LL44BA 9 180/30* 67 9 -15 4 02 634 -2 7 02 362E-02 Normal 04LL4SAB 160/30* 513 -25-2599 2 448 -5 6 134E*O0 Normal
03LL44BB 9 180/30* 66 7 -19 5 2 605 -5 9 2 S 10E-02 Normal 04LL45AC 180/30* 56 -27 16 483 -8 3 5 94E+O0 Normal
03LL44CA 9 180/30* 64 -16 2 22 587 -1 S 22 2 18E-01 Normal G4LL4S88 180/30* 6S2 -177 12 627 -5 6 01E+00 Normal
03LL44CB 9 180/30" 626 -216 19 561 -61 1 9 2 05E-01 Normal 04LL45CB 180/30" 56 8 -24 1 17 502 -5 9 7 64E-KI0 Normal
03LL44DA 8 180/30* 51 9 -16 9 2 481 07 2 3 60E-O1 Normal (It -23.4 7.7
03LL44EA 6 180130* 60 3 -19 7 07 55 -3 4 07 8 41E-02 Normal
She average t 1 SO/JO* »2.5 -1(1.2 3.« 231.7 Ï7.1 -is M 231 .T Monnal
Zijderveld plot- Tilt corrected EAP -NRM(Insitu)

Specimen: 03LL45DA
Zijderveld plot- THt corrected EAP -NRM (In situ) EAP-NRM (Interpreted)
Spécimen: 03LL44BA
w Ur,
0Û1 \/\!m]
*
50;[A-lm]
e Dcw-i
Stle Information
Curie pomi measurement Site information
Sample: 03LL44C Formation: Pirton

Formation: Pift6n
Block San Lorenzo

Block: San Lorenzo
Puerto Cayo -
Locality: Jipij.
Puerto Cayo-Jipijapa
9852461
Coordlnataa:
9852419 0538101
0537830
Lithology: Lava flaw (basalt}
Lithology: Lava flow {basalt]
100 200 300 400 500 600 T [*C| Ago: Upper Cretaceous
Upper Cretaceous
00,
Ol
Data metUeforthespecmTeà^sindihTmtingt Data table for ihm specimens fndhating a suAle naùnwl remanent tnag^
Specimen N Attitude <"• B. L Of. «. MPUm] Polarity Ht-Vm]

o, 1, "t
03LL48AA 7 Not known 22 4 -31 1 2 121 NottaTown
03LL46BB 6 160730" 72 4 -25 3 1 5 62 4 -13 4 15 9 48E-01 Normal
03LL46AB 7 Not known 14 7 -56 26 162 Not known
Q3LL46CA 9 160/30* 65 7 -15 9 24 61 3 -2 2 24 5 91E-01 Normal
031X468* 7 Not known 26 2 -56 14 186 Not known
03LL46CB 7 180/30" 685 -25 1 6 59 4 -116 16 6 55E-01 Normal
03LL48CA 7 Not known 350 -316 1 7 1 04 Not known
03LL46DB 8 180/30* 622 -23 9 23 547 -7 9 23 101 Normal
03LL46CB 7 Not known 185 -25 5 35 1 as Ncstloiown
03LL46EA S 180/30* 57 9 -29 1 3 48 9 -10 9 3 9 25E-01 Normal
03LL48OA 8 Not known 199 -66 02 465 l^kriown
03LL46EB 6 180/30* 61 6 -30 7 1 51 1 -13 7 1 8 38E-01 Normal
03LL48OB 7 Not known 20 9 -31 07 511 Not known
03U.46FB 7 180/30* 60 9 -228 22 542 -64 22 123 Normal
03LL48EA 5 Not known 12 -26 1 7 6 74E-01 Not known
Sita average 7 1M/30* S4.2 •24.7 4.S 1S1.7 se -S .5 4.9 1S1.7 Normal
03LL46EB 7 Not known 291 -54 4 86 8 07E-Û1 Not known
Zljderrald plot-Tilt corrected EAP -NRM(mSita) EAP-NRM (Interpreted)
Specimen: 03LL46BB
ZjMarvaWpM-IrtxMu SUm Information
Spec/men: 03LL48AA
Formation: Piftbn / San Lorenzo
ilp
*
9
San Lorenzo
d
E
Locality: Manglaralto
r'/vrn\
8812056
0523195
Lithology: Pillow lava

E LW!

Curie point measurement
Sample' 03LL48B
Formation: Piton
Block: San Lorenzo
Locality: Puerto Cayo Jipijapa
Coordmatea: «J»*1
0538101
LKhoLogy: Lava Dow (basait)
0 1» KW 303 400 500 SOU T{*C] Age: Upper Cretaceous V

E.
FT
o
I
!
*o
o
Data table for the spécimens bidkimtfng a stable natural remanent magnetisation
Data table for the tpeelment Indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation
Specimen N Attitude L. °* D. L 4» a. mtJm] Polarity
», S
M-Afm] Potertty 04LL74AA 8 27OÖ0 255 8 12 3 05 256 -7 1 05 21 î Reversed
03LL61AA 6 Not known 333 6 46 3B 6 43E-Û1 Normal 04LL74AB 7 270/20 254 6 14 1 07 255 -5 2 07 201 Reversed
03LL81AB 6 Not known 336 2 -21 38 6 67E-01 Normal 04LL74BA 9 270/20 270 4 16 9 1 7 270 4 31 1 7 346 Reversed
03LL61BA 7 Not known 337 2 03 26 B 60E-01 Normal 04LL74BB 6 270/20 266 6 201 03 2669 02 03 3*7 Reversed
03LL81BB 4 Not known 339 8 5 14 9 77E-Q1 Normal
04LL74DA S 270/20 243 1 296 14 246 3 11 5 1 4 39 Reversed
03LL61CA 6 Not known 357 5 26 9 1 1 22 Normal 04LL74DB 6 270/2Q 243 5 25 7 03 2461 76 03 349 Reversed
03LL61DA 6 Not known 3431 114 1 5 1 41 Normal 04LL74OC 8 270/20 243 5 286 04 246 5 10 6 04 383 Reversed
03LU1EA 6 Not known 343 2 299 37 1 09 Normal 04LL74EA 6 270/20 249 2 209 03 250 6 21 03 317 Reversed
03l_L616a 5 NtH known 345 8 27 4 06 7 OSE-01 Normal 04LL74EB 6 270/20 2471 21 5 03 246 6 29 03 33 Reversed
03LL61FA 9 Not known 355 4 146 26 147 Normal 04LL74FA B 27000 2614 227 1 2 2621 29 1 2 383 Reversed
03LL61GA 7 Not known 357 5 37 29 2 08 Normal
Site average 10 zmr» 74 •21. S g.T 53 Til -23 S.T 51 Ravened
03LL61GB 7 Not known 07 95 22 2 26 Normal
Site average 11 Wot known 34ft4 12.1
Ztjderveld plot-m corrected EAP-HRM (In situ) EAP-NRM (Interpreted)
Specimen: 04LL74EA
-
ZStderveid plot THt corrected EAP -NRM(In Situ) Curie point measurement
Specimen MU.S1GB Sample 03LL61B
Vi
oö
I
1 rA*»]
E Dew*-,
100 SCO 3« 400 KS 6GÛ TpC3
Site Information
Sin Htfofxitaoon
For mat) on: San Lorenzo
Formation: Pifton / San Lorenzo

Block: San Lorenzo
San Lorenzo
Locality: Picoaza
Locality: Ayampe 9BS7Ü61
0549906
9815067
0523601 LhUialogy: Lava flow (basalt)
Uthoiofly: Columnar basalt

Upper Cretaceous
Upper Cretaceous
1
p.
Data table tor the specimens Indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation
Date table for the tpedment indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation
Spachnen N Attfaide «•t. *, D. L a. k, MtAfm] Polarity
B, I,
04LL7WI 6 240/17' 71 24 04 70 2 -7 3 04 7 18 Normal Specimen N Attitude D, I. o*. k, M-Aftn] Polarity
DI t, o-, K,
04U.75AB 7 240/17* 70 -25 3 02 691 -85 0.2 6 88 Normal 04LL86AA 8 275/32 38 7 -34 8 05 502 14 1 06 7 18 Normal
04LL75BA 6 240/17* 69 3 -25 1 685 -8.2 1 0 903 Normal 04LLB6AB 9 275/32 38 4 -316 07 485 -11 3 07 5 88 Normal
04LL75BB 6 240/17* 74 6 -23 3 1 6 73 5 66 16 179 Normal 04LL858A 8 275/32 319 -226 06 391 -6 06 9 03 Normal
04LL75CA 7 240/17* 90 2 146 49 892 02 49 155 Normal 04LL66S8 8 275/32 367 -17 9 06 40 9 03 06 1 79 Norma!
04LL7SC8 5 240/17* 91 4 -21 7 1 8 89 2 -7 18 168 Normal 04LL86CA S 275/32 50 6 -15 6 03 521 79 03 1 55 Normal
04LL75DA 5 240/17* 61 6 -15 6 07 61 6 1-2 07 2 51 Normal Q4U-86CB 8 275/32 504 -181 07 529 55 07 168 Normal
04LL7508 6 240/17* 62 3 -16 5 05 62 2 05 05 2 01 Normal 04LL86DA 8 275/32 51 -9 7 03 503 13 5 03 2 51 Normal
04IX75EA 6 240/17* 71 8 -24 3 1 3 70 8 -7 6 13 3 99 Normal 04LL86DB 8 275/32 51 1 -14 4 04 521 91 04 2 01 Normal
04LL75EB 6 240/17* 72 3 -25 2 1 3 71 2 -66 13 434 Normal 04LL86DC S 275/32 517 11 3 09 51 5 12 2 09 52 Normal
04LL75FA 8 240/17* 2687 131 86 267 9 -1 9 86 1 06 Reversed 04LL86ËA S 275/32 385 -20 6 04 43 6 1 4 04 3 99 Normal
04LL75FB 8 240/17* 269 63 38 268 9 -66 38 132 Reversed 04LL86Ë8 8 275/32 38 6 -17 1 02 422 1 8 02 434 Normal
Sltaawrage 12 «enr 76.1 -20.1 8.4 47 113 4.7 «A 47 M bred SNeavamga 11 2TÏ32 4M -19.5 B sg.B 47J 14 C 59.« Normal
Zijderveld plot-Tilt corrected EAP-NRM

Zijderveld plot-THt corrected EAP -NRM fm slut)
t(maitu) (Interpret^
Specimen- 04LLB6EB
Specimen-04LL75OB
Curie point measurement Site information
Sample. 04LLB6D
Curtepointn
Prriôn / San Lorenzo
Sample: 04LL75B
Formation: Pifton
Block: San Lorenzo
Block: San Lorenzo

LocaHty: Salaite
Locality: Chonllo 9846178

Coorrtlnataa:
0526697
9884066
Coordinate«:
0534764 Prilow lava
Lithology: Columnar basalt

0 100 SK 300 400 500 SCCTr'Ci
Upper Cretaceous

0 100 209 3» 4ÛC KM 503Tr*C]
Appendix 3c.2
Paleomagnetic data
Cayo Fm.
San Lorenzo Block
176
Data table for the specimens indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation Data table for the specimens indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation
SptclinfMi K ASHude o. em 0, L am. k. M-A/m] Po-arttr Speclman M AUturJe D. L Om. o. L Oa. M[W*i] Pota-rty
-, k, k. fc,
03LL39AA S 004/05 111 1 304 84 108 2 318 34 1 72E-03 Miied 04U.72AA 5 257/36 192 6 333 22 206 2 134 22 7 19E-02 Reversed
03LL398A 9 004/05 1312 324 64 128 5 35 3 84 7 77E-04 Mixed 04U.72AB 5 257/36 185 1 31 7 4 201 7 18 4 7 16E-02 Reversed
03L139B8 5 004/05 140 9 47 4 88 136 8 51 98 5 49E-04 Mixed 04U.72BA 6 257/36 199 7 301 52 209 7 75 52 4 13E-02 Reversed
03LL39CA 8 004/05 326 7 -95 37 326 1 -13 4 37 1 75E-02 Mixed 04LL72BB 9 257/36 1966 266 65 205 7 59 65 7 07E-02 Reversed
03LL39CB 9 004/05 3371 -7 5 57 3367 -12 57 1 70E-02 Mixed Q4LL72CA 6 257/36 136 3 27 8 3 198 4 118 3 7 38E-02 Reversed
03LL39DA 8 004/05 307 3 B25 66 329 4 79 66 1 45E-Q2 Mixed 04LL72CB 7 257/36 201 4 342 64 2131 104 64 7 37E-02 Reversed
03LL39EA 7 004/05 340 8 -85 63 340 4 -13 63 1 52E-02 Mixed 04LL7ÎDA 7 257/36 195 5 277 3 205 3 73 3 9 0ÎE-02 Reversed
04U.72DB 7 257(38 1BS8 283 38 200 5 11 1 38 B06E-02 Reversed
04U.72DC 11 257/38 193 3 23 5 54 2014 43 54 1 11E-01 Reversed
plot -
Tilt corrected EAP EAP- NRM 04LL72EA 8 257/36 192 8 307 31 204 9 11 1 31 1 10E-01 Reversed
Zijderveld -NRM(Insitu) (interpreted)
04LL72EB 10 257/38 193 7 23 6 39 201 6 47 39 1 12E-01 Reversed
Specimen: 03LL39CA
Site average 11 297*3$ 134 •29J 3.3 1*1 24.4 -1.7 3J 111 Remeed
Tiltcomcted EAP iVffJtf EAP -

ZgderveHJplot- (in situ} NRM {Interpreted)
Stiscepa'bHtty vs. temperature
^
Susceptibility vs. tempenriure
Säe information
Cayo
Site information
Block: San Lorenzo
LecaMy: Rio Pacoche Cayo
9887058
San Lorenzo
0516627
LrttWrogy: Siltstone Locality: Los Frailes
9335430
0522902
Sandstone
75-70 Ma
>
Site 04LL73P Site 04LL87P *a
o
2
Data table for the specimens indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation Data tabte for the a stable natural remanent
specimens Indicating magnetisation 9*
Specimen N Attitude «»I D. L a«. ». UtAlm] Polarity P. Lo^k.l-% l a» H. H[AJm] Polartty
", s •s
04LL73AA 5 26202 21 4 -21 3 86 27 5 -38 86 1 51E-02 Normal 04LL87BA 13 277/32 198 6 75 201 02 1 3 3 13E-01
04LL73B8 4 262/32 25 -28 6 8 33 8 -88 B 1 73E-03 Normal 04LL87BB 12 277/32 1969 5 1 Î9B -09 1 3 87E-01 Reversed
04LL73CB 10 262/32 14 3 -33 2 10 B 27 8 -17 3 108 7 25E-03 Normal Û4LL87CA 5 277/32 1971 303 2119 203 31 2 92E-01 Reversed
04U73CC 6 262/32 19 3 •452 84 38 1 -25 5 84 1 OOE-02 Normal 04U87DA 11 277/32 17B5 27 195 3 27 09 3.83E-01 Reversed
04LL73DA 8 262/32 263 -226 78 32 2 -2 9 78 3 52E-02 Normal 04LL87D6 10 277/32 180 3. 26.2 196 2 25 5 16 2 99E-01 Reversed
04LL73DB 9 262/32 306 -36 8 39 418 -14 1 39 B 54E-03 Normal 04LL87EA 9 277/32 194 3 29 2091 20 6 44 2 38E-01 Reversed
04LL73EA 9 262/32 24 6 -19 2 83 29 2 -06 S3 6 61 E-02 Normal 177181 III -211 32.8 21.» -1SL6 «J
04LL73FA 9 262/32 10 2 -17 3 11 7 164 -54 11 7 1 38E-02 Normal
04U.73FB 8 262/32 11 3 -33 76 25 5 -18 3 76 1 41 E-02 Normal
tut* avenge « 2S2/S2 ffl.3 -M.7 7.1 52.9 JOJ -«J 7.1 52.» Normal •
Zijderveld plot Tilt corrected EAP NRM (In situ) EAP- NRM (Interpreted)
Specimen. 04LLS7BA
plot -
Zijderveld Tilt corrected EAP -NRM{in situ} EAP NRM (interpreted)
Specimen: 04LL73DB ï
D I lA/r-v;
E Ocwn
EAP -
Susceptibility vs. temperature Site anisotropy T-P'diagram
vs. EAP-Site T -
Suscepifbäfty temperature anisotropy P1 diagram
201} tS3
Site information
Site info rmation
Cayo
Cayo
San Lorenzo
Slock: San Lorenzo

Locality: Puerto Cayo
LouUty: Los Frailes
9648Ö53
9634418 0528953
0522433
Sandstone
Sandstone
Ag«: Upper Cretaceous
75-70 Ma
Data table for the specimens indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation Data table for the specimens a stable natural remanent
-No slabte NRM
Bpadman N Attitude D. i, *. 0. L On, K. tT-AtalJ Polartty
'S
04IX89AA 14 316(11 102 -45 76 114 -10 8 76 1 28E-01 Normal
04UL89AB 11 316/11 28 2 -12 2 79 30B -15 3 79 8 53E-02 Normal
- 04LL89BA 14 316/11 116 -9 3 3B 136 -15 4 88 9 67E-02
Zijderveld plot Tilt corrected Susceptibility vs. temperature EAP-Site anisotropy Normal
04LL89BB 10 316/11 25 9 -14 9 86 291 -18 4 86 9 926-02 Normal
Specimen: 04LL88BB
04LL89CA 12 316/11 11 3 -25 9 103 165 -317 103 4 35E-02 Normal
04LLB9DB 8 316/11 83 -27 4 67 13 7 -33 7 57 4 746-02 Normal
04U.89EA 6 316/11 42 -7 5 47 58 -14 7 47 6 466-02 Normal
04U.B9FA 7 316/11 3691 -7 3 6J 06 -15 2 62 9 766-02 Normal
04LLB9GA 7 316/11 08 -8 7 58 2.5 -16 4 58 8 58E-02 Normal
04LLB9G8 11 316/11 359 -17 56 1 9 -24 9 56 1 67E-01 Normal
Site average t 116*11 ».a -10.1 8.4 44.1 12 -ia_7 >4 44.1 normal
/ Zijderveld plot -
Tilt corrected EAP NRM (In situ) EAP- NRM (interpreted)
ii N
/ Specimen: 04US9BA
2CC JiOO CÖG

Tr/c-
T- Site information
P'diagram
Formation: Cayo
Bloch: San Lorenzo
-J LocaMy: Puerto Cayo
S848853 Susceptibility vs. temperature EAP-Site

Coordlnatea: anisotropy T-P'diagram
0528953
Uttwtofly: Sandstone
Afl«: Upper Cretaceous
a=-I
Site information
Formation: Cayo
Block: San Lorenzo
Locality: Agua Bianca
0532007
Coordinates:
9830187
Uthology:

Site 04LL90P
spaolmen N Attitude
Dl I, °"1 *, 0. L Ob k. M[A/m] Polarity
04LL90AA 8 257/36 1836 33 3 52 199 8 177 52 3 26E-02 Reversed
04LL90AB 7 257/36 174 8 35 2 51 194 9 23 7 51 4 49E-02 Reversed
04LL90BA 7 257/36 188 6 25 9 28 199 3 91 28 3 39E 02 Reversed
04LL90BB 5 257/36 190 5 19 8 35 197 2 31 35 3 046-02 Reversed
04LL90CA 9 257/36 1849 25 7 43 196 2 108 43 3 48E-02 Reversed
04LL90CB 7 257/36 180 1 27 2 36 193 5 14 6 36 3 69E-02 Reversed
04LL90DA 6 257/36 1903 25 9 37 200 4 83 37 3 84E-02 Reversed
04LL90DB 6 257/36 186 3 321 4 1 201 154 41 5 08E-02 Reversed
8 2S7/3S 5.1 -2S.2 4.7 137.1 17.» -12.« 4.7 137.» Ravaraad
SrtaAvaraga
Zijderveld plat - Tilt corrected EAP NRM (In situ) EAP NRM (Interpreted)
Specimen Q4LL9QDA
A- M
"
~
,
+"
5/fe Information
Formation: Cayo
Block: San Lorenzo
Locality: Log Frailes
9835430
Coordlnataa:
0522902
Aga: 75-70 Ma
180
Appendix 3c.3
Paleomagnetic data
San Mateo Fm.
San Lorenzo Block
181
tli
Data table for the specimens indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation Data table for the a
B.
specimens indicating stable natural remanent magnetisation
0. L, n» Ir, D. I. a» N Attttuda L
D. I. o*. H. D. q» HHA/m) Polarity
1 92E-02 Normal
03LL47AA 6 175712 55 8 -19 7 102 52 7 -13 6 102 1 24E-01 Not known
03LL41AC 242/17 158 204 97 95 316 97 3 226-02 Normal
03LL47BA 7 175712 34 -8 4 34 39 4 1 14E-01 Nor known
03U.41BA 242/17 1918 24 3 118 1961 129 11 8 1 516-02 Reversed
03LL47BB 5 175/12 4 -14 51 42 105 51 9 66E-02 Noi known
03LL41CA 242/17 3654 2 1 29 353 9 8 7 2 9 2 176-02 Normal
03LL41C8 242/17 3592 -5 42 359 5 2 8 4 2 1 416-02 Normal

03LL41DA 242717 2197 -31 35 2184 -18 8 35 1 51E-02 Reversed
-
Zijderveld plot Titt corrected EAP -NRM(In situ) EAP- NRM (Interpreted)
03U.41EA 242/17 351 4 8 37 348 9 10 3 7 1 466-02 Normal
Specimen: 03LL4TAA
242/17 13 6.1 9.7 16-3
-
Zijderveld plot Tilt corrected EAP EAP-NRM (Interpreted) "-T—N
-NRM(Insitu)
Specimen: 03LL41DA
V
Susceptibility vs. temperature EAP- Site anisotropy T- P'diagram
^s.
(X
to
vs. EAP- Site T- *
Susceptibility temperature anisotropy P'diagram T
-
Site information Rose diagram ti3
San Mateo
Site information
Stock: San Lorenzo
San Mateo
-
Locality: Puerto Cayo Jipijapa
985051B
ho
0539539 t»
Locality: Cerro de Hoja
9883626
054BB15 Middle Eocene
Llthotogy: Sandstone
Middle Eocene
Appendix 3d.1
Paleomagnetic data
Volcanic basement
and
island arc sequence
Pedemales Block
183
Data table tor the tpeelment Indicating a ttable natural remanent magnetisation
Oat* table for the specimens Indicating • stable natural remanent magnetisation
Spacfmen N Attttuda a». D. L Om, k. H[AAn] Potartty

Specimen N Attitude >> k, D, L Oa. K H[AM>] Polarity o, , *,
*, h 5
021X8AA 245*42* 62 3 -41 1 32 629 69 32 8 35E-04 Normal
02LL7BA 17 275/28* 189 2 401 02 222.9 147 02 1256-02 Reversed
02U.8AB 4 245*42* 63 3 -463 57 639 -04 57 2 89E-04 Normal
02LL7B8 8 275726* 1904 38 03 2214 129 03 1676-02 Reversed
02LL8BA 7 245/42* 57 9 -101 26 595 77 26 1 09E-03 Normal
02LL8BB 7 245/42* 52 3 -40 32 552 72 32 1 15E-03 Normal
02LL8CB 9 245742* 79 1 -47 1 04 74 5 0 04 B 37E-03 Normal

EAP - NRH
ZJfo*rveMpiat-TItt corrected EAP -NRUflnstto) (Interpreted) 02LL8OA 9 245742* 72 6 419 06 706 5B 05 3 776-03 Normal
02LL8OB 8 245*42* 76 3 -42 2 07 726 53 07 3 266-03 Normal
oaxaEA 8 246742* 667 -15 5 1 3 80 04 13 4 386-03 Normal

02U.8EB 8 245/42* 661 -13 6 1 6 B01 22 15 4 416-03 Normal
02LLBFB 8 245/42* 69 9 -59 5 2 1 675 -116 21 2 996-03 Normal
Sita average IB uucr 70-3 -45J 6.1 SU «.7 2.4 6.1 (U Normal
plot - Tut corrected

ZJ/denreld EAP-NRM(In situ) EAP-NRM (Interpreted)
Specimen: 02U.SOA
ft
^ iö-:[a-î
*
\
t
Site information
Formation: Piflôn/Sart Lorenzo
'&-~ {Kn~\
Block: Esmeraldas
e 2&rti~
Locality: Jama
Coonn-atoa*
°°-07?7-N
M'""""-
ao'12-so-w
LHhology: Basalt
Pinön / San Lorenzo
Age: Late Cretaceous

Pedernales
Pedemales
0004666
0615398
Basalt
Late Cretaceous
Data table for the specimens Indicating a ttable natural remanent magnetisation > a
specimens Indicating stable natural mmanant magnetisation
P. L °- k. MlA-nîT Spadman N Attitude >-. B. L Om. k. M[A*rn] Nonnal

-, "«f s
03LL2BAA 6 Not known 106.9 239 07 7 73E-01 Not known 03LL29AA 9 310/21* 126 9 -31 6 12 129 1 -10 6 1 2 214 Normal
03LL2SAB 6 Not known 129 341 16 3 99E-01 Not known 03LL29AB 8 310/21' 134 3 -32 9 1 133 7 -12 1 36 Normal
03LL26BA 5 Not known 122.4 27 8 03 1 94 Not known 03LL29BA 8 310/21' 140 4 -40 1 7 1384 -19 2 1 7 8 286-01 Normal
03LL28SB 6 Not known 130 2 309 1 9 8 44E-01 Not known 03LL29DA 7 310/21* 133 5 -32 2 07 133 -11 2 07 2 53 Normal
03LL28CA 6 Not known 104 4 222 1 3 9 46E-02 Not known 03LL29D6 6 310/21* 133 7 -41 2 16 133 -20 2 16 149 Normal
03U28DB 7 Not known 105.6 81 1 3 9 72E-01 Not known 03LL29EA 8 310/21* 128 5 -15 9 05 128 8 -24 9 05 4 32 Normal
03LL28EA 8 Not known 1151 53 09 2 45E-01 Not known 03LL29EB 8 310/21' 131 1 -40 6 06 130 9 -19 6 06 416 Normal
03I.1 ?8FA 8 Not known 112 4 -3 3 07 1 15E-02 Not known 03LL29EA 8 310/21* 133 6 -38 09 133 -17 09 219 Normal
Not known 115J 1S.9 11.5 242 03LL29FB 8 310/21* 1301 -131 07 130 -22 1 07 3 36 Normal
03LL29FC 4 310721* 139 4 -S3 9 08 137 4 -231 08 4 14 Normal
Stta average 10 J1WÎ1' 133 J -39 3.6 184.7 1J2.T -ta 1.8 1*14.7 normal
- EAP -
Zijderveld plot m ami AB specimens (In situ) Cvrim point measurement
Specimen: 03LL28EA Sampte: 03LL28E

ZÇderveldplot- Tilt corrected EAP -NRM(tnsltu) EAP-NRM (Interpreted)
Specimen: 031L29AA
Up
C1IA.T11 \
•N
'Aî,
1,*-wT""-«„
/
/
// /
/ 1|Afl-
/
100 2G0 M0 400 SCO 600T |X]
/
E DCn-n
Site information
Curie point Site Information

Pifiûn / San Lorenzo
Sample: 03LL29D
Formation: Pinon/San Lorenzo
Block: Pedemales
Block: Pedemafces
Locality: Pedemales
0005182 Locality: Pedemales

0061538Q
0004927
Coo n*n ate*:
Utrwtogy: Basa ft 0614365
Columnar basalt

Appendix 3d.2
Paleomagnetic data
Cayo Fm
Pedemales Block
186
3
Paleomagnetism
Appendix
Site 03LL27P
Data table for the specimens Indicating a stable natural remanent magnetisation
D. I. k. M'A/m] Polarity
Specimen N Attttuda
D, 1, o.-. «, n»
65 314 6 36 65 2 06E-03 Reversed

03LL27AA s 320/21 314 6 17 3
03LL27BA 6 320/21 334 1 11 1 4 334 9 3 4 3 65E-03 Reversed
313 4 19 9 48 313 8 -0 9 48 3 03E-03 Reversed

03LL27BB 5 320/21
289 2 37 8 51 294 7 19 2 51 1 036-03 Reversed

03LL27CA 6 320/21
46 322 9 4 46 9 27E 04 Reversed

03LL27CB 5 320/21 323 2 24 9
320/21 135.9 22.« 17.2 20.« 138.3 -1.9 17.2 20.« Rawmad
Sttaavervoe 5
Tilt corrected EAP NRM (In situ) EAP NRM (Interpreted)

Zijderveld plot -
Specimen: 03LL27AA
"1«-3[Mml /
Susceptibility vs. temperature EAP - Site anisotropy T-P'diagram
9»]
5e-5
4*-S
^
3*-5
:—-*7
2« 5
1»5 i.
^
J__
Site information
Formation: Cayo
Block: Pedemales
Locality: Pedemales
0006053
Ccordlnata«:
0614777
Aga: Upper Cretaceous
187
Paleomagnetism
Appendix 3
Appendix 3e
Anisotropy of magnetic
susceptibility (AMS)
Data table
188
Block Formation Site k< (Tensor) Mdec) M^nc) kô^-jX} Mo-mV) k; (Tensor) ka<dec> k2(lnc) ka (Og-jt) kija»,5y} kj (Tensor) ^(dec) k3Qnc> k3{a-aX) kjfo^y) P' T
Pinôn Calentura 03LL49P 1 0082*0 0020 116 5 41 17 59 1 0058±O0O30 25 8 97 171 74 0 9860*0 0030 229 2 794 92 37 1 025 0 779
PrAon Calentura 03LL52P 1 0105*0 0066 467 S 658 93 1 0075±0 0100 316 1 68 65 9 71 0 9820*0 0139 173 1 816 15 4 84 1 032 0 794
Prflôn Cayo 03LL21P 1 0190*0 0021 238 34 463 33 1 G163±0OO20 147 4 94 46 4 32 0 9627*0 0038 347 5 80 63 31 1 067 0 973
Prf16n Cayo 03LL22P 1 0291*0 0069 224 8 1 5 174 52 1 023O±O0O71 145 5 115 163 49 0 9479*0 0124 342 2 78 4 10 5 47 1 096 0 855
Ptfôn Cayo 03LL24P 1 0235*0 0061 727 73 13 7 41 1 0128*00064 341 3 105 168 32 0 9636*0 0122 197 77 1 10 6 35 1067 0 651
Prôn Cayo 03LL25P 1 0126*0 0061 76 4 112 19 2 33 1 0038±00038 3442 84 19 7 53 0 0836*0 0098 224 5 73 4 71 34 1 03 0 401
Pinôn Cayo 03LL60P 1 023S±0 0078 582 59 33 9 26 1 0167±OOO68 327 6 56 33 8 22 0 9598*00138 194 5 81 9 92 3 1 073 0 793
Prfion Cayo 03LL51P 1 0595±0 0265 557 71 139 72 1 0204±0 017 325 6 05 11 S 37 0 9101*0 0377 231 9 82 9 12 6 8 1 176 0 633
Prflôn Cayo 04LL76P 1 0033±0 0021 298 8 72 40 9 14 2 0 9998*00019 29 7 7 64 8 29 6 0 9969*0 0019 163 6 79 9 649 334 1 006 -0 093
Piflôn Cayo 04LL81P 1 0209±0 0013 2351 29 85 1 1 0142±0 0014 145 24 85 49 0 9649*0 0019 15 6 863 5 1 1 064 0 759
Pinôn Cayo 04LL82P 1 0378±0 0039 42 4 36 9 07 1 0190*0 0014 132 7 42 7 1 5 0 9432*0 0048 272 3 845 91 25 1 107 0618
Pinon Cayo 04LL83P 1 0233±0 0032 235 2 34 67 24 1 0123+0 0035 145 2 01 66 34 0 9644*0 0037 53 1 866 41 2 1 065 0637
Pinon Cayo Q4LL84P 1 0604±0 0061 712 10 6 58 28 1 0411±0 0046 161 9 37 57 32 0 8985*0 0086 270 B 788 49 1 3 1 199 0 778
Pinon Cayo 04LL85P 1 0232±0 0039 285 5 44 20 1 27 1 0187+0 0032 157 31 20 1 1 3 0 9581*0 0068 1402 846 28 1 3 1 076 086
San Lorenzo Cayo 03LL39P 1 0066±0 0022 179 7 46 12 69 10037*0 0017 89 3 49 108 67 0 9897±0 0035 312 8 833 12 3 36 1 018 0 659
San Lorenzo Cayo 04LL72P 1 0083±0 0024 27 10 2 28 9 23 10073*0 0012 95 9 173 28 9 2 0 9844*0 0027 243 5 697 27 1 5 1 028 0 921
San Lorenzo Cayo 04LL73P 1 0062±0 0022 340 1 11 1 61 1 72 1 0048*0 0013 72 9 14 1 51 1 56 0 9890+0 0025 213 719 78 5 1 019 0 832
San Lorenzo Cayo 04LL87P 10161±0 0060 623 28 566 56 1 0146*0 0056 152 9 121 56 6 31 0 9693*0 0113 3196 776 63 1 3 1055 0 939
San Lorenzo Cayo 04LL88P 1 0212+0 0034 802 52 99 29 1 0126*0 0040 171 5 14 10 51 0 9662*0 0034 330 4 75 1 59 27 1061 0 693
San Lorenzo Cayo 04LL89P 1 O16S±0 ooeo 188 7 18 42 3 46 1 0131*0 0093 96 22 42 3 83 0 9704*0 0162 1 3 71 9 35 44 1 053 0 857
San Lorenzo Cayo 04LL90P 1 0096±0 0018 164 07 18 8 25 1 0064*00017 73 8 149 189 61 0 9840*0 0018 256 7 75 1 67 29 1 028 0 756
Pedemales Cayo 03LL27P 1 0256*0 0057 113 1 29 387 59 1 0231*00069 203 2 1 1 38 6 27 0 9513*0 0123 313 9 869 68 31 1 089 0 936
Pifion Guayaquil 02LL11P 1 0558*0 0193 140 3 35 65 88 1 0391*00136 232 6 34 65 39 3 0 9051*0 0318 45 2 55 8 42 12 5 1 185 0 793
Piflon Guayaquii 03LL54P 1 0229+0 0130 128 4 12 31 5 64 1 0196*00092 2184 29 31 7 26 0 9575*0 0205 16 6 868 88 4 1 1 077 0 903
Pifton Guayaquii 03LL55P 1 0253+0 0062 107 6 35 342 48 1 0145*00038 198 1 78 348 78 0 9601*0 0067 353 6 81 4 11 3 6 1 073 0 678
Pinôn Guavaauil 03LL58P 1 0333+0 183 35 6 1 8 54 57 1 0243*0 0114 305 6 1 2 53 9 101 0 9425*0 0213 183 2 87 8 10 3 82 1 107 0 81
Prflon Las Masas 02LL13P 1 0096+0 0014 1067 76 14 7 36 1 0053*0 0007 197 1 31 158 4 1 0 9852*0 0016 3094 81 8 42 28 1 027 0 647
Pmon San Eduardo 02LL12P 1 0436±0 0464 314 7 81 8 45 6 329 0 9889+0 0197 214 5 1 6 494 30 6 0 9675*0 0470 124 3 88 501 42 7 1 081 -0423
San Lorenzo San Mateo 03LL41P 1 0133±0 0036 1043 69 687 31 9 1 0101*0 0134 194 7 37 68 9 14 6 0 9764*0 0145 312 5 82 2 32 4 24 6 1 042 0 833
San Lorenzo San Mateo 03LL47P 1 0130±0 0067 26 48 83 6 107 10081*0 0051 93 1 58 83 6 17 2 0 9790*0 0118 233 4 82 5 346 16 1 1 038 0 717
Appendix3e Table showing the anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) parameters Tensor strain ofk^t.andkj tensors, dec main tensor declination (Jehniek, 1979)
Inc, main tensor inclination (Jelinek. 1979). cc95x, y standard de\iation parameters (Jehniek, 1979). P" degree of anisotropy (Jelinek, 1981). T shape parameter (Hrouda,
1982)
4
Provenance analyses
Appendix
Appendix 4
Heavy mineral
3n*3ly S6S
Counting data
190
Appendix 4
Provenance analyses
Pinôn Pifton Piftôn Piftôn Pifion Piftôn Piflôn

Block / Basin
Formation Calentura Cayo Guayaquil Guayaquii Guayaquii Guayaquii Guayaquii

03LL241 02LL15 02LL17 03LL247 03LL251 03LL252 03LL254
Sample
615000 617162 616809 617151 617151 617151 617151
Longitude (UTM, WGS84)
9770100 9762236 9758794 9759269 9759269 9759269 617151
5 1 5
Zircon
Monazite
Tourmaline
Rutile 1
1
Brookite + Anatase +
Sphene
E 36 190 13 100 85
Apatite
Garnet
Epidote + Zoisite + Clinozoisite
Chloritoid
Staurolite
Kyanite
Tretnolite
98 2 2 300 95 13
Hornblende (green + brown)
Hornblende (red)
11 200 33 6 2 6
Diopsidic Augite
10 3 1
Hyperethene
Others
Total 113 200 88 202 313 198 109
Piftôn Piftôn Piftôn San Lorenzo San Lorenzo San Lorenzo San Lorenzo
Block / Basin
Ancôn Ancôn Cayo San Mateo San Mateo
Formation Las Masas Cayo
LM 02LL13 03LL240 05LL430 03LL143 03LL186 04LL340
Sample
604913 604712 604879 535409 523169 516564 549922
Latitude (UTM, WGS84) 9759587 9759943 9760053 9833197 9835803 9887189 9886010
Zircon 14 14 39 2
Monazite 3 3
Tourmaline 27 4 35 2
Rutile 3 2 6
Brookite + Anatase + Sphene 14 3 3
37 8 5 3 7
Apatite
40 10 27 1
Garnet
Zoisite Clinozoisite 35 28 28 13 25
Epidote + +
Chlontoid 14
Staurolite 16 16 88
Kyanite 2 13
Tremoiite 36 7
Hornblende 8 3 3 5 1 111 400

(green + brown)
Hornblende (red) 1
2 12 199 206 47 20
Diopsidic Augite
9 1 1
Hypersthene
Others 2 1 8
Total 216 89 237 207 206 218 463
Block / Basin San Lorenzo San Lorenzo San Lorenzo San Lorenzo San Lorenzo San Lorenzo
Formation San Mateo San Mateo San Mateo San Mateo San Mateo San Mateo
04LL306 04LL309 PR 05LL430 04LL435 03LL269

Sample
523620 525808 519456 535371 54788S 522472
Latitude (UTM, WGS84) 9829376 9826572 9827123 9834048 9744304 9810869
Zircon 2 1
Monazite
Tourmaline 1
Rutile
Brookite + Anatase + Sphene 1
13 71 5 3 13
Apatite
Garnet 1 2
Zoisite Clinozoisite 1 2 100

Epidote + +
Chloritoid
Staurolite
Kyanite
Tremoiite 4 1 250
Hornblende 11 145 240 22 2

(green + brown)
Hornblende 1
(red)
179 12 212 15
Diopsidic Augite
Hypersthene
Others 1
Total 207 230 251 239 100 294
191
Appendix 4 Provenance analyses
Block / Basin Esmeraldas Esmeraldas Esmeraldas Esmeraldas Borbon Borbôn Borbon
Formation Ostiones Zapallo Zapallo Pambil Viche Angostura Angostura

05LL400 05LL413 05LL406 05LL416 05LL409 05LL410 05LL411
Sampte
689200 661419 671909 687643 679249 679199 679199
Longitude (UTM WGS84)
Latitude 119950 95946 98997 119534 119838 120091 120091
(UTM, WGS84)
Zircon 2 1 3
Monazite
Tourmaline
Rutile
Sphene
5 6 1 35 3 2 4
Apatite
Garnet 2
Zoisite Clinozoisite 13
Epidote + +
Chloritoid
Staurolite
Kyanite
Tremoiite
Hornblende 190 370 120 300 400 143 309

(green + brown)
Hornblende 3 4 14 1 4 10 15
(red)
38 8 100 5 19 3
Diopsidic Augite
1 40 5 5 1
Hypersthene
Others
Total 236 389 275 354 407 180 350
Block / Basin Borbon Borbon Manabi Manabi Manabi Manabi
Formation Up Onzole Low Onzole Tosagua Tosagua Choconcha Guayacan

05LL418 05LL419 05LL426 05LL427 05LL421 05LL422
Sample
Longitude (UTM. WGS84) 643931 615716 580864 573259 577347 573959
Latitude (UTM WGS84) 100144 55320 9933518 9930361 9979495 9978364
Zircon 4 1 1 41 2 4
Monazite 15
Tourmaline 8 31 2
Rutile 5
Brookite + Anatase + Sphene 1 33
7 8 13 78 3 11
Apatite
Garnet 1 47 6
Zoisite Clinozoisite 9 8 16
Ëpidote + +
Chloritoid 1 1
Staurolite
Kyanite 1
Tremoiite 6 300
Hornblende (green +
brown) 350 180 10 305 15
Hornblende (red) 9 246 2 14
Diopsidic Augite 16 40 2 6 8
1 6 200 2
Hypersthene
Others 3 3
Total 405 308 399 281 334 354
Block / Basin Pedemales Pedemales Pedemales Pedemales Pedemales Pedemales Pedemaies
Formation Cayo Cayo Pta Bianca Pta Bianca Pta Bianca Pta Bianca Pta Bianca
03LL127 02LL21 03LL159 03LL160 03LL129 03LL153 05LL423

Sample
Longitude (UTM, WGS84) 618162 587002 598656 589424 614775 602981 587086
Latitude (UTM, WGS84) 3323 9985953 9997891 9988597 6053 5547 9986778
Zircon
Monazite
Tourmaline
Rutile
Brookite + Anatase + Sphene 2
5 7 1
Apatite
Garnet
Epidote + Zoisite + Clinozoisite 1
Chloritoid
Staurolite
Kyanite
Tremoiite 1
Hornblende (green + brown) 2 1 18 1 150 232 1
Hornblende (red)
300 116 191 150 70 1 170
Diopsidic Augite
4 76 62 85
Hypersthene
Others 1
Total 307 193 224 223 224 240 257
192
4
Provenance analyses
Appendix
Sta Elena Sta Elena Sta Elena Sta Elena Sta Elena Sta Elena Sta Elena
Block / Basin
Azucar Azucar Caly Pebble Socorro Socorro Seca Pta Ancôn
Formation
02LL18 05LL431 05LL438 05LL439 05LL441 05LL442 02LL20
Sample
562730 566574 515449 515738 520288 520791
9708073 9708424 9743055 9743072 9739212 9738817
Latitude (UTM, WGS84)
11 7 17 72 52 14 3
Zircon
1 4
Monazite
Tourmaline 2 8 17 30 32 80
Rutile 2 1 2 3 6 11
4 7 1 7
Sphene
9 7 57 20 23 52 2
Apatite
63 29 53 62 77 42 3
Garnet
Clinozoisite 41 54 15 14 6 6
Epidote + Zoisite +
Chlontoid 11 2 8 31
10 3 8 2 12
Staurolite
22 2 1
Kyanite
Tremoiite
29 12 2 22 2 153
Hornblende (green +
brown)
Hornblende (red)
1 1 3 2 1 9
Diopsidic Augite
3 1
Hypersthene
1 3
Others
179 106 202 222 239 254 188

Total
Block / Basin Progreso Progreso Progreso Progreso Progreso

Formation Zapotal Villingtoa El Consuelo Progreso Progreso
05LL435 05LL436 05LL437 05LL433 05LL434
Sample
547888 560979 590413 570400 565653
Latitude (UTM, WGS84) 9744304 9736268 9747971 9734179 9733939
Zircon 22 93 4 15 2
Monazite 2 3
Tourmaline 2 12 4
Rutile 2 33 1 1
Anatase 10 15 3 2
Brookite + + Sphene
6 3 12 4
Apatite
Garnet 15 14 1 24 13
Zoisite Clinozoisite 48 3 82 42
Epidote + +
Chloritoid 1 1
Staurolite 5
22 7
Kyanite
Tremoiite 3 5
Hornblende 130 11 106 30 195

(green + brown)
10 4
Hornblende (red)
23 29 31 20 15
Diopsidic Augite
Hypersthene 5 180
Others 1 19 5 4
Total 309 240 225 224 298
193
Geochemical analyses
Appendix 5
Appendix 5
194
Appendix 5
Ga Sc Ti V Cr Co
15 51.8605586 3717.22283 263.276259 460.557769 41.6733068
Ni Cu 65 Cu Zn Rb Sr
178.266932 143.924303 135.458167 58.247012 2.17131474 86.434263
Y Zr Nb Ba La Ce
12.4063745 23.8247012 1.83505976 38.8645418 1.56673307 3.88446215
Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb
0.72410359 3.62151394 1.26015936 0.53167331 1.67450199 0.31097578
Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
2.0936255 0.46666108 1.31613546 0.20119522 1.33167331 0.19859653
Hf Ta Pb Th U La/Yb
0.75836653 0.37828685 -0.14374502 0.17098213 0.03751394 1.17651459
Sr/Y
6.96692357
Table A5. Geochemical analyses of trace elements (ppm) in sample 03LL266 (Gabbro ofthe Pihôn Fm., Petrillo,
UTM coordinates: 610094; 9787726, WGS84).
195
Curriculum Vitae
Luzieux Léonard
Herman Geulichstrasse 60, 8004 Zürich, Switzerland
Phone: +41-44-632 36 39 (office) -

+41-79-505 89 69 (private)
luzicux(o),crdw.ethz.ch
cv
PERSONAL DATA Born on July 8* 1977 in Mouticr (CH)

Single
Swiss & French
EDUCATION
2002 -
2006 Doctoral studies in the Department of Earth Sciences, ETH-Zürich.
Origin and Late Cretaceous-Tcrtiaty evolution ofthe forcacc in Ecuador.
Advisors: Prof. W. Winkler, Prof. F. Heller, Dr R. Spikings, Prof. J.-P.
Burg, Prof. K. Burke.
2003 -
2004 Entrepreneur degree, Create program, ETH- Zürich
1997-2002 Diplome de Géologue, University of Lausanne. Etude Géologique

et Minéralogique du Secteur du Col du Galibier (Savoie, France):
Implications Géodynamiques. Advisors: Prof. G. Stampfli, PD Dr P.
Thelin.
1993 -
1997 Maturité Cantonale (type C), Lycée Cantonal
de Porrentruy (JU)
1994-1995 California Certificate of Graduation, Corona del Mar High School

(US)
LANGUAGES French, English, German, Spanish
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Origin and Late Cretaceous-Tertiary Evolution of The Ecuadorian

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Origin and Late Cretaceous-Tertiary Evolution of The Ecuadorian

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Origin and late Cretaceous-Tertiary evolution of the Ecuadorian

ORIGIN AND LATE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY EVOLUTION OF THE

for the degree of

Dipl. de Géologue, Université de LAUSANNE

citizen of Delémont, Jura

Accepted on the recommendation of:

Prof. Dr. Wilfried Winkler, ETH Zürich, examiner

13 2 San Lorenzo Block

3 3 Sampling and preparation 57

3 4 Magnetic properties and lithologics 57

3 4 2 Curie temperature analysis 58

3 4 3 Isothermal Remanent Magnetisation (IRM) and hysteresis properties 60

3 5 Natural remanent magnetisation (NRM) 62

3 5 2 Thermal alterartion tests 64

353Field tests of NRM 65

3 6 1 Mafic volcanic basement 71

3 6 2 Calentura and Cayo fms 73

3 6 4 San Eduardo and Las Masas fms 75

3 7 Anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) 75

3 8 1 Cayo and Calentura fms 80

4 Sediment provenance analysis using heavy mineral assemblages 83

4 3 1 Presentation of the heavy mineral groups identified in the coastal forearc,

4 3 4 San Lorenzo Block 87

5 Paleogeography and structural evolution 95

5 2 Cretaceous pre- and syn-accretionary period 95

5 2 3 Late Campanian-Maastnchtian 100

inner spirit." Albert Schweitzer

greatly appreciated. Thanks Perdo Reyes,

My gratitude goes Regula Schaelchli for her

are reported from the Pallatanga Block of the Western Cordillera.

multiple accretionary events.

Keywords: Northern Andes; Ecuadorian forearc; Caribbean Plate; paleomagnetism;

chronostratigraphy; Late Cretaceous.

Lavant-arc équatorien est composé par plusieurs unités tcctonostratigraphiques (écailles)

dans le Pacific Sud.

indiquent un âge de crystallisation compris entre 90 et 87 Ma. D'autres données paléontologiques

origine commune. La présence de roches volcaniques à affinité d'arc intra-océanique indiquent la

résultat la création de plaques de Nazca et Cocos.

Pinôn, du San Lorenzo, du Pedemales, d'Esmcraldas, et du Pallatanga proviennent d'une unique

1.1 Aim of the study

1.2 Regional framework

The Caribbean Plate is located in the center of a complicated tectonic patchwork, in

1.3 Tectonostratigraphic subdivisions of the Ecuadorian forearc

The Ecuadorian forearc comprises a succession of tectonostratigraphic units, which wc will

tectonostratigraphic units are not clearly known.

of the Pallatanga I ault

1.3.1 Pinon Block

III Pedemales Block

1.3.2 San Lorenzo Block

1.3.3 Pedemales Block

1.3.4 Esmeraldas Block

in the Pedemales Block.

1.3.5 Santa Elena Block

1.3.6 Pallatanga Block

1.3.7 Naranjal Block

1.3.8 Macuchi Unit

with angular unconformities and elevated cooling rates.

1.4 Key issues and approach

sedimentation, tectonic rotations, and the determination of sediment transport directions.

source regions, thus providing paleogeographic constraints.

the coastal Ecuadorian forearc is presented in Appendix 1.

2.2 Pinôn Fm.