MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

MIT 2.111/8.411/6.898/18.435
Quantum Information Science I
September 16, 2010

Problem Set #2 Solution

1. Density matrices. A density matrix (also sometimes known as a density operator) is a representation
of statistical mixtures of quantum states. This exercise introduces some examples of density matrices,
and explores some of their properties.

(a) Let |ψi = a|0i + b|1i be a qubit state. Give the matrix ρ = |ψihψ|, which you may compute using
linear algebra using the vector representations of |ψi and hψ|. What are the eigenvectors and
eigenvalues of ρ?
Answer:

|a| ab∗
   2 
a
a∗ b∗ =


ρ = |ψihψ| =
b ba∗ |b|2

The eigenvalues of ρ are 1 and 0 and the corresponding eigenvectors are

   ∗ 
a b
,
b −a∗

ρ0 +ρ1
(b) Let ρ0 = |0ih0| and ρ1 = |1ih1|. Give the matrix σ = 2 . What are the eigenvectors and
eigenvalues of σ?
Answer:

 
1 1 1 1 0
σ = |0ih0| + |1ih1| =
2 2 2 0 1

1
The eigenvalues of σ are both 2 and the eigenvectors are

|0i, |1i

or any two orthogonal vectors in this Hilbert space.

(c) Compute tr(ρ2 ) and tr(σ 2 ). In general, tr(M 2 ) ≤ 1, with equality if and only if M is a pure state.
Answer:

trρ2 = tr(|ψihψ|)2 = tr(|ψihψ|) = 1,

1 1 1
tr(σ 2 ) = tr(|0ih0| + |1ih1|)2 = tr(|0ih0| + |1ih1|) =
4 4 2
2. Exponential of the Pauli matrices. Let ~v be any real, three-dimensional unit vector and θ a real
number. Prove that

exp(iθ~v · ~σ ) = cos(θ)I + i sin(θ)~v · ~σ , (1)

P3
where ~v · ~σ ≡ i=1 vi σi , and σi are the Pauli matrices, σ1 = X, σ2 = Y , σ3 = Z.
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Answer:

∞ ∞ 0 ∞ 0
X 1 X (−1)k 2k0
X i(−1)k 0
exp(iθ~v · ~σ ) = (iθ~v · ~σ )k = 0
(θ~
v · ~
σ ) + 0
(θ~v · ~σ )2k +1
k! 0
(2k )! 0
(2k + 1)!
k=0 k =0 k =0

The powers of Pauli matrices have a simple form. Note that,

X3 3
X
(~v · ~σ )2 = ( vi σi )2 = vi vj σ i σ j
i=1 i,j=1

The commutation relation between Pauli matrices satisfies that

σi σj + σj σi = 0 and σi2 = I

Hence,

3
X
(~v · ~σ )2 = vi2 I = I
i=1

Therefore,

0 0 0 0
(θ~v · ~σ )2k = θ2k I (θ~v · ~σ )2k +1 = θ2k +1~v · ~σ

and

∞ 0 ∞ 0
X (−1)k 2k0 X (−1)k 0
exp(iθ~v · ~σ ) = 0 )!
θ I +i 0 + 1)!
θ2k +1~v · ~σ = cos θI + i sin θ~v · ~σ
0
(2k 0
(2k
k =0 k =0

3. Hadamard operator on n qubits. The Hadamard operator on one qubit may be written as
1 h i
H = √ (|0i + |1i)h0| + (|0i − |1i)h1| . (2)
2
Show explicitly that the Hadamard transform on n qubits, H ⊗n , may be written as
1 X
H ⊗n = √ (−1)x·y |xihy|. (3)
2n x,y

Write out an explicit matrix representation for H ⊗2 .

Answer:
Hadamard transform on 1 qubit can be written as

1 h i X
H = √ (|0i + |1i)h0| + (|0i − |1i)h1| = (−1)x1 ·y1 |x1 ihy1 |
2 x1 ,y1
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Here x1 · y1 is multiplication mod 2.

Hadamard transform on n qubits can be written as

X
H ⊗n = ⊗ni=1 ( (−1)xi ·yi |xi ihyi |)
xi ,yi

Pn
Define |xi = ⊗|xi i, |yi = ⊗|yi i, x · y = i=1 xi · yi
Therefore,

X X X
H ⊗n = ⊗ni=1 ( (−1)xi ·yi |xi ihyi |) = (⊗ni=1 (−1)xi ·yi |xi ihyi |) = (−1)x·y |xihy|
xi ,yi x,y x,y

In particular,

1 1 1 1
 
   
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 −1 1 −1
H ⊗2 = √ ⊗√ = 
2 1 −1 2 1 −1 2 1 1 −1 −1
1 −1 −1 1

4. Single qubit rotations. Define the rotation operator

   
θ θ
Rn̂ (θ) ≡ exp(−iθ n̂ · ~σ /2) = cos I − i sin (nx X + ny Y + nz Z) , (4)
2 2
where n̂ is a real three-dimensional unit vector.
1. Prove that an arbitrary single qubit unitary operator can be written in the form U =
exp(iα)Rn̂ (θ), for some real numbers α and θ.
Answer:  
a b
A single qubit operator U = can be expanded in terms of {I, X, Y, Z} as U = a0 I + a1 X +
c d
a2 Y + a3 Z, where

a+d b+c c−b a−d

a0 = a1 = a2 = a3 =
2 2 2i 2

U is unitary if U † U = I.

U † U = (a∗0 I + a∗1 X + a∗2 Y + a∗3 Z)(a0 I + a1 X + a2 Y + a3 Z)

= (|a0 |2 + |a1 |2 + |a2 |2 + |a3 |2 )I + (a∗0 a1 + a∗1 a0 + ia∗2 a3 − ia∗3 a2 )X +
(a∗0 a2 − ia∗1 a3 + a∗2 a0 + ia∗3 a1 )Y + (a∗0 a3 + ia∗1 a2 − ia∗2 a1 + a∗3 a0 )Z

This requires that

|a0 |2 + |a1 |2 + |a2 |2 + |a3 |2 = 1

a∗0 a1 + a∗1 a0 + ia∗2 a3 − ia∗3 a2 = 0
a∗0 a2 − ia∗1 a3 + a∗2 a0 + ia∗3 a1 = 0
a∗0 a3 + ia∗1 a2 − ia∗2 a1 + a∗3 a0 = 0
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θ θ



Define cos 2 = |a0 |, then |a1 |2 + |a2 |2 + |a3 |2 = | sin 2 |.
Define
 
θ
nx = |a1 |/| sin |
2
 
θ
ny = |a2 |/| sin |
2
 
θ
nz = |a3 |/| sin |
2

Obviously, n2x + n2y + n2z = 1 and n̂ is a three dimensional unit vector.

Define exp(iα) = a0 / cos θ2 . Denote the phase of a1 , a2 , a3 as α1 , α2 , α3 respectively.

As

0 = a∗0 a1 + a∗1 a0 + ia∗2 a3 − ia∗3 a2

       
θ θ θ θ
= exp(i(α1 − α)) cos sin nx + exp(i(α − α1 )) cos sin nx +
2 2 2 2
   
θ θ
i exp(i(α3 − α2 )) sin2 ny nz − i exp(i(α2 − α3 )) sin2 ny nz
2 2
     
θ θ θ
= 2 cos(α − α1 ) cos sin nx + 2i sin(α3 − α2 ) sin2 ny nz
2 2 2

Therefore, cos(α − α1 ) = 0, sin(α2 − α3 ) = 0. Hence α1 = α − π/2, α2 = α3 .

Similarly, we find, α2 = α3 = α − π/2, α1 = α2 = α3 .
Therefore,
 
θ
a0 = exp(iα) cos
2
 
θ
a1 = −i exp(iα) sin nx
2
 
θ
a2 = −i exp(iα) sin ny
2
 
θ
a3 = −i exp(iα) sin nz
2

That is,
     
θ θ
U = exp(iα) cos I − i sin (nx X + ny Y + nz Z) = exp(iα)Rn̂ (θ)
2 2

2. Find values for α, θ, and n̂ giving the Hadamard gate H.

Answer:

1
H = √ (X + Z)
2

1 1
α = π/2, θ = π, nx = √ , ny = 0, nz = √
2 2
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3. Find values for α, θ, and n̂ giving the phase gate

 
1 0
S= . (5)
0 i

Answer:

1+i 1−i
S= I+ Z
2 2

α = π/4, θ = π/2, nx = 0, ny = 0, nz = 1