SW 216 Sim

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
College of Arts and Sciences Education

Social Work Program
Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged
Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning (SDL)
Course/Subject: SW 216 – Social Change and Development Perspectives
Name of Teacher: MELVIN C. PILVIRA, RSW
THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY. STRICTLY NOT FOR

SALE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE.
ONLY STUDENTS OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE CAN USE THIS
MANUAL. EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.
2ndFloor, DPT Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
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Table of Contents
Activities/Content Page Number
Course Outline 7
Course Outline Policy 7
Course Information 12
Course Outcome and CC’s Voice 12
Week 1 – 3 (Big Picture) 13-41
Big Picture A: Metalanguage 13
Big Picture A: Essential Knowledge 13

Big Picture A: Self-help 18
Big Picture A: Let’s Check Activities 19
Big Picture A: Let’s Analyze Activities 20
Big Picture A: In a Nutshell 22
Big Picture A: QA List 22
Big Picture A: Keywords Index 23
Big Picture B: Metalanguage 24
Big Picture B: Essential Knowledge 24

Big Picture B: Self-help 35
Big Picture B: Let’s Check Activities 36
Big Picture B: Let’s Analyze Activities 38
Big Picture B: In a Nutshell 40
Big Picture B: QA List 40
Big Picture B: Keywords Index 41

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Big Picture B: Let’s Check Activities 1 61
Big Picture B: Let’s Check Activities 2 62

Big Picture C: Metalanguage 69
Big Picture C: Essential Knowledge 69
Big Picture C: Self-help 74
Big Picture C: Let’s Check Activities 75
Big Picture C: Let’s Analyze Activities 76
Big Picture C: In a Nutshell 79

Big Picture C: QA List 79
Big Picture C: Keywords Index 80

Big Picture D: Metalanguage 81
Big Picture D: Essential Knowledge 81
Big Picture D: Self-help 85

Big Picture D: Let’s Check Activities 86
Big Picture D: Let’s Analyze Activities 87
Big Picture D: In a Nutshell 90

Big Picture D: QA List 90
Big Picture D: Keywords Index 91


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Big Picture E: Metalanguage 135

Big Picture E: Essential Knowledge 135
Big Picture E: Self-help 142

Big Picture E: Let’s Check Activities 143
Big Picture E: Let’s Analyze Activities 145
Big Picture E: In a Nutshell 147
Big Picture E: QA List 148
Big Picture E: Keywords Index 148
Big Picture F: Metalanguage 149

Big Picture F: Essential Knowledge 149
Big Picture F: Self-help 114
Big Picture F: Let’s Check Activities 155
Big Picture F: Let’s Analyze Activities 156
Big Picture F: In a Nutshell 158
Big Picture F: QA List 158
Big Picture F: Keywords Index 158
Big Picture G: Metalanguage 159

Big Picture G: Essential Knowledge 159
Big Picture G: Self-help 161
Big Picture G: Let’s Check Activities 162
Big Picture G: Let’s Analyze Activities 162
Big Picture G: In a Nutshell 164
Big Picture G: QA List 165
Big Picture G: Keywords Index 165

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Big Picture E: Metalanguage 228
Big Picture E: Essential Knowledge 229
Big Picture E: Self-help 237
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Big Picture E: Let’s Check Activities 238

Big Picture E: Let’s Analyze Activities 240
Big Picture E: In a Nutshell 241
Big Picture E: QA List 241
Big Picture E: Keywords Index 241
Big Picture F: Metalanguage 242
Big Picture F: Essential Knowledge 243

Big Picture F: Self-help 249
Big Picture F: Let’s Check Activities 250
Big Picture F: Let’s Analyze Activities 251
Big Picture F: In a Nutshell 252
Big Picture F: QA List 252
Big Picture F: Keywords Index 253

Big Picture G: Metalanguage 255
Big Picture G: Essential Knowledge 255
Big Picture G: Self-help 260
Big Picture G: Let’s Analyze Activities 260
Big Picture G: In a Nutshell 262
Big Picture G: QA List 263
Big Picture G: Keywords Index 263
Big Picture H: Metalanguage 264

Big Picture H: Essential Knowledge 264
Big Picture H: Self-help 269
Big Picture H: Let’s Analyze Activities 269
Big Picture H: In a Nutshell 271
Big Picture H: QA List 272
Big Picture H: Keywords Index 272

Rubrics 273-275
Course Schedule 276-279
Online Code of Conduct 280
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Course Outline: SW 216 – Social Change and Development Perspectives
Course Coordinator: MELVIN C. PILVIRA, RSW

Email: melvinpilvira@umindanao.edu.ph
Student Consultation: Direct message via LMS Blackboard
Mobile: 0942-934-1962
Phone: (082) 297-2767 (Residence)
Effectivity Date: August 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-Line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Time Frame: 54 hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Requisites: SW 121 – Philippine Social Realities and Social Welfare
Credit: 3 units
Attendance Requirement: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all scheduled
virtual or face to face sessions
Course Outline Policy
Areas of Concern Details
Contact and Non-contact This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is designed for
hours blended learning module of instructional delivery with
scheduled face to face or virtual sessions. The expected
number of hours will be 54 including the face to face or
virtual sessions. The face to face sessions shall include the
summative assessment tasks (examinations) since this
course is important in the social work licensure examination.
Assessment Task Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd, 5th, 7th

Submission and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper shall be
attached with a cover page indicating the title of the
assessment task (if the task is performance), the name of the
course coordinator, date of submission and name of the
student. The document should be emailed to the course
coordinator. It is also expected that you already paid your
tuition and other fees before the submission of the
assessment task.
If the assessment task is done in real time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management System,
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the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time by the course

coordinator. Since this course is included in the social work
licensure examination, you will be required to take the
Multiple Choice Question exam inside the University. This
should be scheduled ahead of time by your course
coordinator. This is non-negotiable for all licensure-based
programs
Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment tasks are
required to be submitted through Turnitin with a maximum
similarity index of 30% allowed. This means that if your
paper goes beyond 30%, the students will either opt to redo
her/his paper or explain in writing addressed to the course
coordinator the reasons for the similarity. In addition, if the
paper has reached more than 30% similarity index, the
student may be called for a disciplinary action in accordance
with the University’s OPM on Intellectual and Academic
Honesty.
Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating and

commissioning other students or people to complete the task
for you have severe punishments (reprimand, warning,
expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible
maximum score for that assessment item for each day or
part day that the assessment item is late.
However, if the late submission of assessment paper has a

valid reason, a letter of explanation should be submitted and
approved by the course coordinator. If necessary, you will
also be required to present/attach evidences.
Return of Assignments/ Assessments

Assessments
Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks after
the submission. This will be returned by email or via
Blackboard portal.
For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

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require some or few of the students for online or virtual

sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate the
originality of the assessment task submitted and to ensure
that all the group members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course

coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an assessment task.
The resubmission is premised on the student’s failure to
comply with the similarity index and other reasonable
grounds such as academic literacy standards or other
reasonable circumstances e.g. illness, accidents financial
constraints.
Re-marking of You should request in writing addressed to the program

Assessment Papers and coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the score
Appeal given to an assessment task. The letter should explicitly
explain the reasons/points to contest the grade. The program
coordinator shall communicate with the students on the
approval and disapproval of the request.
If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can elevate

your case to the program head or the dean with the original
letter of request. The final decision will come from the dean
of the college.
Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional contact
Course discussions/exercises – 30%
1st formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment – 10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%
All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA): Final exam

– 40%
Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures
Preferred Referencing Depends on the discipline; if uncertain or inadequate, use

Style the general practice of the APA 6th Edition.
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Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account which
is a requirement to access the BlackBoard portal. Then, the
course coordinator shall enroll the students to have access
to the materials and resources of the course. All
communication formats: chat, submission of assessment
tasks, requests etc. shall be through the portal and other
university recognized platforms.
You can also meet the course coordinator in person through

the scheduled face to face sessions to raise your issues and
concerns.
For students who have not created their student email,

please contact the course coordinator or program head
Contact Details of the Dr. Khristine Marie D. Concepcion

Dean Email: artsciences@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 134
Contact Details of the Dr. Helen Q.Omblero

Program Head Email:helen_omblero@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 149
Students with Special Students with special needs shall communicate with the
Needs course coordinator about the nature of his or her special
needs. Depending on the nature of the need, the course
coordinator with the approval of the program coordinator may
provide alternative assessment tasks or extension of the
deadline of submission of assessment tasks. However, the
alternative assessment tasks should still be in the service of
achieving the desired course learning outcomes
Help Desk Contact Dr. Khristine Marie D. Concepcion - Dean

Email: artsciences@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 134
Rosyl S. Matin-ao – College LMS Facilitator
Email: rosyl_matinao@umindanao.edu.ph Phone: (082)300-
5456/305-0647 Local 149
Library Contact Brigida E. Bacani

Email: library@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 0951-376-6681
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Well-being Welfare GSTC link: https://www.facebook.com/UM-GSTC-Main-

Support Held Desk CASE-111568283817513/
Contact CP# TNT 09504665431
CP# TM 09058924090
Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Black Board LMS
CC’s Voice: Welcome to this course SW 216: Social Change and Development
Perspectives. I believe you already established your learning on different
social realities of various sectors as expected from your course subject in
Philippine Social Realties and Social Welfare. Your competencies acquired
will be essential to examine those realities in the lens of different social
change and development theories and perspectives. By learning various
concepts, we are one step forward in understanding person-in-situation
complex. Thus, context-based interventions will be provided.
CO: As a future social/human development worker, you need to be acquainted

first with different concepts regarding sources, patterns, and consequences of
social change and development. Then, this will necessitate you to analyze
and apply theories and concepts of social change and development
perspectives in Social Work Practice. You also need to recall sectoral realities
for analyzing social movements from different social development approaches
and perspectives in conceptualizing/re-conceptualizing developmental
practice. Let us begin!
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Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO)
At the end of the unit, you are expected to:
a. Explain the pattern, sources, and consequences of social change

b. Analyze various concepts and dimensions of development
ULOa: Explain the pattern, sources, and consequences of social change
This part discusses the essential terminologies relevant to the nature and
characteristics of social change. You will encounter these terms as we progress with our
study. All terminologies are conceptually defined since most of the ideas and concepts are
considered borrowed knowledge from other social science disciplines such as, but not
limited to, sociology and anthropology. Please refer to these definitions in case you will
encounter difficulty in understanding social change concepts.
Please proceed immediately to the "Essential Knowledge" part since the first lesson is
also a definition of essential terms. .
To meet the ULOa, you need to be acquainted first with the concepts revolving
around social change. You need to comprehensively understand the nature and dynamics of
social change, as this would be the foundation of our following topics. Concepts are defined
and discussed throughout this section, but be notified that you are not limited to refer to
these resources exclusively. Thus, it is expected from you to utilize other books, research
articles, and other resources that are available in the university's library, e.g., e-brary,
search.proquest.com, and other credible platforms..
1. Social change. Mainly, social change refers to the alterations that occur in the
social structure, or the pattern of action and interaction in societies (The
International Encyclopedia of the Social Science, IESS 1972).
1.1. Some definitions highlight lights modifications in the structure and
function of a social system, e.g., patterns of interactions, leisure, norms,
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rules, institutions, and other aspects of society can be modified as a

product of social change.
1.2. August Comte: "Social change is the progress of societies in a
predictable series of stages based on the development of human
intellectual capacity."
1.3. Anderson and Parker: "Social Change involves modifications in the
structure or functioning of society. "
1.4. Davis: By social change it is meant only such alterations as occur in
social organization, that is, structure and functions of society.
1.5. Gillin and Gillin: "Social changes are alterations from the recognized way
of life. Factors involved are in geographical conditions, cultural
equipment or composition of the population
1.6. Ginsberg, M.: "By social change, it can be understood as an alteration in
social structure, e.g., the size of the organization, the composition or"
balance of its parts or the type of its organization.”
1.7. Koening, S.: "Social change refers to the alterations which exist in the life
patterns of people."
1.8. Lundberg and Others: "Social change means to any alterations in
established patterns of human relationships and standards of conduct."
1.9. MacIver and Page: MacIver and Page: "Social change refers to
alterations in social relationships."
1.10. Mazumdar, H.T.: "Social change refers to the new mode in the life of
people or on how the society operates based on the modification of total
replacement of the old ways.”
1.11. Merrill and Eldrege: "Social change means that many persons are
engaged in activities that differ from those they or their immediate
forefathers engaged in sometime before."
1.12. Smelser, Neil J.: "Social change is the modifications of the way societies
are organized."
2. We can then deduce from these definitions three aspects of social change:
2.1. Social change can be regarded as the process of alteration without

pointing out the quality of change it produces over time.
2.2. Changes in society correlate with alteration in the culture so that it would
be necessary to discuss socio-cultural dimensions.
2.2.1. Some sociologists pointed out the difference between social
and cultural change. Social change is the alterations in the
social structure (pattern of interaction or size of the
organization) or particular social institutions, or the relationship
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between institutions. They mainly associate social change to

the actual change in human behavior. Cultural change, on the
other hand, refers to variation in cultural phenomena such as
knowledge and ideas, art, religion, moral doctrines, values,
beliefs, symbol systems, and so on. In this definition, some
sociologists associate social change abstractly because it is
almost difficult to decide which type of change is happening. For
example, the growth of new technology, as embedded in the
culture, has been associated with changes in the economic
structures.
2.3. Variations of social change in scope and speed.

2.3.1. Social change may vary in scale from small to significant
changes. Changes can take a cyclical pattern, i.e., changes
may progress vertically but sooner or later retract to the
previous stage when needed. For instance, when there is the
recurrence of centralization, i.e., the planning, decision making,
and polices become concentrated within the management level,
and decentralization, i.e., movement of administrative functions
from a single center to its parts.
2.3.2. Social change can be revolutionary. This type of change may
come on a short-term basis, for example, increase or decrease
migration rates, as well as long-term economic structures
brought about by this migration phenomenon. It is also evident
in some nations whose government system is altered by a new
governing mechanism.
2.3.3. Social change may also include the development and
decreasing amount of membership and size of social
institutions. It may be a continuous process like specialization,
i.e., method of production wherein the scope of producing-
efforts is limited to gain a higher degree of efficiency. It includes
discontinuous processes such as a particular technical or social
invention, which appears at some point in time.
2.3.4. Change also varies in scope that affects society. The
industrialization process affected many aspects of society,
including social interaction, the standard of living, and even
family structures and processes. In contrast, the substitution of
matches for stone to start a fire had a relatively limited scope.
2.3.5. Changes may vary in speed. Industrialization becomes a
significant push factor for the western countries to achieve such
changes while developing nations are trying to borrow or adopt
ways and means from those nations that have already made
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the desired change.
3. Social change is viewed as a neutral concept. It can be associated with 'evolution'

and 'progress.'
3.1. Evolution is a slow-pace, piecemeal, and a long-term process. It means
more than growth because growth implies a direction of change but
emphasizes quality and size. On the other hand, evolution involves
change not only in quality and size but also in structure.
3.2. Progress means change towards a common desired end. It has a value
judgment element determined by society.
4. Sources of Social Change
4.1. Discovery. Shared human understanding of reality which already existed,
e.g., the discovery of penicillin. Discovery is an augmentation of the
world's tested ad verified knowledge. However, it can only be used to
induce social change when it is utilized, not merely recognizing it..
4.2. Invention. It is the combination of existing verified knowledge into a new
use. It can be in material (modern technology) and social (trade union).
Each invention may be new in a form (approach or model) in function
(what it does) or in meaning (its long-term effect) or in principle (the
philosophical base or framework in which it is based).
4.3. Conflict. This refers to the clash of ideas, perceptions, or perspectives,
which may lead to violent actions. An example of conflict in societies is a
war that obviously affected the countless deaths of soldiers and
civilians. More than that, it impacted the number of single-parent
households; many of the housewives become the breadwinner of the
family. For example, in World War 2, the poverty that these women
experienced compelled them to enter into prostitution to earn an income
resulting in an increase in prostitution after the war.
4.4. Ideology. It is a conscious process formed through social relationships,
whereby people engaged in real activities that are transformed into
cognitive products. One example is the patriarchal ideology, which
means a conservative belief in the sexual division of labor that puts men
above women in the desirability of men doing aggressive competitive
jobs. In contrast, women are more inclined to do nurturing and
emotional work. Thus, it makes women subordinate and second class.
Another is a bourgeois ideology, which refers to the belief in the
efficiency and of private enterprise and the justice of distributions
generated by markets.
4.5. Social consciousness. It refers to an awareness to one’s status in relation
to economic condition.
4.6. Paradigm Shift. Paradigm Shift. It refers to the understanding of how
things work in the world that altered over-time due to a new approach or
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underlying assumptions of a new idea. An example of it is the evident

change in religious practices and beliefs, ideological orientations,
economic systems, and many other aspects of our lives.
4.7. Geopolitics and globalization. Geopolitics and globalization. It is simply
the widening, deepening, and speeding up of worldwide
interconnectedness, bringing the loss of power of the sovereign nation
to determine its growth as global forces undermine the government's
ability to control its economies
5. Means of Social Change.
5.1. Diffusion. It is the spread of one's cultural characteristics from one group
to another, whereby it operates both within societies. Usually, it happens
when one society comes into contact with others. Diffusion is a two-way
and selective process. Diffusion mainly involves some alterations of the
borrowed cultural elements from different cultures either in form,
function or meaning.
5.2. Revolution. A revolution is a rapid, fundamental, and violent domestic
change in the dominant values and myths of society, in its political
institutions, social structure, leadership, and government activity and
policies.
5.3. Terrorism. It is the random acts of violence; oftentimes, victims are
innocent people. There are at least eight primary factors that can be
associated on terrorism: the factor of violence; the required intention;
the nature of the victims; the connection of the offender to the state; the
justice and motive of their cause; the level of organization; the element
of theatre; and the absence of guilt. However, one cannot draw from
these variables a simple (or even a complex) definition of terrorism. The
reason is that not all factors apply all the time.
5.4. Social Action. It can be defined as a methodology that employs "norm-

adhering" and "norm-testing" to change the system at mezzo and macro
levels of society. Social change produced in this kind of strategy goes
beyond the alterations in the daily behavior of individuals or groups;
however, in the long run, it lacks fundamental and radical
transformations in the social structure. The purpose of social action is
not to effect changes in the personality system or the routine
administration and management of formal organizations but in the
programs and policies of organizations and institutions.
5.5. Social movement. It is an organized effort by a reasonable number of

people to propose or resist change in some aspects of society. Social
movement undoubtedly involves collective action. This collective action
may be spontaneous and informal attempt to stir and conscientize the
interest of a relative number of people who experience strain. Social
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movement aims to bring about a change in ideologies of the existing

system, norms, and values. At the same time, its actions are also made
by some other forces to maintain the status quo or resist the changes.
5.6. Development Planning. An act of state or other stakeholders to

consciously assess, prepare strategic courses of action to address
social problems. It is an intentional action, learning and strategizing can
straightforwardly explain why things turned out the way they did. A
properly executed plan should bring about the desired outcome.
5.7. Free the market and roll back the state. The welfare state in all its
manifestations and all varieties of socialism and collectivism is seen as
the mother of all evil. The social is an ideological figure and not a
definable ideal of thought; it only serves to undermine the rules of the
market to which we owe our wealth.
5.8. Legislative Action. It is the process o of enacting policies and laws.
5.9. International Agreements. It is a tool that regulates matters concerning

the welfare of the states and other subjects of international law. The
agreement assumes a variety of forms and styles, but they are all
governed by the law of treaties, which part of costmary international law.
*McMichael, P. (2017). Development and Social Change: A Global Perspective. Sage

Publication. Retrieved from
https://books.google.com.ph/books?hl=en&lr=&id=RadyCwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd
&pg=PP1&dq=social+change+definition,+sources+and+means&ots=SHh-
4wgptb&sig=tWXjPLtRkIh2IUaVRHxP3younoM&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q
=social%20change%20definition%2C%20sources%20and%20means&f=fal
se
*Mondal, P. (2013). Social Change: Characteristics and Factors. Retrieved from

https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/society/social-change-characteristics-
and-factors-5285-words/6169
*Social Change: Concept and Factors Involved in Social Change (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://smartprep.in/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Social-Change.pdf
*Social Change. (n.d.) Retrieved from

https://www.achieveriasclasses.com/notes/ESO11_33%20Social%20Chang
e.pdf
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Activity 1. For this part, let’s try to evaluate your understanding on different concepts
revolving around social change. Please write your answer in the space provided before each
item.
1. It refers to the selective and dual process of adopting

cultural trait from one group to another.
2. It is defined as alteration towards something different, just
repair of a damage or an innovation from what is existing.
3. This process identifies a succession of stages through
which human societies have progressed from the supposedly relatively simple patterns our
remote ancestors to the complexity and diversity of the present day.
4. It is a collective link by common ideals dynamically
launched series of social action in order to achieve specific social objective.
5. It is the act of the state and other stakeholders to
consciously assess, prepare strategically courses of action in order to address social
problems.
6. It is defined as alteration in family structures, gender
dynamics and changes in the day to day interaction between and among individuals or
groups.
7. This refers to any modification that is desirable to the whole
population.
8. This refers to variation in cultural phenomena such as
knowledge and ideas, art, religion, moral doctrines, values, beliefs, symbol systems.
9. This refers to the universal, continuous, inevitable, planned
or unplanned process of alterations in social relationships and processes.
10. Its pattern may be cyclical or linear form of alteration.
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Activity 2. From what you remember on the definition and meaning of different concepts of
social change, let’s take one step further in evaluating your learning. In this part, you need to
explain comprehensively your answers based from the readings and researches you have.
1. Differentiate the following terms and give examples in each concept:
Social Change, Evolution, and Progress.
2. Discuss the type of changes that has taken place in your family for three generations
(your Grandfather’s generation, one of your father’s and one of your own generation). List
out the any changes observed and discuss what are the source/s and mean/s related to the
changes occurred and how it manifest.
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3. Identify which among the sources and means of social change has something to do about
social work interventions that promote social change and development. Explain you answer
and provide an example.
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1. Social change is a universal, continuous, inevitable, planned or unplanned social

phenomenon. Its rate and scope may vary from different societies at different times
including social interaction, the standard of living, and even family structures and
processes. It may also vary in scale from small to significant changes. Changes can take
a cyclical or linear pattern.
2. Social change is multi-causal and multi-faceted. This means that social change has
multiple sources and means for change to occur. Sources include discovery, invention,
conflict, ideology, social consciousness, paradigm shift, and globalization. It is multi-
faceted because there are multiple means for change to occur. These are: diffusion,
revolution, terrorism, social action, social movement, development planning, free the
marker and roll back the state strategy, legislative action, and international
agreement.
3. Change is a value neutral concept that involves alterations in structure and social
relationships. Progress implies change that has a value of judgment according the
majority of population which is desirable. Evolution imply not only the size but also the
structure in society in a continuous and unidirectional manner.
In this section, all your questions or clarifications may be listed down. You may wish to
raise you concern through LMS or other modes such as email or sms (in case of distant
learning). After the clarification, you may write your understanding of the question/ raised
in the “answer” portion.
Questions/Issues Answers
1.
2.
3.
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4.
5.
Social Change Progress Evolution Social Structures
Social Processes Cultural Change Centralization Decentralization
Specialization Industrialization Discovery Invention
Conflict Ideology Social Paradigm Shift

Consciousness
Globalization Diffusion Revolution Terrorism
Social Action Social Movement Development Free the marker and

Planning roll back the state
strategy
Legislative Action International Geopolitics Culture

Agreement
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ULOb. Analyze various concepts and dimensions of development
The following terms are useful to have an operational understanding of the topics
below.
The following terms are useful to have an operational understanding of the topics below.
1. Deregulation – it is the reduction or elimination of government power in a particular
industry, usually enacted to create more competition within the industry
2. Liberalization – refers to reductions in restrictions on international trade and capital.
3. Privatization – refers to the process of transfer of government services or assets to the
private sector
4. Satellitization – refers to the process of an imperialistic power imposing international
division of labor, an institution of aid, multinational corporations, and
clientele classes in underdeveloped countries.
5. Eurocentrism – refers to the view that is centered on Western civilization or a biased view
that favors it over non-western civilization.
6. Orientalism-Narcissism – refers to the view that is centered on the Eastern civilization or
biased view that favors it over non-eastern civilization.
7. Chauvinism – refers to the irrational belief in the superiority or dominance of one's group.
8. Post-bourgeois liberalism – refers to the belief that we need to return towards the
historical tradition of one's own group as a basis for moral
judgment.
In this part, you will be introduced to a different meaning of development from a

historical perspective. You will also be analyzing "development" through the lens of
economy, politics, and culture.
6. Meaning of Development over time.
6.1 1800s. Classical economics is the basis of development. This was the
period of the British economic thought brought about by Adam Smith's
book The Wealth of Nations and John Stuart Mill's Principle of
Economy. In this era, development means lesser state interventions by
imposing market-friendly policies that benefit privately owned
enterprises. This was created to overcome the political system of
monarchy that leads to capitalistic democracies with self-regulation.
Before the rise of classical economics, most economies follows
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protectionism, i.e., government policies that restrict international trade to

protect domestic economies, and mercantilism, i.e., government
regulated their economy by limit the imports and maximize exports, by
doing this the nation's wealth would increase because of the surplus in
the country's balance of trade. The balance of trade is determined by
how much gold or silver the country has in its treasury, but over-time it
was counter-productive due to the difficulty of maintaining the system. As
a result, it gives way to the classical economic policy of laissez-faire,
which literally means "leave alone" the market to produce growth and
development.
6.2. 1870>. The turn-of-the-century latecomers to industrialization. In this era,

the agricultural system was evolving into an industrial one. Agricultural-
based countries are having a hard time catching up with the influence of
much more advanced industrialized countries. During the Cold War
years, two competing strategies between the capitalist system from the
West and the communist system from Soviet, Chinese, or Cuban
varieties in the central planning ideals. Mainly, the core meaning of
development was catching up with the advanced industrialized nation.
6.3. 1850>. The European colonies had gone through a series of stages. In
brief, these were the early stage of commerce by charted companies,
followed by plantation and mining of important minerals, e.g., copper,
nickel, and gold. In the latter phase, colonialism took the form
of trusteeship, i.e., the process of managing colonial economies to
promote the welfare of the native population and not as mere exploitation
for metropolitan benefit. Development in this period means resources
management, first to make colonies cost-effective and later managed
economic resources in the context of national independence.
Industrialization was not part of the colonial economies because the
focus is on the exportation of raw materials for the economies of the core
nations. Indeed, there are many documented episodes when colonial
interests destroyed native manufacturers (textile manufacturing in India is
the classic example). This is the significant difference between the
colonial economies and the latecomers in central and eastern Europe.
6.4. 1940>. In the nineteenth century England, "development," is the

remedies for shortcomings and maladies of progress. This involves
questions such as population, job loss, the social question (according to
Marx urban squalor. In this argument, progress and development (which
are often viewed as seamless web) are contrasted, development differs
from and complements progress. Thus, for Hegel, progress is linear
while development is curvilinear. Accordingly, twentieth-century
development thinking in Europe and colonies had already traversed
many terrains and positions and was a reaction to nineteenth-century
progress and policy failures, where industrialization left people uprooted
and out of work, and social relationship dislocated.
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6.5. 1950>. The modern development economics define development as

economic growth. Economic growth and Big Push theory theorize the
problem of low income, low buying power, high unemployment, and
underemployment in agriculture. They proposed a solution that the state
to be actively involved in providing incentives to capitalists to invest in the
industrialization of agriculture and in the education of human capital, it
introduced the interconnectedness of vicious circles there is a need for
capital accumulation through incentives from the state; capital
accumulation will turn unto capital investments and balanced economic
growth.
6.5.1. During the 1950s a "development economics" emerged. It

focused specifically on developing countries and had greater
practicality in terms of more immediate policy orientation.
Development economics assumed that economic processes in
developing countries were distinct from those of developed
countries, as the structuralisms argued. But gradually
noneconomic (the position that all economics work in similar ways
and that neoclassical economics was universally applicable) came
back in. However, "getting the prices right" (the stranded
neoclassical remedy to making an economy efficient) was
acknowledged as more difficult in the developing world.
6.6. 1960>. Likewise, the core meaning of development was economic growth
or capital accumulation, but in the form of dependent accumulation,
which led to the "development of underdevelopment," and an
intermediate form was "associated dependent development." The aim of
the development was national accumulation (or autocentric
development). The meaning of development in this era, nations'
development was based on external destruction rather than internal
innovation – brutal conquest, colonial control, and stripping non-Western
societies of their people, resources, and surpluses rather than single-
mindedly undertaking the rational modernization. From this, global
geography can be drawn. First world "center" and non-European Third
World "peripheries." The relationship between center and periphery
assumed the spatial form of dependence, in which some countries (the
dominant_ achieved self-sustaining economic growth while others (the
dominated and dependent) grew only as a reflection of changes in the
dominant countries.
6.7. 1970>. Alternative development thinking introduced a new understanding

of development focused on social and community development and
"human flourishing." The goal of development has been redefined not
only as a matter of GDP, but human development is more appropriate
measure of growth. By this time, important positions and methodologies
have been absorbed by mainstream development, giving way to the view
on the agency, methods, and objectives of development to be
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contextualized base on the needs of the communities. NGO is now the

key player on the ground and in development cooperation among
organizations existing in the community. Over the years, alternative
development increased its popularity because it has been associated
with any form of criticism of mainstream and conventional "economic
development," such as anti-capitalism, the green movement, feminist,
and other sectoral movements. Alternative development is a
development from below, and "below" refers to both community and
NGOs.
6.8. 1980>. With the human development in the mid-1980s came the
understanding of development as capacitation, following Amartya Sen's
work. In this perspective, development means an enabling or Human
Development reports of UNDP's "enlargement of people's choices.
Human Development, as mentioned by Ul Haq, refers to create a
desirable link between economic growth and human development. There
are four ways to create the link: (1) investment in education, health and
skills, (2) more equitable distribution of income, (3) government social
spending, and (4) empowerment of people, especially women. Ul Haq
proposes a paradigm of equity, sustainability, productivity, and
empowerment. But, it is the element of productivity dimension that made
the difference between human development and alternative
development. Productivity as one of the elements; it is the supply-side
factor as the nexus between equity and growth. Human development's
emphasis on investment in human capital was popularized by the
Japanese perspective of development and the East Asian model that is
now widely recognized.
6.8.1. Two radically different perspectives of development came to the

foreground at the same time. Human development, on the one
hand, and Neoliberalism in the other i.e., returning the
neoclassical assumption that states that any form of control or
limitation impose the government is damaging the integrity of
the market, thus destroying the "development." The central
focus is to "get the prices right" and let the market forces do
their work—development in the sense that government
intervention is a form of market distortion that kills the market
itself. The main goal is economic growth using deregulation,
liberalization, and privatization - which are to be considered the
neoliberal strategies that roll back government and reduce
market-distorting interventions and, in effect, annul
"development." Thus, it remains one of the conventional core
meanings of development, economic growth, during the "how-
to" and agency of development switch from state to market.
Accordingly, neoliberalism is an anti-development perspective,
not in terms of goals bit in terms of means.
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6.9. 1990>. Post-development thinking advocates for an anti-development

that accuses the state (government) as an authoritarian engineer that
creates policies that can repudiate economic growth, and as a result
(people deemed a failure or disaster int he system itself.
Postdevelopmentalist ontological assumption is centralized to the idea
that western ways of thinking, philosophies, and culture and counter-
productive in revitalizing modern development. Base on this assumption,
modern western development is destructive rather than generative, a
force to be resisted rather than welcomed. In a phrase, development is
precisely the problem rather than the solution.
6.9.1 In this era, two views have been recognized. First

is Development as Liberation, which assumes that it is only
when society is liberated from the satellitization that
dominates it, from both outside and within, that development
in the more usual sense is possible. It denotes freedom
from dependency, from internal and external obstacles to
freedom, and exploitative structures and institutions in order
for a man to realize his potential. In order to gain freedom,
man must be free from (1) obstacle in man himself – his
greed, selfishness, dishonesty, etc.; (2) conditions that are
less than human brought on by a number of causes such as
poverty ignorance and ill health; (3) unjust and oppressive
structures and institutions which serve further to
dehumanize man such as social injustice and human
exploitation; (4) inclusion of marginal man and marginal
group – marginal men are those who do not enter into the
decision making processes of their communities and do not
relate to other groups; (5) participation in national and local
decision making (internal political and economic freedom);
and (6) redistribution of economic and political power.
6.9.2. Second is Development as Humanization that sees

development as a process of holding material and spiritual in
balance and tension. Development means to make people
more human. To lift them out of inhuman and dehumanizing
conditions of poverty and unemployment, ill health, diseases,
and ignorance. In which man live in a kind society that would
bring about his humanity embracing higher values of love and
friendship, prayer, and contemplation.
6.10. 2000-2015 - 2000-2015 - Millennium Development Goals. The notion of

"new reform agenda" prevailing in the early 21st century as frontiers in
hegemonic policy discourse was quite limited in their transformational
capacity, and their "within the system" lexicon ("target poverty alleviation"
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is our favorite – if only that were that simple!"). But the new millennium
also brought a more vividly termed approach from a reshuffled
institutional framework. The MDG crystallizes commitments made
separately at various international conferences during the 1900s. They
are said to be innovative in that they explicitly recognize interdependence
among growth, poverty reduction, and sustainable development; MDG
acknowledge that the foundation of development is built by democracy,
respecting, protecting and fulfilling human rights, upholding the rule of
law, and peace and security; they are based on time-bound and
measurable targets, accompanied by indicators for monitoring progress;
and they bring together, in the eight goals, the responsibilities of
developing countries with those of developed countries, founded on a
global partnership
6.11. 2015- 2030 - Sustainable Development. It is the development that

meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs" (United Nations General Assembly,
1987, p. 43). The SDGs were developed to succeed the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs), which ended in 2015. The dimension of
Sustainable Development Goals as a framework: (1) the right to
development for every country, (2) human rights and social inclusion, (3)
convergence and living standards across countries, and (4) shared
responsibilities and opportunities. Characteristics of SDG Framework: (1)
inclusive, (2) universal, (3) integrated, (4) locally-focused, and (5)
technology-driven.
7. Economic Development. Development means growth in the economy and is

measured in terms of the "size of the economy. The size of nation's economy,
under what is called the "income approach" to accounting, is derived from totaling
the wages, rents, interests, profits, non-income charges, and net foreign factor
income earned by that country's people.
7.1. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the total monetary or market value of all
the finished goods and services produced within a country's borders in a
specific time period. As a broad measure of overall domestic production, it
functions as a comprehensive scorecard of the country's economic health.
7.2. Gross national product (GNP) is a broad measure of a nation's total

economic activity. GNP is the value of all finished goods and services
produced in a country in one year by its nationals.
7.3. The Gross National Income (GNI) , previously known as gross national
product, is the total domestic and foreign output claimed by residents of a
country, consisting of gross domestic product, plus factor incomes earned by
foreign residents, minus income earned in the domestic economy by
nonresidents.
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7.4. Base on the data of the World Bank, inequality gets worse when we start to
consider differences among countries and groups of people living in a specific
country. When we include ethnicity, class, gender, geographic differences,
and regional location, distribute income extremely unequal within each
country.
7.5. Of the almost 80% of the global income ends up in rich countries, 50% of
that 80% global income goes to the top 20% highest income-earner, while
the 20% lowest-income earner in rich countries gets only 5-9% relatively. In
other words, only 3% (200 million) of the global population that resides in
rich countries get 40% of the global income.
7.6. At the other extreme, in low-income countries, the richest 20% typically get
50-85% of the national income relatively, while the poorest 20% typically get
only 3-5% of the 3% global income that these poor counties receive. In
other words, 9% (571 million) of the world's poorest population living in the
poorest countries get only 0.12% of the global income.
7.7. If we rely on our definition of development to economic growth, global

income distribution, we can view poverty as a result of extreme inequalities,
i.e., poor people become poorer because rich people take so much income
the economy produces.
7.8. If the bases of development rely on the conventional data used by

economics, we can note that there are deficiencies in these data if we
assess growth and development. First, these data greatly vary from country
to country, and the "conventional" indicators such as income, production,
and education are culturally specific rather than universal. Yet, national and
international agencies report only those that can be measured by
"conventional" accounting procedures. This stimulates the question: whose
conventions are used? Obviously, those from the first world economies.
GDP or Gross Domestic Product only measures the products sold for a
price in the formal market, but not the products consumed within the family
nor those goods and services exchanged informally. Following the same
logic, a significant portion of the economic activity in many developing
countries is just an estimation or ignored totally. For example, if we take
women's work in this context, 60-80% of the food is produced in the
informal economy, and 70% of informal entrepreneurs are women.
Unfortunately, all these informal activities are not recognized in measuring
the economy. In other words, the "official" economy, whose true
measurement may be only a minor part of the "real" economy whose true
indicators of growth are unknown.
7.9. Similarly, education is officially measured by the number of enrollees in an

official school recognized by the government and therefore excludes
informal educational measures provided by various institutions—the same
with energy. Energy consumption is conventionally measured by electric
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consumption, which excludes traditional fuels like firewood and dried animal
excrement. Many critics of the "conventional" GDP and GNP conclude that
measurements used in determining the growth of a particular country are
biased to the Western concept of development rather than development in
indigenous senses of the term.
7.10. Second, the use of GNP and GDP to measure development does not
correlate with the "happiness" of the people despite the massive increase in
income and wealth. Kahneman and Krueger (2006) pointed out the over the
past 50 years of economic development in the West, levels of happiness did
not increase and, in some cases, diminished slightly. According to Rudin
(2006) much of the people living in rich countries say they are happier than
those people living in developing countries. But once basic necessities such
as food, clothes, and home have been met, any extra income does not
seem to make them happier. So, why not redistribute income from the rich,
who don't need it in terms of life happiness, to the poor, who could certainly
use it to be a lot better off?
8. Politics and Development. Development refers to a process in which resources
are put at better use in a specific country or sector in society. The term "better"
requires a course of an explanation of how and for whom a particular way of using
resources is more advantageous to another.
8.1. Development in general, as we know, is a value-laden concept. Similarly,
political development (development of politics, that is) has hitherto been
related primarily to the study of equally disputed modernization. The
essential functions that any such system was assumed to handle included
political socialization and recruitment, interest articulation and
aggregation, communication and rule making, rule application, and rule
adjudication.
8.1.1. Input Functions of Political System. Political Socialization and
Recruitment. It is the process of political socialization that brings change
patterns of political culture i.e., introducing a political culture that leads to
the development of a set of attitudes and characters among its members of
the system. Political socialization can be either manifest or latent. It is
evident when it involves the direct communication of information, values, or
feelings towards political objects.
8.1.2. (1) Interest Articulation. "It is the process by which individuals and
groups make demands upon the political decision-makers that we call
interest articulation. It is the first functional step in the political
conversion process..
8.1.2.1. Almond identifies four main interest articulation structures: (1)

Institutional Interest Groups include legislatures, political
executives, bureaucrats, armies, churches, and the like. (2)
Non-associational Groups include kinship and lineage
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groups, ethnic, regional, religious, status, and class groups.

These often perform the articulation function intermittently
and informally. (3) Anomic Groups spontaneous
breakthrough into the political system from the society, e.g.,
riots, demonstrations, and the like. Although anomic groups
articulate interests, they may end up by transferring power
(recruitment) changing the constitution (rule-making) and
freeing political prisoners (rule application). (4) Associational
interest groups include specialized structures like trade
unions, business organizations, professional, civic,
educational associations, and the like.
8.1.3. (3) Interest Aggregation. It is the third important input function.

Interest Aggregation is achieved "either by the formulation of general
policies in which articulates interests may be combined, accommodated
and compromised or by the recruitment of political personnel who are
more or less committed to a particular pattern or policy.”
8.1.4. (4) Political communication. It is the fourth input function. All

functions, of course, are performed by means of communication. Almond
has compared political communication with the circulation of blood, which
he describes as the medium through which other functions in the political
system are performed.
8.1.5. The output of Functions of Political System. (1) Rule making. The
concept of 'rule' is broader than 'law". Interests after being articulated
and aggregated must be given formal recognition and legitimate
expression. In ancient times, it was divinely ordained or oracled through
some godly person, priest, or saint. Religion and religious persons
expanded it further.
8.1.6. (2) Rule Application. After making of rules, or formal recognition of the
will or interests of the people, the next category of functional requisites
is 'rule application.' It is putting rules into actual practice. In modern
times, it is the biggest part of outputs. In olden times, most of these
functions were performed by society or community, and various
religious bodies. Functions left with the political system were performed
by the army or aristocracy. Citizens or subjects themselves were
responsible for many operations.
8.1.7. (3) Rule adjudication. Rule application functions broadly apply rules or
will of the people equally to all in equal situations. But there can be
individual or specific situations wherein it is difficult to apply, or if
applied, it can cause injustice or grievous injury to some persons.
Such difficult situa•tions require specialized functioning by an expert,
experienced, intelligent, neutral, and independent structures.
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9. Culture and Development. The articulation of culture and development is both a

renegade notion at odds with established practices and new brick in the wall of
clichés. Culture comes into development studies at a time of retreat from
structural and macro approaches in favor of micro and actor-oriented
approaches. If agency prioritized over structure (such as state, the national
economy), the cultural worlds and maps of the meaning of actors would become
vital variables.
9.1. The crucial weakness of culture and development discourse, at any rate,
policy-oriented discourse, is that it misses the point that culture is an arena
of struggle. Culture is treated as if it is conforming to a structure, on the
analogy of the state or nation – existing out there, as an ambiance one can
step in and out of, a resource to be tapped, as national culture or, given the
fragmentation of nations, as local culture.
9.2. The national culture perspective tends to follow a deductive approach in

which culture is viewed as derived from macrosocial powers. Thus
according to (Cancilini 2017), "To analyze culture was equivalent to
describing the maneuvers of dominant forces," an approach that has been
guilty of "over-estimating the impact of the dominant on popular
consciousness." In contrast, the local culture perspective follows an
inductive approach: "the inductivists are those who confront the study of
the popular by beginning with certain properties which they supposed to be
intrinsic to the subordinate classes, or with their genius, or with creativity
that other sectors of the population have to lose, its each oppositions
power as the basis of their resistance (Canclini, 2017).
9.3. Development is a cultural practice, and in this respect, development as a

category is no different from the culture in that both are elusive
concepts. Development thinking, if considered carefully, is a series of
improvisations and borrowings, zigzagging over time, a hybrid project
intellectually and politically, and not nearly the consistent edifice that
both its adherents and opponents tend to consider it. The
transformations denoted as "development" change along with the tides
and currents of conventional wisdom. Culture is charged with power at
every turn. (Pieterse, 2010).
9.4. Development is intrinsically an intercultural transaction. Culture has come

to mean "otherness." Taken in this sense, the statement that culture
must be the basis of development means otherness must be the basis
of development. Development politics, then, is a politics of difference,
navigating and negotiating cohabitation locally and globally (Pieterse,
2010).
9.5. Culture and Development may offer relief from development steeped in
Eurocentrism or Orientalism-Narcissism, but the remedy against the
chauvinism of "great traditions" is not to adopt the chauvinism of "little
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tradition." Culture and Development are not simply a matter of including

culture but also of interrogating culture as a terrain of power and culture
as ideology. Anti-ethnocentrism, as David Crocker (1991) points out,
may ultimately be based on another partial, particularistic perspective.
9.6. Richard Rotry (1991) advocated for "post bourgeois liberalism"

contradicting that we return towards the historical tradition of one's own
group as a basis for moral judgment. But tradition can be interpreted in
many ways because tradition is heterogeneous and mixed. What we
need is to find a sense of balance between universalism and localism.
(Pieterse, 2010).
9.7. The task of development planners is to become thoroughly familiar with

the prevailing cultural system so that development plans and programs
can be molded to fit each unique situation.
Culture and Development Questions
1. Development is culturally neutral But “development” is cultural construction?
2. Development must be based on culture On whose culture? Which culture?
3. Development must be based on local culture What is local? Rectification of “community”?
4. Development must take into account the cultural Diversity according to rural/urban, class, gender,
diversity age, region, religion, language?
5. Culture is a development resource Cultural capital or Social Capital?
6. Development is an intercultural process Across transnational, regional. National and local

culture, so both globalism and endogenism are
adequate?
7. Development as culture If development is improvement, what is better?
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*Crocker, D. A. (1991). Toward development ethics. World development, 19(5), 457-483.

Retreived from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0305750X9190188N
*Introduction to Millennium Development Goals. (n.d.) Retrieved from:

https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/27727/mdg-
introduction.pdf
*Kahneman & Krueger as cited by Zuzanek, J., & Zuzanek, T. (2015). Of happiness and of
despair, is there a measure? time use and subjective well-being. Journal of
Happiness Studies, 16(4), 839-856. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-
9536-1
*Néstor García Canclini. (2017). Del consumo al acceso: Viejos Y jóvenes en la
comunicación. Comunicacao, Midia e Consumo, 14(41), 10-30.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.18568/cmc.v14i41.1593
*Peet, Richard and Hartwick, Elaine. (2009). Theories of Development: Contentions,

Arguments, and Alternatives. Retreived from
*Pieterse, J. N. (2010). Theory, Culture & Society: Development theory:

deconstructions/reconstructions. London: SAGE Publications Ltd doi:
10.4135/9781446279083
*Rotry, R. (2001). Richard Rotry: Education, Philosophy, and Politics. Rowman and Littlefield
Publishers, Inc.
*Rudin, M. (2006). The science of happiness. BBC News. Retrieved from online:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/happiness_formula/4783836.stm
*Soares J. & Quintella, R. (2008). Development: An analysis of Concepts, Measurement and
Indicators. BAR, Curitiba, v. 5, n. 2, art. 2, p. 104-124. Retrieved from
http://www.anpad.org.br/bar
*Sustainable Development Goals Knowledge Platforms. (n.d.) Retrieved from
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgs
*Uppal, J. Y., & Mudakkar, S. R. (2013). Human development and economic uncertainties:
Exploring another dimension of development. The Lahore Journal of
Economics, 18, 305-334. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/1447130893?accountid=31259
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Activity 3. Let’s assessed your learning by answering the multiple-choice questions below.
Please encircle the letter of the correct/best answer.
1. From the economic perspective, development can be defined as any of the following
except:
a. Development means increase in national income over a period of time
b. National Development is conceived and sought primarily in terms of economic
growth typically measured by the gross national product (GNP)
c. Development means the acceleration of capital formation, the mobilization of
materials and human resources for directly productive activities thereby
maximizing aggregate income
d. Development means dynamic changes in structures and institutions
2. Who is the proponent of Human Development Approach?
a. Samir Amin
b. Walden Bello
c. Mahbub UI Hag
d. Kofi Anan
3. It describes the process that increase the amount of specialization and differentiation of
structure in societies resulting in the move from an underdeveloped society to developed,
technologically driven society.
a. Sustainable Development Goals
b. Technologically-driven
c. Modernization
d. Colonialism
4. The Human Poverty Index is measurable through three indicators except for:
a. Survival or life expectancy
b. Adult Literacy
c. Income per Capita
d. Knowledge as measured by adult literacy combined with primary, secondary and
tertiary enrollment ratio
5. This dimension of development is concerned with the long range perspective in societal
development looks at the effect of developmental approaches on the environment and on
the future generations.
a. Participatory Development c. Sustainable Development
b. Social Development d. Economic Development
6. It is the expansion of nation’s output or the expansion of nation’s capability to produce
goods and services its people need.
a. Development c. Human Development
b. Social Development d. Economic Development
7. The blue-print approach in participatory development are considered as development
planned by experts at the top, who also lead the process. Choose among the following the
least inappropriate statement of the blue-print approach:
a. It eradicate poverty through microfinance
b. It emphasize the participation of the local community in development initiatives so
that they can select their own goals and the means of achieving them
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c. Innovators think that they have the solution to poverty by framing it as an

“engineering problem” that can be solved
d. Institutions like NGOs have become major channels of development co-operation
8. From the definition of the participatory development, important elements can be found
except for one:
a. It is process-centered instead of project approach
b. The structuring of the target group by means of group formation and group action
c. It promotes self-reliance and self-development
d. The development of coordination and cooperation mechanisms which enable the
development worker to participate actively in as many project actions as possible
9. Among the following are the characteristic of participatory development. Choose the least
inapplicable statement?
a. It is empowering and people-centered
b. It adheres to the process where the stakeholders or those affected by
development activities should be involved in its preparation, planning,
implementation and evaluation
c. It is a process concerned with the attainment of goal for and with the people
d. It has two views on participation; social movements perspective and institutional
perspective
10. It is an indicator that measures deprivations along basic dimensions of human
development except.
a. Human Development Index c. Income Per Capita
b. Human Poverty Index d. Gross Domestic Product
11. This era refers to the spread of democratic capitalist ideology after the downfall of
mercantilism.
a. Modern Development Economics period
b. Classical Economics period
c. The turn-of-the-century latecomers’ period
d. Colonial period
12. This dimension refers development as a process of lifting out of inhuman and
dehumanizing conditions of poverty and unemployment, ill health, diseases, and ignorance.
a. Alternative development c. Development as humanization
b. Development as liberation d. Neoliberal development
13. In this period, Industrialization is not the prime mover of the economy because
exportation of raw materials from colonial economies is core element.
a. 1960’s
b. Classical Economics period
c. The turn-of-the-century latecomers’ period
d. Colonial period
14. In this period, a profound resistance to the concept of development imposed by the
western perspective and culture was evident. It suggests that development should be
culture-specific and locally-focused.
a. 1960’s
b. Alternative development
c. Human development
d. Post-developmental thinking period
15. The core meaning of development in this period relies on the context of global
partnership between developing and developed nation.
a. 1960’s
b. 1980’s
c. 2000-2015
d. 2015-2030
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16. It is the process of political socialization that brings change patterns of political culture.
a. Socialization
b. Political socialization
c. Political Recruitment
d. Political Development
17. This dimension comes into being after the collapse of the macro-oriented or blue-print
approach in development.
a. Culture b. Economics c. Politics d. Power
18. It is the supply-side factor as the nexus between equity and growth.
a. Productivity b. Economics c. Literacy d. Social Spending
19. You can get the when you total domestic and foreign output
claimed by residents of a country, minus income earned in the domestic economy by
nonresidents.
a. GDP b. GNI c. HDI d. GNP
20. In this dimension, development was conceptualized as freedom.
a. Development as empowerment
b. Development as humanization
c. Development as liberation
d. Development as growth in economy to be free from debt
Activity 5. In this part, you need to explain comprehensively your answers based from the
readings and researches you have.
1. Why did the conceptualization of “development” changes over-time? Your explanation

should include forces and factors that influence the shifts of developmental concept.
.
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2. Among the different concepts of development, which definition should social workers follow
in promoting social change. Why do you think so?
3. “Social workers subscribe to the wisdom that economic growth is a prerequisite for social
development”. Is the statement true or false? Why or why not?
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Development is a contentious issue. Its conceptualization changes over time as subject of

debate by developmental thinkers and hegemonies. Apparently, sustainable development
is the most inclusive and all-embracing definition of development integrating social,
political, economic and cultural realms of growth and progress. This is then how
developmental workers view development in its effort to bring change in micro-macro
continuum.
Development is a cultural practice charged with power at every turn. It is intrinsically an

intercultural transaction whereby development planner is to become thoroughly familiar
with the prevailing cultural system so that development plans and programs can be
molded to fit each unique situation.
1.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
Development Modernization Deregulation Liberalization
Privatization Satellitization Eurocentrism Orientalism-

Narcissism
Chauvinism Post-bourgeois Post- Political

liberalism developmentalism Socialization and
Recruitment
Interest Articulation Interest Aggregation Political Rule Making

Communication
Rule Application Rule Adjudication GDP GNP
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Week 4-5: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected
to:
a. Explain the origins of social change and development theories.

b. Examine different propositions and contentions of various social
change and developmental theories in analyzing growth and
progress
c. Examine the different ontological and theoretical assumptions of
each theory
d. Analyze the implications of each theory to social work practice
ULOa: Explain the origins of social change and development theories.
To meet the ULOa, the following are terms are defined for you to have an operational
understanding of the topics in the essential knowledge section. You will encounter these
terms as we go through different school of thought adopted by various social change and
development theories. Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in
understanding some concepts.
1. Gemeinschaft – this is the type of social relationship characterized by

communal society, that is personal, intimate, and direct.
This relationship is defined and regulated based on
traditional social rules.
2. Gesselschaft – in contrast with the term above, this refers to social
relationship characterized by modern society, that is
impersonal, superficial and indirect. This relationship is
defined and regulated based on utility.
3. Mechanical solidarity – it is the social integration of members of a society

who have common values and beliefs. These common
values and beliefs constitute a “collective conscience”
that works internally in individual members to cause them
to cooperate.
4. Organic solidarity – it is the social integration that arises out of the need of
the individuals for one another services.
5. Military society – It is a society whereby cooperation is secured by force
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6. Industrial society – It is a society whereby cooperation is voluntary and

spontaneous.
7. Theological stage – It is the era of society where the mode of thought was
supernatural/religious and the dominant groups were
priests and warriors.
8. Metaphysical – It is the era of society where the mode of thought was
philosophical/theoretical and the dominant groups were
lawyers and theologians.
9. Positive stages – It is the era of society where the mode of thought was
scientific, and the dominant groups were scientist and
engineers.
In this part you need to fully understand the theoretical/historical/intellectual

heritage of each of the social change and development theories identified in order to
perform the ULOa. Please note that you are not limited to refer to these resources
exclusively. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books, research articles, and
other resources that are available in the university’s library e.g., ebrary,
search.proquest.com, etc.
1. Modernization Theories. Modernization perspective came about after the World War
II, where political hegemony of the United States of America spread the ideas of world
domination in terms of influencing the developmental course of other countries. This
perspective was a product of three significant events in history: (1) After the war the
U.S. took responsibility in managing the affairs of the world with a martial plan to
reconstruct those war-torn Western Europe; (2) There was a spread of united world
communist USSR expanding not just eastern Europe but also in China, Korea, and
Asia; (3) There was the disintegration of European colonial empire, and they search
for a model of development. As an effect, America was expected to study the third-
world of the former colony to promote socio-economic and political development to
avoid losing to the Soviet communist bloc.
1.1. From its conception, it adopted both evolutionary and a functionalist theory in its
effort to illuminate the modernization of Third World countries since evolutionary
theory helped to explain the transition from traditional to modern society. Many
of the proponents of this perspective were schooled in functionalist theory; their
modernization studies are inevitably stamped with the functionalist trademark;
accordingly, it is worthwhile to review the evolutionary and functionalist heritage
that informed the modernization school.
1.1.1. Evolutionary Theoretical Heritage. Let’s start first with Evolutionary

theories. Different labels have been used by evolutionary theories to
describe traditional and modern societies in observing social,
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economic, and political order, such as

Tonnies’ gemeinschaft and gesellschafts, Durkheim’s mechanical and
organic solidarity, Spencer’s military and industrial society, and
Comte’s theological, metaphysical, and positive stages. They all had
the following features: (1) it assumed that social change is
unidirectional, which means human society moves in one direction from
a primitive to more advance state; thus the fate of the human evolution
is predetermined; (2) it imposed a value judgment on the evolutionary
process – the movement toward the final phase is good because it
represents progress, humanity, and civilization; (3) it assumed that
social change moves in a gradual, and one at a time process, which
means that evolution from a simple, primitive society to a complex,
modern society will take centuries to complete.
1.1.2. Functionalist Theoretical Heritage. On the other hand, the

functionalist theory was another theoretical heritage of the
modernizations school. It originates from Talcott Parsons’ functional
imperative, homeostatic equilibrium, and pattern variables that have
entered the modernization theories.
1.1.2.1. First, functional imperative refers to the function of an

institution for the stability and growth of the society, arguing
that there are four crucial functions that every society must
perform; otherwise, the society will die. These are the
following: (1) adaptation to the environment which is
performed by the economy to acquire sufficient resources; (2)
goal attainment that is being conducted by the government to
implement and settling common goals; (3) integration which is
performed by the legal institution and religion to maintain
order and stability in the society; and (4) latency which is
being performed by family and educational system to create,
preserve, and transmit culture and values.
1.1.2.2. Another concept of Parson is the “homeostatic equilibrium,”

which means each institution observes the rhythms needed
for homeostasis. It would mean when one institution
experiences social change, and it causes a chain of reaction
of changes in other institutions to restore equilibrium. From
this angle, Parson’s social system is not a static, unchanging
entity; instead, the institutions that constitute a system are
always changing and adjusting.
1.1.2.3. Finally, the last concept is the “pattern variables” to distinguish

traditional societies from modern societies. There are five sets
of pattern variables: (1) Affective vs. Affective-neutral
relationship – in traditional societies, relationships tend to
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have an affective component, that is, personal, emotional, and

face-to-face. Modern societies, otherwise, relationships tend
to have an affective-neutral part, that is, impersonal,
detached, and indirect, (2) Particularistic vs. Universalistic. In
traditional societies, people tend to associate with members of
the same social circle. They treat each other, particularly
while in modern societies, where there is a high density of
population, people are forces to interact using universalistic
norms. These usually written rules spell out the rights and
responsibilities of the parties in each business transaction. (3)
Collective orientation vs. Self-orientation – in traditional
societies, loyalty is often owed to the collectivity, such as
family, the community, or the tribal state. People are asked to
sacrifice their interests to fulfill collective obligations, which
hinder individual innovation, creativity, and imagination. In
modern societies, self-orientation is stressed –
encouragement to be yourself, to develop your talent, to try
your best, and to build up your career. (4) Ascription vs.
Achievement – in traditional societies, a person is evaluated
by his or her ascribed status. In modern societies, however,
the person is evaluated by his or her achieved status. The
final set of pattern variables is (5) Functionally diffused vs.
Functionally specific relationships. In traditional societies,
roles tend to be functionally diffused, which means roles are
not specified. For example, the employer’s role is not just to
hire employees; frequently, it involves the training of the
employee through apprenticeship, the responsibility of being
the employee’s guardian, the provision of living arrangement,
and more. Modern societies, on the other hand, the employer
has limited obligations to the employee, and their relationship
seldom extends beyond the work sphere, which may result in
more attention in increasing efficiency and productivity.
2. Dependency Theories. Modernization has been conceived by the United States and
other Western countries were the basis of the argument of these theories. The
dependency school look at development from a Third World perspective. The
dependency school advocates the "voices from the periphery" that challenges the
intellectual hegemony of the American modernization school.
2.1. Historical Heritage. Historical Heritage. The dependency school was

borne out from controversial U.N. Economic Commission for Latin
America in the 1960s as a response to the bankruptcy it had on the
continent. The dependency school first arose in Latin America as a
response to the bankruptcy of the program of the U.N. ECLA. The
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majority of the political party that claimed to represent the common

people in Latin America tried out the ECLA development strategy of
protectionism and industrialization through import substitution in the
1950s. Many of the local researchers anticipated that through ECLA, it
would bring prosperity both in economy and welfare, so with popularizing
democracy. However, it only happened in a short period of time that later
on in the early 1960s, it turned into economic stagnation due to higher
inflation rate, currency devaluation, unemployment, declining trades, and
other economic problems. Widespread protests were followed by the
collapse of popular regions, and that paves the way to establish
authoritarian and repressive military regimes. Thus, many economists
and researchers in Latin America became disappointed with the ECLA
program and in the American modernization school of thought, which
proved to have shortcomings in explaining economic stagnation, political
repression, and widening gap between rich and poor.
2.2. Intellectual Heritage. Prebisch criticized the ECLA Manifesto due to the
outdated schema of the international division of labor. Under this
schema, Latin America was considered a sweatshop to produce food
and raw materials for the developed nations, and, in return, Latin
America would receive industrial goods from these advanced nations.
Prebisch contended that this scheme was the root of the development
problems in Latin America. This means relying on exports of food and
raw materials would apparently lead to economic deterioration in terms of
trade industry, which would later affect its domestic accumulation of
capital.
2.2.1. Another theoretical tradition upon which the dependency school

draws is neo-Marxism. This ideology was brought about by the
success of the Chinese and Cuban revolutions that enabled to
spread a new radical Marxism to Latin American universities,
which members described themselves as “neo-Marxists.” Neo-
Marxism. Neo-Marxism differs from orthodox Marxism in the
following: (1) Orthodox Marxists see imperialism in a “center’s”
perspective as a stage of monopoly capitalism in Western
Europe. On the other hand, Neo-Marxist sees imperialism from
the “peripheral” point of view; and (2) Orthodox Marxists would
like to promote industrial proletariat while Neo-Marxists are
attracted to the path taken by China and Cuba where they hope
for the peasantry in the countryside and guerrilla warfare.
3. Neoclassical Perspective. The resurgence of the conservative ideas, policies, and

rhetoric has been referred to as anti-collectivism, rugged individualism, and the new
right. The complementary elements of neo-classical thought are the following:
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*So, A.Y. 1990. Social Change and Development Modernization, Dependency and World-
System Theories. Sage Publications, Inc.
*So, A.Y. (2010). Dependency and World-systems Perspectives on Development. Historical

Development and Theoretical Approaches in Sociology Volume - p.8 - II,
edited by Charles Crothers. Oxford, UK: UNESCO Publishing-EOLSS
(Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems) Retrieved from
http://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C04/E6-99A-36.pdf
*David, H. (1988). The Sociology of Modernization and Development, Taylor & Francis
Group,. ProQuest Ebook Central. Retrieved from
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uniofmindanaoebooks/detail.action?do
cID=179318.
1. Modernization school of thought comes into being due to the following, except:
a. Many of the proponents developed their ways of understanding development from
the structural-functionalist perspective.
b. Former Western colonizers introduced a master plan of development to their former
colonies for these colonies not to follow the communist model of development.
c.It solely adopted the evolutionary perspective in explaining progress and
development
d. None of the above.
2. Dependency theories were developed out from the criticism of modernization school of
thought. This statement is:
a. True, because U.N. ECLA program was designed after modernization model of
development.
b. False, because dependency is a form of debt-bondage in terms of international
trade.
c. True, because modernization was unable to explain Latin America’s economic
stagnation and political repression.
d. False, because dependency theories is a form of neo-marxist movement.
3. Neo-classical model of development has the following elements, except for:

a. Deregulation, privatization, and severe limits on government spending should be
imposed
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b. Relying on exports of food and raw materials would apparently lead to economic
deterioration in terms of trade industry
c. Government’s role should be reduced, individual rights diminished, and more
traditional values such as authority and obedience, reinstated.
d. None of the above.
4. Which among the following is imprecise?

a. In traditional societies, people tend to associate with members of the same social
circle; while in modern societies, where there is a high density of population,
people are forces to interact using universalistic norms.
b. In traditional societies, loyalty is often owed to the collectivity which promote
creativity, innovation, and imagination.
c. In modern societies, self-orientation is emphasized.
5. This means harmony and balance of each institutions in order to develop.

a. Yin and Yang
b. Equilibrium
c. Homeostatic equilibrium
d. Structural-functionalism
6. Which of the following does not belong to the group?

a. Development is predetermined
b. Development is a succession from poor stage to the final desired good society
c. Development is a two-way process between advanced and developing nation
d. Development is a gradual process
7. U.N. ECLA was introduced in Latin America during:

a. 1960s b. 1950s c. After the World War II d. Early 1960s
8. The main proponent of Dependency school of thought was:

a. W. Wallerstein b. R. Prebisch c. T. Parson d. Levi
9. Dependency theories were conceived upon the ideas of, except for one:
a. Cuban and Chinese revolutions c. Evolutionary theories
b. Marxism d. Criticism of U.N. ECLA
e. None of the choices
10. The mode of thought of this period was philosophical/theoretical.

a. Military society c. Theological
b. Gesellschafts d. Metaphysical
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1. In your own words, how did modernization school of thought develop.
2. How did Marxism influence the development of dependency theories?
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3. How does neo-classical perspective describe freedom and control?
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1. There are three school of thoughts that can help us understand and explain social
change and development. These theories have been founded by an existing mode and
ways of understanding of a social phenomenon. Thus, it is important to understand the
historical and theoretical heritage, and how these origins influence the assumptions and
framework of each theories.
2. Modernization adopted both evolutionary theories and structural functionalism. On

the other hand, dependency was developed out from the criticism of modernization
theory along with the failure of U.N. ECLA program to develop the Latin America. Lastly,
neo-classical is the resurgence of anti-collectivism, rugged individualism, and the new
right.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Modernization Dependency Neo-classical Gemeinschaft

Gesellschafts Mechanical Organic solidarity Military society
solidarity
Industrial society Theological stage Metaphysical Positive stages
Evolutionary Structural- Homeostatic Pattern variables
Theories functionalism equilibrium
Marxism Neo-marxism U.N. ECLA
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ULOb: Examine different propositions and contentions of various social change and
developmental theories in analyzing growth and progress
To meet the ULOb, the following are terms are defined for you to have an
operational understanding of the topics in the essential knowledge section. You will
encounter these terms as we go through the specific social change and development
theories in explaining growth and progress. Please refer to these definitions in case
you will encounter difficulty in understanding some concepts.
1. Modernized societies – It refers to an industrialized society
2. Relatively non-modernized societies – It refers to an agricultural society

with minimal access to advanced
technology
3. Structural differentiation – It is phenomenon where society is seen moving

from simple to complex that involves increasing
specialized subsystems and institutions.
4. Developed Nation – this refers to the core nations that contain much of the
wealth of the planet by creating exploiting
underdeveloped nations’ cheap labor raw materials.
5. Underdeveloped Nation – this refers to the peripheral nations that are

dependent on the core countries capital and
have undeveloped industry.
6. Economic backwardness – refers to the social phenomenon where income

dies not able to suffice the basic needs.
In this part you need comprehensively understand different concepts and

explanation of each theories pertaining to growth and progress in order to perform
the ULOb. Please note that you are not limited to refer to these resources
1. Modernization Theories
1.1 The Sociological Approach: Levy's Relatively Modernized Societies.

Another prominent contributor to the modernization school of thought is
Levy's Relatively Modernized Societies. For Levy, modernization is defined by
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"the extent to which tools and inanimate sources of power utilized". There is
no society lacking in tools and inanimate sources of power, so modernization
is only a matter of degree. Based on this premise, Levy distinguishes
relatively modernized societies and relatively non-modernized societies as
two locations at the opposite ends of a continuum. Further, why
modernization occur? Levy views modernization as a universal social solvent;
that is, once the pattern penetrates begun, the previous indigenous pattern
always changes, and they always change in the direction of some of the
patterns of the relatively modernized society. For example, once the members
of a relatively non-modernized society taste American Coke and Pepsi, they
will not want to go back to tasteless tap water. Lastly, how do relatively
modernized societies differ from relatively non-modernized societies?
According to Levy, relatively non-modernized societies in contrast to the

characteristics of relatively modernized societies include the following: (see
table):
Dimensions Relatively Nonmodernized Relatively Modernized

Societies Societies
Specialization of Low – compartmentalization High

Organization of life
Interdependency of Low (high level of self- High

Organization sufficiency
Relationship emphasis Tradition, particularism, Rationality, universalism,

functional diffuseness functional specificity
Degree of Low High

Centralization
Generalized media of Less emphasis More emphasis

exchange and market
Bureaucracy and Precedence of family norm Insulate bureaucracy from

Family consideration (nepotism as virtue) other contacts
Town-village One-way flow of goods and Mutual flow of goods and

interdependence services from rural to urban services between towns
contexts and villages
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1.2. The Sociological Approach: Smelser's Structural

Differentiation. Another sociological approach is that of Smelser, who
applies the concept of structural differentiation. For Smelser,
modernization generally involves structural differentiation because, through

the modernization process, a complicated structure that performed
multiple functions is divided into many specialized categories that
perform just one function each. The new compartmentalized structures,
as a whole, performs the same functions as the original structure, but
functions are now performed efficiently compared before.
1.2.1. A classic example of structural differentiation is the family institutions.

In traditional societies, the family had a complicated structure – it was
large and multigenerational, with relatives living together under one
roof. Also, it was multifunctional. It was responsible not only for
production and emotional support but also for production (the family
farm), for education (informal parental socialization), for welfare (care
for elderly), and religion (ancestral worship). In modern society, the
family institution has undergone structural differentiation. It now has a
much simpler structure – it is small and nuclear. The modern family has
lost a lot of its old functions as well. The corporate institution has taken
over employment function; the formal education institution now
provides schooling for the young, the government has taken over the
welfare responsibilities, and so on. Each institution specializes in just
one function, and the new institutions collectively perform better than
did the old family structure and was found to be more productive and
efficient.
1.2.2. However, Smelser argues that although structural differentiation has

increased the functional capacity of institutions, it has also created the
problem of integration, that ism of coordinating various new institutions'
activities. The traditional family institution, for instance, was largely
spared the problem of integration. Many functions, such as economic
production and protection, were carried out within the family. The
children worked on the family farm and were dependent join the family
for protection. However, after the family underwent structural
differentiation, integration problems arose in modern society. Now
there is the problem of coordinating the family institution and the
economic institution and the protection institution, for the family can no
longer protect family members from injustice in the workplace. In these
respects, structural differentiation has created problems of integration.
1.2.3. Nevertheless, the problem of integration may still have been solved
satisfactorily. First, there is the issue of values of conflict. A new
structure may have a set of values that are different from and in conflict
with the old ones. For example, in the workplace where an affective-
neutral social relationship is valued, the family emphasizes effective
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relationships. Children raised in the family context may find it difficult to

adjust to the placement office's different value systems and the
workplace. Second, there is the issue of uneven development. Since
institutions develop at different rates, some of them are not yet
available, although they are badly needed. For example, even though
there is employer abuse, there may be a trade union available to
protect employee interests.
1.2.4. Using this framework of structural differentiation, problems of

integration, Smelser sows that modernization is not necessarily a
smooth and harmonious process. This framework serves to draw
attention to the examination of the problems that serve to draw
attention to the examination of the problems of integration and social
disturbances that are so common in Third World countries like the
Philippines.
1.3. The Economic Approach: Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth. Rostow

has written a classic work concerning the stages of economic growth. He states
that there are five major stages of economic development, beginning with
traditional society and ending with high mass consumption society. Between
these stages of development, there is what Rose calls the "takeoff stage."
1.3.1 Rostow see Third World countries as exhibiting a similar pattern in their
move toward development, at first, Third World country is a traditional
stage, with little social change.
1.3.2. Then it begins to change – the rise of new entrepreneurs, the

expansion of markets, the development of new industries, and so on.
Rostow class this stage the "preconditions for takeoff growth." This is
only a precondition stage because, even though economic growth has
begun to take place, there is also a decrease in death rate and an
expansion of population size. There is little momentum for self-
sustained economic growth because the larger population size has, to
a certain extent, consumed all of the economic surpluses. Thus,
Rostow argues that a stimulus is needed to propel Third World
countries beyond the precondition stage. The stimulus can be a
political revolution that restructures major institutions, a technical
innovation, or a favorable international environment with rising export
demands and prices.
1.3.3. Then accordingly, after moving to precondition stage, a country that

wants to have self-sustained economic growth must have the following
structure for takeoff (takeoff stage): capital and resources must be
mobilized to raise that rate of productive investment to 10% of the
national income; otherwise, economic growth cannot takeover the rate
of population growth. But where can we get this investment? (1) It may
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come from income detained through confiscatory and taxation; (2) It

may come from government bonds, stock, market, banks, and capital
markets, which serve to channel the nation's resources into the
economy; (3) and it may also come from foreign trade through from
foreign earnings from exports can be used to finance the importation
of foreign technology; (4) and finally through direct foreign capital
investment such as building mass transportations and opening mines
can also provide productive investment..
1.3.4. Therefore, the significant factor is to have 10% or more of the national
income to be plowed back continuously into the economy. The "drive
to maturity," which is the fourth stage, is characterized by productive
investment in leading manufacturing sectors of the economy..
1.3.5. This stage is soon followed by the growth of employment opportunities,

an increase in consumer demands, an increase in national, and
formation of a strong domestic market. Rostow labels this final stage,
the "high mass-consumption society."
2. Dependency Theories
2.1. Frank: The Development of Underdevelopment. Frank's concept of

underdevelopment was a product of criticism of the modernization
school. According to Frank, most of the theoretical categories and
development policies in the modernization school have been distilled
exclusively from the historical experience of the European and North
American advanced nations.
2.1.1. First, the modernization school is deficient because it offers an

"internal" explanation of Third Word development. The modernization
school assumes that underdevelopment was caused by internal factors
in third-world countries such as traditional culture, overpopulation, little
investment, or lack of achievement or motivation, which is why third-
world countries are backward. Besides, by ignoring the history of third-
world countries, the modernizations treat these countries at an early
stage of development according to Western countries' experience.
Thus, third world countries should follow the same Western path of
development to reach a modern society. According to Frank, third
world countries cannot follow the same western path because it has its
unique characteristic as compared to western counties who have not
experienced, such as colonialism. We have to take note that these
third-world countries are former colonies of the western countries for
more than a century. The colonial experience has restricted Third
World counties and has drastically altered their paths of development..
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2.1.2. In reaction to the "internal" explanation of the modernization, Frank

offers an "external" explanation for third world development. The
experience only contributed to the underdevelopment of third world
countries and forced them to move along the path of economic
backwardness. The concept of "development of underdevelopment"
implies that underdevelopment is a unique condition created by the
long history of colonial domination in third world countries.
2.1.3. Frank has created a "metropolis-satellite" model to explain how the

dynamics of underdevelopment works. This model was originated from
the colonial period, wherein conqueror designed new cities primarily for
smooth facilitation of economic surplus transfer to western counties.
According to Frank, the national cities then became the satellites of the
western metropolis. However, this metropolis-satellite relation is not
limited to the international level- it penetrates to the regional and local
levels of the third-world countries as well. Therefore, just as the
national cities have become satellites, these satellites immediately
become the colonial metropolises concerning the provincial cities,
which turn have local cities as satellites surrounding them.
2.1.4. A whole constellation of metropolises and satellites is established to

extract economic surplus (in the forms of raw materials, minerals,
commodities, and profits) from third-world villages to local capitals,
regional capitals, and national capitals, and finally to the cities of
western countries. Based on this metropolis-satellite model, Frank
prosed several interesting hypotheses concerning third world
development: (1) their satellite statuses limit the development of
national and other subordinates metropolises; (2) When there is a
weak link between satellites and metropolis, satellites experience
greatest economic gain; (3) Reincorporating the satellite’s status in the
system and re-establishing trade and investment ties will be the goal of
the metropolis after recovering from a crisis; (4) The regions that are
the most undeveloped today are those that had to experience colonial
ties to the metropolises in the past.
2.2. Dos Santos: The Structure of Dependence. In spelling out the classical
definition of dependency, Dos Santos states that the relationship between two or
more countries, "assume the form of dependence when some counties (the
dominant ones) has the power to expand and can be self-starting, while other
countries (the dependent ones) can do this only as a reflection of that
expansion." He further argues that relations between dominant and dependent
counties are unequal because the development of the dominant
countries/advanced nation takes place at the expense of dependent countries.
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2.2.1. Also, Dos Santos has distinguished three historical forms of dependence.
The first two of these are colonial dependence and financial-industrial
dependence. In the colonial dependence, the commercial and financial
capital of the advanced countries, in partnership with the colonial state,
monopolized the control of land, mines, and human resources and export
of gold, silver, and other important minerals, and tropical products from
the colonized country. The financial-industrial dependence, on the other
hand, the production structure was characterized by specialization in the
export sector and monocultivation in the entire region. Alongside these
export sector, there was complementary economic activity (like cattle
raising and some manufacturing) that were dependent on the export
sector to which they sold their products.
2.2.2. Dos Santos' greatest contribution is his formulation of the third historical
form of dependence: technological-industrial dependence. There are
fundamental structural limitations put in place in the industrial
development of underdeveloped countries. First, industrial development
is highly dependent on the export sector. Only the export sector can
bring on the needed foreign currency for the purchase of the advanced
machinery by the industrial sector. Second, industrial development is
strongly influenced by fluctuations in the balance of payments, leading to
a deficit. Third, industrial development is strongly conditional on the
technological monopoly exceeded by the imperial centers. On the one
hand, transnational corporations do not sell machinery and process raw
materials as simple merchandise. Instead, they either demand payment
of royalties for their utilization or convert these foods into capital and
introduce then in the form of their investments. On the other hand,
dependent countries are short of foreign currency for the utilization of
machinery and raw materials patented.
2.2.3. What are the consequences of this latest form of technological-industrial

dependence? First, the unequal capitalist system at the international
level is replicated internally in an acuter form, with the productive
structure of underdeveloped counties torn between a "traditional"
agrarian export sector and a "modern;' sector of technological and
economic-financial concentration. Second, the capital-intensive
technology in a context of a local cheap labor market has led to profound
inequalities among various domestic wage levels or high concentrations
of income of a "high rate of exploitation" of labor power. Third, this
unequal production relationship has imposed limits on the growth of
internal markets in underdeveloped counties. The growth of the
consumer-goods market is limited by the low purchasing power of the
labor force and by the mall number of jobs created by the capital-
intensive sector.
2.2.4. Dos Santos inferred that the economic backwardness of underdeveloped

countries is not due to a lack of integration with capitalism. Those studies
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that say so are "nothing more than ideology disguised as science."

Instead, it is the monopolistic central of foreign capital, finance, and
technology at national and international levels that prevent
underdeveloped countries from reaching an advantageous position,
resulting in the reproduction of backwardness, misery, and social
marginalization within the confines of their political boundaries.
3. Neoclassical Perspective . The resurgence of the conservative ideas, policies,

and rhetoric, along with an attachment of the welfare state, has been referred to
as anti-collectivism, rugged individualism, and the new right. The complementary
elements of neo-classical thought are the following:
3.1. People's excessive expectations are seen as a threat to representative

government. Hence, a government's role should be reduced, individual rights
diminished, and more traditional values such as authority and obedience,
reinstated.
3.2. The state should follow laissez-faire policies and reject government
interventions; demand management of the economy should be replaced by
supply-side economics; deregulation, privatization, and severe limits on
government spending should be imposed; and a balanced budget should be
the central goal.
3.3. Traditional concepts of morality and religion should be asserted to control the
permissiveness of modern society, and school prayers, the sacredness of
pregnancy, law, and order, and anti-communism should be four foundations
of society.
cID=179318.
*Mullay, B., 1997. Structural Social Work; ideology, theory, and practice. Oxford University
Printing Press 2nd edition
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1. This theory of development which suggests that societies move from traditional to
modern, industrial forms of organization is called:
a. Westernization Theory c. Dependency Theory
b. Modernization Theory d. Industrialization Theory
2. Frank (1967) made the claim that “underdeveloped” societies were:

a. Insufficiently involved in the international capitalist economy
b. Reluctant to surrender their traditional ways of life
c. Economically dependent on the wealthy countries that exploited them
d. The “core” to which “periphery” countries were attached
3. Rostow’s economic stages are:

a. the preconditions for take-off, the take-off, the drive to maturity, and the age of
creative destruction
b. the traditional society, the preconditions for take-off, the take-off, the drive to
maturity, and the age of high mass consumption
c. the preconditions for consumption, the age of replication, the drive to maturity, and
the age of high mass consumption
d. the learning curve, the age of high mass consumption, post take-off, and the drive
to maturity
4. According to dependency theory, the following economic activities have contributed to
underdevelopment:
I. Worker migrating from villages foreign-dominated urban complexes
II. Forming an unskilled labor force to work in factories and mines and on plantations
III. Replacing indigenous enterprises with technologically more advanced, global,
subsidiary companies
IV. Closing the economy to trade with, and investment from, developed countries
a. I and II only c. I, II, and III only
b. II and III only d. I, II, III and IV
5. All of the following are true about the take-off stage. Choose the least inappropriate.
a. Trade expands overseas creating an international market
b. Agriculture becomes commercialized and mechanized due technological
improvements
c. Substantial manufacturing sectors become developed, so there is high rate of
growth
d. The period when a society has effectively applied the range of modern technology
to the bulk of its resource
6. A structuralist theory that offers a critique of the modernization model of development. It is

based on the idea that certain types of political and economic relations between countries
and regions of the world have created arrangements that both control and limit the extent to
which regions can develop.
a. Modernization model c. Dependency theory
b. Structuralist theory d. Non-governmental organization
7. The structural theory of stratification asserts that:

a. Class systems will ruin a society
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b. Class systems only work in primitive societies

c. Class systems are necessary in order for a society to function
d. Class systems will only work in the west
e. Class systems will work in primitive societies but not modern ones
8. Which of the following is not a characteristic of modernization?

a. Once modernization established new pattern of relationship and structures,
previous pattern does not regress.
b. There is no society lacking in tools and inanimate sources of power to induce
modernization
c. It involves structural differentiation that has a complex and traditional structures
that performs multiple functions.
d. None of the above
9. In this stage, there is little momentum for self-sustained economic growth because the
larger population size has, to a certain extent, consumed all of the economic surpluses.
a. Pre-conditions for take-off
b. Age of high mass consumption
c. Traditional
d. Take-off
10. All of the following is true about dependency theory, except for:
a. Underdevelopment was a product of criticism of the modernization school.
b. It asserts that following the Western path of development will be
counterproductive.
c. It offers and external explanation of economic stagnation and development
d. The more there is a strong link between metropolis and satellite, economic
backwardness of the satellite permeates.
Acitivity 9. Let’s try another activity. This time, you need to fill in the blank the needed
word/phrase in each sentence.
1. It is established to extract economic surplus (in the forms of

raw materials, minerals, commodities, and profits) from third-world villages to local capitals,
regional capitals, and national capitals, and finally to the cities of western countries.
2. It is a form of dependence characterize by characterized by
specialization in the export sector and monocultivation in the entire region.
3. It suggests the government intervention is a form of
suppression of economic and individual freedom.
4. 5. 6.
are the factors in the national and international levels that hinders a developing nation to
advance its economy but instead contribute to the economic backwardness.
7. A classification of dependence that postulates commercial and
financial capital of the advanced countries is dependent upon the monopolization goods and
raw materials of the colonized country.
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8. A type of dependence whereby transnational corporations do

not sell machinery and process raw materials as simple merchandise. Instead, they either
demand payment of royalties for their utilization or convert these foods into capital and
introduce then in the form of their investments.
9. This is a kind of policy that deregulates government control in
favor to the market.
_10. This implies that underdevelopment is a unique condition
created by the long history of colonial domination in third world countries.
1. Identify and explain the strengths and weaknesses of:

a. modernization theories;
b. dependency theories;
c. neo-classical perspective.
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2. Using the dependency theory, analyze the intricacies of development in the video
documentary “Divided Island: How Haiti and the Dominican Republic Became Two Worlds.”
You can view the video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4WvKeYuwifc
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3. Explain how neo-classical perspective influence social welfare in the Philippines. Cite at
least 3 examples.
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Theories presented above have different contentions when it comes to development

and social change. Each school of thought has different proponents which focuses a
certain field of study that eventually generate new knowledge in theory building.
1. Modernization theory claims that social change is a gradual, piecemeal and long-
term process. Proponents of this school of thought asserts that development can be
achieved through accumulation and expansion of capital and assets. It generalizes that
developing nation should follow the economic model of the advanced Western
countries to prosper and develop.
2. Dependency theories offer a new paradigm in understanding development. It asserts

that development is a product of unequal relationship between developed-
underdeveloped countries, whereby the former’s development is externally dependent
upon the latter’s expense. Thus, underdevelopment or economic backwardness exist at
developing countries.
3. Neo-classical perspective rejects any government interventions to market or supply

side. To realize the goal, it utilizes neoliberal strategies of deregulation, liberalization,
and privatization.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Modernized Relatively non- Structural Developed Nation

societies modernized differentiation
societies
Underdeveloped Economic Laissez-faire Rostow's Stages of
Nation backwardness Economic Growth
Structure of Development of
Dependence Underdevelopment
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ULOc: Examine the different ontological and theoretical assumptions of each theory
To meet the ULOc, the following are terms are defined for you to have an
encounter these terms as we go through the specific social change and development
theories in explaining growth and progress. Please refer to these definitions in case
1. Modernization – It is the progressive process from traditional society to modern

one.
2. Dependency – It is a relationship that exist between core nation and peripheral

one.
3. Europeanization or Americanization – It refers to the number of phenomena or

social change wherein non-European or
non-American country adopts a number of
European/American Features.
In this part you need fully understand different ontological and theoretical
assumptions of each school of thoughts in order to perform the ULOc. Please note
that you are not limited to refer to these resources exclusively. Thus, you are
expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other resources that are
available in the university’s library e.g., ebrary, search.proquest.com, etc.
1. Theoretical Assumptions of Modernization Perspective. Since modernization

is multidisciplinary, it shared two sets of assumptions. The first assumptions
formulated by researchers in modernization schools of thought are drawn from
European evolutionary theory, which believes that social change is unidirectional,
progressive, and gradual, irreversibly moving societies. These are the following
traits based on the formulated theories:
1.1. Modernization is a phased process. For instance, Rostow's stages of

development are characterized by different phases of modernization,
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which societies, regardless of its dynamics, will undergo the same

stages. Societies begin from the primitive, communal, simple, traditional
stage and end with complex, advanced, differentiated modern stages. In
this view, Levy contends that societies can be analyzed in terms of the
extent which they have developed from traditional modernity.
1.2. Modernization is a homogenizing process. Modernization produces

tendencies toward convergence among societies. As Levy contends,
"As time goes on, they and we will increasingly resemble one another…
because the patterns of modernization are such that the more highly
modernized societies become, the more they resemble one another."
1.3. Modernization is a Europeanization or Americanization process. Most

modern literature, research, and even culture around the globe have an
attitude of complacency towards the United States and Western Europe.
These nations are views as having unmatched economic prosperity and
democratic stability. And since they are the most advanced nations in
the world, they have become the models of the developing nations. In
this view, modernization is simply a process of Europeanization or
Americanization and is often defines such. Since Western countries are
highly industrialized and democratic, industrialization and
democratization have become the trademarks of the modernization
perspective.
1.4. Modernization is an irreversible process. Once started, modernization

cannot be stopped. In other words, once Third World countries came
into engagement with the West, they will not be able to resist
modernization. This contact produces change that varies from country to
country, but the direction of change will not. Thus, Levy calls
modernization a "universal solvent: that dissolves the traditional traits of
the Third World countries.
1.5. Modernization is a progressive process. The problems of modernization

are many to mention, but in the long run, modernization is inevitable but
desirable.
1.6. Modernization is a lengthy process. Since one of the theoretical heritage

of modernization is evolutionary theories, it also adopts the rate of
change that it produces over time. This means the social change will take
generations, or even centuries, to complete, and its profound impact will
be felt only through time.
1.7 Modernization is a systematic process. The attribute of modernity forms a

constant while, this appearing in a cluster rather than in isolation.
Modernity involves a change in virtually all aspects of social behavior,
including industrialization, urbanization, mobilization, differentiation,
secularization, participation, and centralization.
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1.8. Modernization is a transformative process. It is a transformative process

because a society cannot move to modernity if traditional structures and
values are being upheld and treated with rigidity and zealousness; thus,
it should be replaced with a new set of modern values. Although the
characteristics of modernity are specified, those of traditional ones are
not. Conveniently pointed by modernization school of thought, everything
that is not modern is labeled traditional. Consequently, tradition has a
small role to play and has to be replaced in modernization.
1.9. Modernization is an immanent process. The systematic and

transformative nature of modernization built within the social "system"
produces this immanent process. Once a change occurs in one system,
e.g., the family system has begun the process of social differentiation; it
will also produce change at other systems, e.g., other families,
neighborhoods, the economy, mass media, and so on with the same
process of differentiation and integration too. Because of the assumption
of immanence, the modernization researchers tend to analyze internal
sources of change in the Third World countries only.
2. Basic Assumptions of the Dependency School. Proponents of the dependency

school tend to share the following basic assumptions:
2.1. Dependency is seen as a generic process, applicable to all Third World

countries. Dependency school aims to outline the general patter if
dependency in the Third World through the history of capitalism from the
16th century to the present.
2.2. Dependency is analyzed through external conditions, i.e., imposed from the
outside rather than the internal. Many proponents agreed that the hindrance
to national development is not a lack of capital, entrepreneurial skills, or
democratic institutions; rather, it is outside the domain of the national
economy.
2.3. Dependency is understood as an economic condition. Dependency is a by-

product of the flow of economic surplus from Third World countries to
Western capitalist countries.
2.4. Dependency is treated as part of the regional polarization of the global

economy. The flow of surplus from Third World countries to the advanced
countries leads to their underdevelopment; on the other, the development of
Western countries is befitted by this influx of economic surplus. Thus,
underdevelopment in the periphery and development in the core are two
aspects of a single process of capital accumulation, leading to the global
economy's regional polarization.
2.5. Finally, dependency is seen as incongruent with development. Is

development possible in the periphery? For dependency school, the
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answer is generally no. However, minor development can occur during

periods of isolation. For instance, during world depression, genuine
development in the periphery is highly unlikely with the continual flow of
surplus to the core.
3. Assumptions and Belief of Neoclassical Perspective.
3.1. Economic Belief. The fundamental economic values of neo-classical are

lassiez-faire economics, competitive, capitalism, and private property
accumulation. Descriptively, the term "laissez-faire" (leave alone) refers
to minimal government interference (as opposed to intervention) with the
lives and activities of its constituents, especially in regards to their
economic activities. The state's role is to ensure the provision of the
basic conditions for free competitive capitalism by maintaining law and
order, enforcing contracts protecting property rights, and defending the
nation against attacks by other nations. It does not interfere in the
economy by either holding back the successful or helping the
unsuccessful.
3.1.1. One of the freedoms cherished by neo-classical is the right to

acquire, accumulate, and own property and to use one's property
as one sees fit. Private ownership is consistent with neo-
conservative social beliefs of liberty, individualism, and inequality;
it is also the driving force behind the economic system. Private
ownership provides a means for making profits; thus, it creates an
incentive system in a competitive free market for persons to work
hard and to maximize their material and spiritual well-being. If
people were not allowed to keep the fruits of their labor and to
dispose of them in any fashion, they wish there would be reduced
incentive to work hard, and the economy, as a whole, would suffer.
3.2. Political Belief. The major political beliefs of neo-classical are rule by a
governing elite, a subjugation of the political system to the economic
system, law order, and stability, and paternalism. They have always
found the concept of democracy to be problematic. Politics is restricted
in meaning to the "art of governing," which is too important to be left to
anyone but the most able and best prepared, who are inevitably
members of the elite ruling class. Thus, non-members of the established
elite cannot be legitimate rulers because it assumed they would make
only bad decisions.
3.2.1. “"A ruling class," unlike a democratically elected government, is

expected to serve the interests of those who control it. Neo-
classical blame much of the current crisis on excessive
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government intervention and regulation. They would resolve the

crisis by curtailing the democratization of the political process and
by depoliticizing the economy. If society is to benefit from
economic activity, then it is claimed that we must put with the cost
(e.g., unemployment, inadequate wages, questionable labor
practices) of a free market. The role of government should be to
protect, support, ensure, and enhance the workings of a free
market. It should not be the government's role to regulate,
interfere with, or explicitly allow unions, professional associations,
or other interest groups to modify spontaneous workings of the
market.
3.2.2. Neo-classical rhetoric is based on the assumption that people have

a basic psychological need for security and will resort to a social
system they are familiar with. Even though it may contain many
flaws, rather than take a chance on one, they have not experienced
and are unfamiliar with. Thus, much of the neo-classical rhetoric is
focused on law and order and on preserving the "old" ways and
values. Any change or reform is perceived as a threat to social
stability and social continuity.
3.2.3. Lastly, neo-classical political belief is paternalism for those whom

society designates as responsible or, in Poor Law terminology, "the
deserving poor." This form of government is seen as a necessary
evil (the alternatives is to let people die) rather than reduce
inequalities. Although the risk of abuse is great (in terms of
expanding the categories of people considered as not capable of
taking responsibility for themselves), there is no avoiding the need
for some degree of paternalism.
3.3. Social Belief. The central social values of neo-classical perspectives are
freedom or liberty, individualism, and inequality. People must be free to
exert themselves to the utmost limit of their abilities to the advantage of
both the person and society. Any government promoting social values
that interfere with one's freedom is deprecated. Still, sanctions are
encouraged to avoid coercion from a person or entity who would use it.
The state, therefore, uses the threat of coercion to avoid coercion by
any individual. Thus, one of the inherent contradictions of neo-classical
society is that coercion by the state is the instrument of liberty.
3.3.1 Individualism is necessary to correlate of liberty. The dominant

theme of individualism is that the individual should be given
liberty to the greatest extent to pursue his or her interest and to
account for the consequences of his or her actions. If everyone in
the society adheres to the principle of the pursuit of self-interest
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without harming others, then society will run smoothly. Only when
people fail to carry out their obligations or when government
interferes with one's liberty do problems occur for the individual
and society.
3.3.2. Social equality and liberty are contradictory at one another by

neo-classical. They fear that equality of incomes from work will
destroy people's work incentives, including the social esteem that
accompanies certain occupations. Politically, social equality
implies that powerful groups would have to share their political
power, which could only occur through government coercion.
cID=179318.
System Theories. Sage Publications, Inc. Retrieved from
https://doms.csu.edu.au/csu/file/1275ba37-4ca6-4bad-b499-
ceaeb9d6c140/1/so-a.pdf
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Activity 11. Let’s assessed your learning by answering the statements below. Write “True” if
the statement is correct. If incorrect, write the word “False” and change the
word(s)/phrase(s) to make the statement correct.
1. Modernization involves systemic change and permanently

pervading process.
2. Dependency can be viewed as anti-development.
3. Modernization uses laissez-faire policies in realizing its goals.
4. Dependency is understood in economic conditions.
5. Underdevelopment in the periphery and development in the core

are two aspects of a single process of capital accumulation.
6. In neo-classical perspective, state should give liberty to

individuals to the highest extent as long as they do not violate peace and order.
7. Neo-classical school of thought believes that the state should

enforce policies that provide income equality among its constituents.
8. Neo-classical promotes the welfare of the common people by

ensuring equal opportunities.
9. Neo-classical perspective has democratic value that represents

the common people.
10. Dependency is a Europeanization or Americanization process.
11. Dependency offers an external explanation of development.
12. Underdevelopment is a universal solvent.
13. Neo-classical views government as primary system that attends

to the welfare of the people.
14. Employment provide and incentive system for the person to

work hard to keep his material and spiritual-being.
15. . The flow of surplus from Third World countries to the

advanced countries leads to their underdevelopment
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Activity 12. In this part, you need to view the video about “Inside North Korea’s bubble in
Japan” at YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qBfyIQbxXPs&t=50s Copy and
paste or simply click the link. In this video you need to analyze and discuss social change
and development through the lens of:
1. Modernization Theory(ies)
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2. Dependency theory
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3. Neo-classical perspective.
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1. The influence of both evolutionary theories and structural-functionalism shape how

modernization develop its assumptions. Modernization is assumed to be a phased,
homogenizing, Europeanization/Americanization, irreversible, progressive, lengthy,
systematic, transformative, and an immanent process of social change and
development.
2. Dependency, on the other hand, is viewed and understood to be a generic process,

that is, applicable to all third world countries. It offers external explanation of
development and its focus is on economic conditions. Dependency is seen to be
incompatible to “development” and contributes to regional polarization of global
economy.
3. Neo-classical values lassiez-faire economics, competitive capitalism, and private

property accumulation. It gives importance to rule by a governing elite, a subjugation
of the political system to the economic system, law order, and stability, and
paternalism. Lastly, central social values of neo-classical perspectives are freedom or
liberty, individualism, and inequality
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Modernization Dependency Europeanization Americanization

Industrialization Urbanization Mobilization Differentiation
Secularization Participation Centralization Capitalism
Regional Lassiez-faire Competitive Capitalism Private Property
Polarization Economics, Accumulation
Governing Elite Subjugation of Law, Order, and Paternalism.
Political System, Stability
Freedom or Individualism Inequality
Liberty,
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ULOd: Analyze the implication of each theory to social work practice
To meet the ULOd, the following are terms are defined for you to have an
encounter these terms as we go through the impacts of theories to social work
practice. Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in
understanding some concepts.
1. Institutional conception of welfare – An institutional system is one which is

accepted as normal part of social life.
2. Personal reform – Interventions provided by social workers to individuals
without considering structural problems that has correlation to
individual’s situation.
3. Social reform – Interventions provided by social workers to address
structural problems
4. Pluralist view – A perspective that promotes civil rights with at least two
parties involved.
5. Social disorganization – A state of society characterized by the breakdown
of effective social control resulting in a lack of functional
integration between groups, conflicting social attitudes, and
personal maladjustment.
In this part you need understand some conclusions that are withdrawn from
each theory to social work and developmental practice in order to perform the ULOd.
Please note that you are not limited to refer to these resources exclusively. Thus, you
are expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other resources that are
1. Modernization Perspective and Its Implication to Social Work Practice.
1.1. Social Welfare's role is reactive rather than proactive. This means dealing
with existing social problems rather than using social welfare to achieve
greater equality or to extend democracy into areas outside of the political
sphere. It accepts that social welfare or social work practice as an
instrument for correcting and modifying the negative aspects of
capitalism
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. Further, the "institutional conception" of welfare is based on the assumption

that industrialization and urbanization are a natural process of human
progress; while they have brought a higher standard of living to many
people, they have also brought disruption to some people who have had
to bear most of the social costs of industrial progress. These people
should be protected and compensated by the social welfare system to
which social work practice its profession.
1.2. Social workers carry out three activities within the modernization
perspective: (1) personal reform based mainly on general systems
theory; (2) limited social reform based mainly on the ecological model;
(3) advocacy based on a pluralist view of society. The nature of these
activities is determined by the assumptions of modernization that social
problems are caused by social disorganization, an undesirable but
unavoidable outcome of capitalism. And because they can do nothing
about the occurrence of social disorganization, social workers must focus
on its negative consequences.
1.3. One way of dealing with the effects of social disorganization is to take
those who have fallen out of the game and direct them back to the
starting point. They must be counseled and helped to learn more
effective methods and patterns of communication so that they can enter
into and maintain healthy relationships in all areas of their life. They must
be rehabilitated or resocialized so that their attitudes and behavior are
more congruent with expectations that society places on them. Or, they
must undergo psychotherapy and have their ego defense mechanisms
strengthened so that they can better cope with competing and conflicting
demands imposed on them.
1.4. Another possible way of helping those negatively affected by social

disorganization is to try and make changes in the person's immediate
environment. Given that the capitalist system has some flaws, it may be
possible to make minor reforms without affecting the overall system's
working. This could mean the removal of a family member, for example,
in family tension and dysfunction. It means a change in public school
policy or program to better accommodate children from the
disadvantaged group. Or, it could mean some labor legislation to make
work conditions less stressful. These changes are reactive, as they focus
on the effects of social disorganization and not on the causes. Many
would argue that the root cause of the capitalist system itself brought
about by the ideals of modernization. The ecological approach is often
used with this activity as the ecological model assumes that a "goodness
of fit" or natural harmony exists between the person and society. What is
not considered is that the system itself could be and that we are looking
for goodness of fit between a person and a bad system.
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1.5. The third area within the modernization perspective, where social
workers often find themselves working, is advocacy. Social workers
expend much time and effort in attempting to obtain programs, services,
compensation, and/or recognition of various individuals and groups in
society who are injured by the capitalist system. Promoting the well-being
of the streets family or informal settlers by advocating for housing
programs and lobbying government for job protection legislation for
minorities are examples of advocacy work, which again focuses on the
consequences and not the causes of social disorganization. It is based
on the pluralist view that society consists of competing interest groups,
with some winning and others losing. It is often the job of social workers
to help the losers get back into the competition.
2. Dependency Perspective and its Implication to Social Work Practice.
2.1. The concept of development must be redefined. It should mean more

than just more industry, more output, and rising productivity. Instead, it
should be defined to improve the living standards for all the people in the
periphery. Thus, development programs should not cater to elites and
urban dwellers but should attempt to satisfy the human needs of rural
peasants, the unemployed and the needy. Any development program
that benefits only a small sector at the expense of the suffering majority
is no good. This theory claim that economic growth brings opportunities
for quality of life and social progress, but it does not reflect genuine
development. The goal of social workers here is to promote structural
change and redress issues of inequality by improving the responsiveness
of institutions to people's needs. With this, social work employs
intervention at the macro level, specifically advocacy and empowerment
strategies, in promoting client's sense of control and participation in all
aspects of his life.
2.2. Also, instead of relying upon foreign aid, foreign technology, we should
develop as context-specific and self-reliance model and planning our
paths of development to achieve independence and autonomous
national development. It does not mean complete isolation but not be
dominated by core countries. Development means the quality of living
standers in the periphery.
2.3. There is also a call for the indigenization of social work knowledge and
practice. Our theories and interventions have been developed in ways
that privilege the dominant, Euro-Western culture through the content,
approaches to teaching and learning, and values about knowledge. The
experiences and world views of our own have been given less emphasis
or irrelevant. This exclusion and misinterpretation were among the most
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damaging impacts of colonialism and one of the strongest tools of

assimilation.
2.4. Lastly, social work's intervention focuses on the obvious problems of

urban destitution and maladjustment; hence social work has done little to
promote the welfare of the common people, especially those vulnerable
rural sectors. As a result, may social workers have come to realize that
conventional approaches have had a limited impact on social problems
and needs, especially in developing countries or "satellites." Social
workers have begun to seek new ways of expanding social work's
professional roles to deal more effectively with the problems of mass
deprivation in these countries. Thus, they have begun to explore how
they can apply the social developmental model to tackle social needs
and problems obtaining in developing countries.
3. Neoclassical Perspective and its Implications to Social Work Practice.
3.1. Given: (1) such values as individual responsibility, inequality, the survival
of the fittest, and lassiez-faire; (2) a view of social problems as
originating from individual weakness and deviance; and (3) a conception
of social welfare as temporary, abnormal, and residual, therefore the
nature of social work practice within neo-classical would be one of
control and correction of people. The emphasis would be on getting
people to accept their personal, family, and social obligations rather than
on social or environmental reform.
3.2. Because of the nature of human being is viewed as contentious,

competitive, and self-absorbed, social work must use coercive
measures to make sure that people look after themselves. All other
resources of assistance must be explored before a person would be
considered eligible for any kind of financial help. A means test is an
integral part of the residual model of welfare. Separation of the
deserving poor from would be the primary function of social workers.
Investigation and monitoring of people's living, work, and financial
situations would occur regularly to control abuse of social welfare
systems and programs. Because of the belief that social problems are
mainly due to individual fault and defiance, then suspicion, moralism,
and punitive attitudes would help social workers. The primary task of
social workers would be to teach people how to do without welfare
programs.
3.3. Neo-classical attributes problems to an individual's dysfunctional family,

but it is not likely that the source of personal/social problems will be
considered to extend beyond the boundary of the family. A dysfunctional
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family is not viewed as a victim of social order, but a pathological social

unit. Social work with pathological families would consist of coercing,
influencing, and convincing individual family members to adjust their
behavior and to carry out their responsibilities to themselves, to one
another, and society. Threats of removing children and other intimidation
tactics would be major tools used in working with families.
3.4. Rather than focus on helping, social work would emphasize control of
people's behavior to remove any threat to the established social order.
This is so because, according to the neo-classical, society can only
function effectively and efficiently as long as everyone carries his or her
ow weight. Once the principle of individual responsibility starts to break
down, the whole society is in danger of collapsing. If a social worker
cannot control individual pathology, it must be neutralized by other state
mechanisms such as asylums and prisons.
3.5. One of the possible exceptions to the controlling and coercive nature of
social work within the neo-classical paradigm would be its treatment of
the so-called "deserving poor." Because judgment has been made that
the deserving poor are in need through no fault of their own, likely they
would not be treated as punitive as their "non-deserving" counterparts.
However, there is always the problem of determining who is deserving
and who is no. Even in working with deserving poor, social workers
would be expected to exhort and urge as much money and help as
possible from the poor person's family for the maintenance of its
unfortunate member.
cID=179318.
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Activity 13. Let’s evaluate your learning. Enumerate at least two possible social work
interventions or actions that you think were influenced by modernization, dependency, and
neo-classical perspective respectively. Please also include at least 1 other form of
interventions that you think it’s a combination between and among the three theories.
Dependency Theory informed

interventions/actions:
Modernization Theory informed Neo-classical informed

interventions/actions: interventions/actions:
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Activity 14. Case Analysis. Analyze the case below by using three theoretical lenses
discussed. List down at least two possible social work interventions in each theory
responsive to the case, and explain the reason why it is relative to the case and
theoretically-informed intervention.
Barangay Formosa is the second least populated barangay of the municipality of San Roque. It is
surrounded by mountain ranges and thick forest has only 4 Puroks (Baranganic Districts). The said barangay has
only 170 people and 40 households overall. Predominantly, 92% of Barangay Formosa’s residents are Roman
Catholics, 7% are Methodists and Adventists. There are still residents who still believed in animism. There is only
one public school in Barangay Formosa which only caters Grade 1 to 3 and has a health center located in the
northeastern mountain ranges near the boundary of the municipality of Iragan. The Barangay Hall and the Day
Care Center are at the same compound located in Purok 3. There is only one store in Barangay Formosa which is
owned by a former municipal councilor. Public roads connecting to the different puroks of the barangay are
slippery (during rainy seasons) and underdeveloped making it inaccessible for four-wheel vehicles.
High poverty incidence is very rampant wherein 87% of the households are struggling to provide the
basic needs of every members. Most of them rely on agricultural farming particularly on corn and sweet
potatoes. A lot of crops were introduced to the residents, but they’ve stick to it in planting their usual staple
foods. Vegetable production is very few. There are also several households who are privately involved in illegal
logging and wildlife poaching.
Commercial agricultural technologies were introduced by the barangay officials since 1990 to ease the
residents’ effort in farming rather than the traditional way of planting. The introduction of planting technologies
paved its way for the usage of chemicals and commercial fertilizers. Before, the residents will really put a lot of
effort in clearing their grassy farm for land preparation in planting sweet potatoes and corns in the mountain
ranges. But now they will only spray their grassy farmlands with strong herbicides to get rid of those sturdy
grasses. Commercial fertilizers are added during the growth of the crops to come up with an abundant harvest.
After 15 years of applying the said agricultural technologies of the residents in their farming, they’ve
witnessed significant changes happening in their land. Mountain ranges started to collide unexpectedly resulting
to landslides whether if the weather is sunny or rainy. Crops started to grow poorly even though the farmers
intensified their application of commercial fertilizers to the crops. The soil is not good anymore for planting crops
because it is very dry and insalubrious even grasses are struggling to grow. Forest animals are now consuming
their crops especially rats, monkeys and birds. Residents are now worried because it will result into a widespread
famine if these will continue. Just last three weeks, the Grade 1classroom of Formosa Primary School collapsed
and trundled in a corn field owned by Enerio Ontalon. Good thing there was no class during the collapse and no
children were harmed. Mr. Ontalon’s corn field was seriously damaged and was deeply saddened about what
happened because he hasn’t paid back the financing of his corn field’s production to his creditor. Two days ago,
the pregnant wife of Sammy Lagisdaman was buried alive by a one-hectare landslide on a very sunny day while
she was going back home after a prenatal check up from the barangay health center. The old residents depicted
the said horrible phenomena as a vengeance from the forest spirits due to the residents’ conversion of the forest
to an agricultural area. Church leaders also suspect that the residents of Barangay Formosa have forgotten to
thank God in every blessing they’ve received resulting to pay for their own damnations. The Barangay officials
referred these problems to the local government unit of San Roque because they have no idea how to control
such natural catastrophes.
The residents of Barangay Formosa are very dependent to the local and barangay government. They
can’t decide for their own unless they will ask for recommendations from the Barangay Officials. In terms of
educational background, 38% have finished primary school, 50% have reached Grade 1 and 2 only, and the rest
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have no educational background at all. It is because Formosa’s primary school was built 10 years ago and
children before must travel (for 1-2hours by walking) to the next barangay to attend school or even in the
boundary municipality of Iragan (3 hours by walking) when the primary school was not being built. Because of
this, majority of the children resorted to cohabitation or focus on their family’s farm as recommended by the
parents who were also deprived by their rights to education. During community assemblies, residents don’t
usually attend because they are busy in their farms. If government organizations or LGU department of the
municipality will come to the Barangay to provide social awareness, introduce social services and programs, or
even technical assistance in community development, the residents are not interested unless there are snacks to
given during the event/s. They are also less participative and rely mostly on who among them have the guts to
decide for the majority. Every damnation that happens in the community are based on supernatural beliefs and
they usually do not accept scientific reasons.
On a positive side, the residents of Barangay Formosa are very accommodating and warm-hearted.
They are also conservative and God-fearing. Despite of their impoverished conditions, the residents will always
find a way to prepare something special for their guests or event visitors in the community. The children are well-
disciplined and all of them are very resilient in times of struggles. Their orientation in life is work hard from dawn
to dusk in order to survive. They don’t waste their time in eavesdropping with their neighbors or getting drunk.
The spirit of bayanihan is still practiced by the residents when they have problems, feasts, any major activities in
the community.
1. Modernization theory-informed interventions.
2. Dependency theory-informed interventions
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3. Neo-classical theory-informed interventions
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1. Theory and practice are interrelated and inseparable terms that should be
observe in social work. The rationale and justification of our professional identity
and interventions are rooted on our systematic body of knowledge, thus theories
enrich our practice by utilizing evidence-based actions. Theories seek to describe
and explain certain behavior or phenomena, it tries to predict events, and it seeks to
control and manage events or changes.
2. The value of theory application in practice is that: (1) explains clients’ situations
and predicts their behaviors; (2) provides a starting point for social workers; (3)
helps social workers have an organized plan to their work and reduces the
wandering that can happen in practice; (4) offers social workers a clear framework in
a chaotic situation and provides accountability to their work; (5) gives social workers
a perspective to conceptualize and address clients’ problems with appropriate
interventions; and (6) identifies knowledge gaps about practice.
3. Without the integration of theory and practice, social workers are easily and
overly affected by their own attitudes, moods, and reactions, which may result in
infectiveness, inefficiency, and may even harm their clients. What is worse, because
of disconnection between classroom and practicum, social work students are more
likely to “see theories as irrelevant to their practice and as merely some kind of
game played by academics” compounded by the lack of ability to identify,
understand, and use relevant theories to their work with clients.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Institutional Personal reform Social reform Pluralist view

conception of
welfare
Social Psychotherapy Systems theory Ecological
disorganization Approach
Self-reliant model Indigenization Assimilation Residual Model
Pathology
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Week 6-7: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected
to
a. Explain the concepts revolving basic needs approach as variant to

social development practice
b. Analyze capability approach as variant to social development
practice
c. Examine human development approach as variant to social
development practice
d. Analyze gender and development approach and its implications to
e. Examine the human rights based approach and its implications to
f. Explain participatory approach and its implications to social
g. Examine sustainable development as variant to social development
practice.
ULOa: Explain the concepts revolving basic needs approach as variant to social development
practice.
To meet the ULOa, the following are terms are defined for you to have an operational
terms as you go different variants of social development. Please refer to these definitions in
case you will encounter difficulty in understanding some concepts.
1. Social Development. Marry Richmond’s preoccupation with the social

functioning of individuals and families and Jane Adam’s preoccupation with social
reform and social protection were the foundations of social work involvement in
the field of social development.
1.1. Social Development refers to the multidisciplinary perspective of

development which aims to link economic progress with the
enhancement of the social aspects of life towards the improvement of
social wellbeing of an individual, families, groups and communities.
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1.2. Social Development emphasizes the value of human rights, social justice,
equity in resources, and parity between human and economic
development… values consistent with those of social work. Similarly,
social development’s focus on strengths, empowerment, self-sufficiency,
and development, support the chance to growth orientation of social
work. (Asarnoah Healy, and Mayadas, 1997 cited in Schriver, 2011)
1.3. Social Development is a process of planned change designed to promote

the wellbeing of the population as a whole within the context of dynamic
multifaceted development process. (Midgely, 2014)
1.4. Social Development is conceptualized to mean strategies for intervention,

desired end sates and a policy framework, the latter in addition to the more
popular residual and the institutional frameworks. It is based on holistic,
7biopsychosocial, spiritual assessments and interventions that transcend the
macro-micro divide, incorporating multiple system levels and inter-sectoral
and inter-professional collaboration, aimed at sustainable development. It
prioritizes socio-cultural and economic development, and does not subscribe
to conventional wisdom that economic growth is a prerequisite for social
development. (IFSW)
1.5. Goal of Social Development: Social well-being of all persons and healthy
and sustainable development. Social Development is the most inclusive of all
approaches promoting social welfare today.
2. Material Needs – This refers to minimum requirement to survive such as food and
nutrition including water, shelter, clothing, health and education
3. Non-material Needs – This refers to the need of participation in decision-making,

self-fulfillment, social justice and self-reliance.
4. Absolute poverty – this refers to situation wherein a household of five members’

income is below the poverty threshold (Php. 10, 727),
which make it impossible to meet basic need.
5. Income approach - the income approach recommends measures that raise the
real incomes of the poor by making them more productive,
so that the purchasing power of their earnings (together
with the yield of their subsistence production) is adequate
to enable them to buy the basic needs basket.
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In this part you need to fully understand concepts, advantages and the
criticisms of basic needs approach in order to perform the ULOa. Please note that
you are not limited to refer to these resources exclusively. Thus, you are expected to
utilize other books, research articles, and other resources that are available in the
university’s library e.g., ebrary, search.proquest.com, etc.
1. Basic Needs Approach as variant of social development practice
1.1. As introduced by International Labor Organization in 1976, basic

needs approach is one of the major approaches to the
measurement of absolute poverty in developing countries. The
objective of a basic needs approach to development is to provide
opportunities for the full physical, mental, and social development
of the individual. This approach focuses on mobilizing resources
for groups, identified as deficient in these resources, and
concentrates on the nature of what is provided rather than on
income.
1.2. The basic needs approach encompasses "nonmaterial" needs.

They include the need for self-determination, self-reliance.
political freedom and security, participation in decision making,
national and cultural identity, and a sense of purpose in life and
work. While some of these "nonmaterial" needs are conditions for
meeting the more "material" needs, there may be conflict
between others, such as meeting basic material needs and
certain types of freedom. For other sets of needs, there may be
neither complementarity nor conflict.
1.3. The basic needs approach, in the narrow sense, regards the
income approach as inefficient, or partial, for several reasons:
1.3.1. There is some evidence that consumers are not always

efficient optimizers, especially concerning nutrition and
health, or when changing from subsistence farmers to
cash earners. Additional cash income is sometimes
spent on food of lower nutritional value than that
consumer at lower levels, or on items other than food.
1.3.2. The manner in which additional income is earned may

affect nutrition adversely. Female employment, for
example, may reduce breast feeding and, therefore,
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the nutrition of babies, even though the mother's

income has risen, or more profitable cash crops may
replace "inferior" crops grown at home.
1.3.3. There is maldistribution within households, as well as

between households; women and children tend to be
neglected in favor of adult males. Points (1.3.1.), (1.3.
2), and (1.3.4) raise difficult and controversial
questions about free choice and society's right to
intervene, and about effective methods of aiding
choice and strengthening and reaching the weak.
1.3.4. Perhaps twenty percent of the destitute are sick,

disabled, aged, or orphaned children; they may be
members of households or they may not; their needs
have to be met through transfer payments or public
services, since, by definition, they are incapable of
earning. This group has been neglected by the
income and productivity approach to poverty
alleviation and employment creation. Of course, this
situation raises particularly difficult problems of
implementation, not only in poor societies.
1.3.5. Some basic needs can be satisfied effectively only

through public services, subsidized goods and
services, or transfer payments. The provision of
public services is, of course, not a distinct feature of a
basic needs strategy. Emphasis is placed, rather, on
investigating why these services so often fail to reach
the groups for whom they were intended and on
ensuring that they do.
1.3.6. As already mentioned, the income approach neglects

the importance of "nonmaterial" needs, both in their
own right and as instruments of meeting some of the
material needs more effectively and at lower costs.
This point becomes particularly relevant if the
nonsatisfaction of nonmaterial needs increases the
difficulty of meeting basic needs despite income
growth.
1.3.7. Therefore, a basic needs approach - because it saves

resources. mobilizes more resources, and makes
these resources more productive-achieves an agreed
priority objective sooner than a solely income-oriented
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approach, even if the latter is poverty-weighted. The

"resource gap" is narrowed or closed from both ends.
1.4. Advantages of Basic Needs Approach
1.4.1. BNA makes it possible and sooner to satisfy the basic

human needs of the whole population at levels of
income per head substantially below those that would
be required by a less discriminating strategy of all
around income growth.
1.4.2. Fewer resources are required, or the objective can be

achieved sooner, because a direct attack on
deprivation eliminates spending on resources that do
not contribute to meeting basic need.
1.4.3. Concentrating efforts on infant mortality, women’s

education and even the apparently purest "welfare"
component (provision for old age and person with
disability) should reduce desired family size and
fertility rates more speedily and at lower costs than
raising household incomes.
1.4.3. It tends to make more domestic resources available. The

output needed to satisfy basic needs is likely to be
labor intensive. In countries with high unemployment,
this will raise both employment and production.
1.4.4. Attacks on malnutrition. disease, and illiteracy result not

only in longer life spans and improved quality of life,
but also in improved quality of the labor force.
1.4.5. The removal of motives for having large families by an

attack on the motive itself can be (alternatively)
regarded as a factor reducing the required resources
or as one increasing the available resources.
1.4.6. A basic needs approach that harnesses local labor will

mobilize and increase incentives for higher production.
1.5. Criticisms of Basic Needs Approach
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1.5.1. The BNA is criticized for arbitrariness. "Experts" and

bureaucrats at the top generally decide what and how
much people 'need', assuming that all people have
exactly the same needs, which is questionable. So, it
is essentially a paternalistic approach indifferent to
individuals’ preferences.
1.5.2. The basic needs approach gives the impression that the
elimination of poverty is all too easy. It is further
argued that such an approach assumes away class
and group conflicts and underestimates the extent of
the structural and institutional changes necessary for
an effective attack on poverty.
1.5.3. Basic needs approach is that it is entirely consumption-
oriented, that it represents social ‘welfarism' in
conditions of underdeveloprnent and thus it is biased
against economic growth.
1.6. The Minimum Basic Needs (MBN)
Survival
A. Food and Nutrition 1. Newborns with birthweight of at least 2.5 kilograms

2. No severely and moderately underweight children under
five years old
3. Pregnant and lactating mothers provided with Iron and
Iodine supplements
B. Heath 4. Infants breastfeed for at least four months
5. Deliveries attended by trained personnel
6. 0-1-year-old fully immunized
7. Pregnant women given at least two doses of anti-tetanus

toxoid
8. Not more than one diarrhea episode per child below five
years old
9. No death in the family due to preventable causes within

the year
10. Couples with access to family planning
11. Couples practicing family planning in the last six months

12. Solo parent availing of health services
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C. Water and Sanitation 13. Access to potable water (faucet/deep well within 250
meters)
14. Access to sanitary toilets (water-sealed, antipolo,

flushed)
D. Clothing 15. Family members with basic clothing (at least three sets
of internal and external clothing)
Security
16. House owned, rented or shared

E. Shelter
17. Housing durable for at least five years
F. Peace and Order/Public 18. No family member victimized by crime against person
Safety (i.e. rape, murder, physical injury)
19. No family member victimized by crime against property

(i.e. theft, burglary, etc.)
20. No family member displaced by natural disaster
21. No family member victimized by arm-conflict

G. Income and Employment 22. Head of family employed
23. Other family members 15 years old and above

employed
24. Families with income above subsistence threshold level
Enabling
H. Basic Education and 25. Children aged 3-6 years old attending day
Literacy care/Preschool
26. Children 6-12 years old in elementary
27. Children 13-16 years old in high school
28. Family members 10 years old and above able to read

and write and do simple calculation
I. Peoples’ Participation 29. Family members involved in at least one people’s

organization/association, community development
30. Family members able to vote at elections
J. Family 31. Children 18 years old and below not engaged in

Care/Psychosocial Needs hazardous occupation
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32. No incidence of domestic violence
33. no child below seven years old left unattended
*Ghai, D. (n.d.) Basic Needs and Its Critics. Retrieved from:

https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/43541781.pdf
*Poverty Perspectives: ‘basic Needs Approach’ Vs Capability Approach. Retrieved from:

https://owlcation.com/social-sciences/Understanding-Poverty-Comparing-
Basic-Needs-and-Capabilities-Approaches
*Streeten, P. (1979). Basic Needs: Premises and Promises. World Bank Reprint Series No.
62. Journal of Policy Modeling. Retrieved from:
http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/912301468190752919/pdf/REP6
2000Basic00remises0and0promises.pdf
Activity 15. Let’s assessed your learning by answering the statements below. Write “True” if
the statement is correct. If incorrect, write the word “False” and change the
word(s)/phrase(s) to make the statement correct.
1. MBN is a form of convergence tool among different sector and

communities involve in social development project.
2. BNA does not conform to individualization as principle in social
work practice.
3. BNA is participation-oriented approach.
4. BNA is a by-product of income-approach criticism.
5. BNA utilizes bottom-up approach in social development
practice.
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Activity 16. Identify at least 2 community development projects in your community that you
think utilize basic needs approach. Provide a brief description about the project and explain
why you think these projects can be categorized under BNA.
1. Project 1. (Name of the

Project)
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2. Project 2. (Name of the

Project)
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1. Basic needs approach as variant to social development practice was the beginning of
a more responsive interventions towards development as it began during 1976.
2. Prioritization is based on the degree to which family meets its basic needs, and these
basic needs are measured thirty-three agreed upon indicators. All sectors, institutions,
all government entities and its citizenry at large enjoined to work together in
promoting and institutionalizing the MBN to local development.
3. Aside from being tool for monitoring quality of life, the MBN provides the common
basis for convergence of services. Unlike before where each sector/agency has its own
baseline instrument, the MBN provides a unifying tool for focused targeting.
1.
2.
3.
4.
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5.
Social Material Needs Non-material Needs Income Approach

Development
Absolute Poverty Minimum Basic International Labor
Needs Organization
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ULOb: Analyze capability approach as variant to social development practice
To meet the ULOb, the following are terms that are defined for you to have an
encounter these terms as as you go different variants of social development. Please refer to
these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in understanding some concepts.
1. Functioning - defined as 'the various things a person may value doing or being.' In
other words, functioning is activities and states that makeup people's well-being
given importance – such as having a good job, being well-nourished and healthy,
and being safe. It can also be associated with incomes and good but describe
what a person can do with it or be with these.
2. Capability - refers to the freedom to enjoy various functioning. Specifically, the

Capability is defined as 'the various combinations of functioning (beings and
doings) that the person can achieve.Thus, Capability is a set of vectors of
functioning, reflecting the person's freedom to lead one type of life or another . . . to
choose from possible.
3. Agency – refers to the ability to pursue a purpose that one gives importance to and
has a reason to value. An agent is a person who initiates actions and brings about
change.
In this part you need to fully understand concepts and compare those learned
concepts with the features of the previous (basic needs) approach in order to perform
the ULOb. Please note that you are not limited to refer to these resources
1. Capability Approach as a variant to social development practice

1.1. The capability approach asserts that to achieve a quality of life,
people should have the liberty to choose what they want to do and who
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they want to be, and thus the kind of life that is effectively controlled. The
capability approach is generally accepted as a flexible and multi-purpose
framework rather than a precise theory of well-being.
1.2. The capability approach is essentially conceived as a conceptual
framework or a range of normative exercises, including (1) the
assessment of individual well-being, (2) the assessment and
evaluation of social arrangements, and (3) the structure of policies
and proposals about social change in society.
1.3. The capability approach is a normative theory, i.e., a theory that helps
us conceptualize the nature of well-being, poverty, and inequality. It is
not considered an explanatory theory that seeks to explain the
dynamics of well-being. Nevertheless, the notions of functioning and
capabilities can be utilized as factors in explaining a social
phenomenon, or one can use these notions in descriptions of
poverty, inequality, quality of life, and social change.
1.4. Core concepts

1.4.1. Formulations of Capability have two parts: functioning and
opportunity freedom. Sen's important contribution has been to unite
the two concepts. We start with functioning, being and doing
activities that people value and have reason to value.
1.4.2. Functioning. We start with functioning, which is being and doing
activities that people value and have reason to value. For
example, being nourished, literate, and employed. Functioning is a
form of an activity or situation that a person attached value and
meaning to it. This supports the participation and engagement of
those individuals whose lives are at stake to determine whether
they value changes that might occur.
1.4.3. Capabilities. Capabilities are the freedom to enjoy valuable
functioning. So they combine function with a kind of opportunity
freedom. A person with many capabilities can choose between
many different functioning and seek various life paths. Thus, the
capability set has been compared to a budget set.
1.4.4. Choice. Expanding people's choices does not mean that we focus
on expanding all choices – regardless of their value, and as if the
more choices, the better. Also, most choices have consequences
to more than one person, and before a person can make a choice,
it generally must undergo discussion and consultation with others.
Thus, if we try to understand the meaning of 'expansion of
people's choices', we should not treat an individual making choice
in isolation. Undeniably, many capabilities can only be created and
sustained by people acting together.
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1.4.5. Agency. Agency refers to a person's ability to seek and realize

goals that he gives importance to and has justification for valuing.
1.4.5.1. Agency is associated with other approaches that emphasize
empowerment, authentic self-direction, autonomy, self-reliance,
self-determination, voice, and so on. A strong common desire
for agency proposes that development processes should foster
participation, public debate, and democratic practice. Agency is
indeed plural in both concept and measurement. In Sen's
outlook:
1.4.5.1.1. Agency is practiced concerning the goals the person
values and has reason to value.
1.4.5.1.2. Agency includes relational power and direct control,
i.e., not just an individual agency, but one can do as an
affiliate of a group, collectivity, or political community.
1.4.5.1.3. Agency may promote well-being or pursue other
goals – for example, relating to the welfare of one's family
or community, of other groups and art and the
environment.
1.4.5.1.4. To identify agency entails an evaluation of whether
the agent's goals are in some way reasonable and
compatible with others. On other views, a person who
harms or humiliates others would not, in this view, be
exerting agency.
1.4.5.1.5. The agent's responsibility for formulating or
sustaining a state of affairs should be incorporated into his
or her assessment of how to act as an agent.
1.4.6. Sen identifies five significant factors that are often overlooked
when focusing on income and resources instead of capabilities:
1.4.6.1. Personal differences (a pregnant woman will have

different nutrition requirements from an elderly woman
1.4.6.2. Environmental heterogeneities (pensioners in Scotland
will need a different income to keep warm in winter than
pensioners in Dar es Salaam)
1.4.6.3. Institutional diversities (parents in a country with good
free public education will require a different income to
educate their children than parents in a country without
free public education or poor quality schools)
1.4.6.4. Differences in relational perspectives (the material
requirements for appearing in public without shame
when having guests depends on local customs)
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1.4.6.5. Distribution within the family (the family income might not
be spent to feed the children adequately but instead to
buy the parents' drinks)
1.4.7. Other related concepts.

1.4.8 Life: Being able to live to the end of human life of normal length,
not dying prematurely.
1.4.9. Bodily health: Capable enough to have good health, including
reproductive health; to be adequately nourished; to have
adequate shelter.
1.4.10. Bodily integrity: Capable tp move from place to place without
restrictions; to have a sense of security from assaults and
violence; having opportunities for sexual gratification and
choice in matters of reproduction.
1.4.11. Senses, imagination and thought: Having the ability to use
reasoning and logic, to use imagination and senses; being
able to use one's mind in ways in which protected by
guarantees of freedom of expression with relevance each
political and artistic speech, and freedom to practice
religious dogma; capable of having desirable experiences
and of avoiding non-beneficial pain.
1.4.12. Emotions: Having the ability not to be destroyed by one's
emotional development of anxiety or fear, capable of giving
love, experience grief, longing, gratitude, and justified anger.
1.4.13. Practical reason: Having the ability to create a conception of
the good and to engage in crucial reflection about the
planning of one's life (this includes the liberty of conscience
and religious observance).
1.4.14. Affiliation: (A) Having the ability to live harmoniously with
others, show concern for other human beings, get involved
in different forms of social interaction, and imagine the
situation of another (this includes freedom of political
speech and peaceful assembly). (B) Being treated on the
social bases of self-respect and non-humiliation; to be
treated as a person whose worth and dignity is equal to that
of others (this includes non-discrimination).
1.4.15. Other species: Can live in harmony and concern for and with
other living this such as animals, plants, and the world of
nature.
1.4.16. Play: Being able to play, to laugh, and to enjoy recreational
activities.
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1.4.17. Control over one's environment: (A) Political: Full and

meaningful participation in political choices that govern
one's life; having the right suffrage, protections of free
speech and peaceful assembly or association, etc. (B)
Material: Able to acquire and hold property on an equal
basis with others; able to be employed on an equal basis
with other; able to have freedom from unwarranted search
and seizure. In the workplace, being treated with humane
workloads, exercising practical reason, and entering into
meaningful relationships of mutual recognition with other
workers.
.
1.4.18. Comparison of Basic Needs Approach and Capability

Approach
Feature Basic Needs Approach Capability Approach
Conceptual Basis People must have minimum People should have equal
subsistence freedom to choose their
ways of life
Poverty Definition Deprivation of Consumption Deprivation of Opportunities
Policy Reduction Ensure adequate access to Ensure equal opportunities
consumption so that people can make
choices
Policy Objective Subsistence Empowerment
Power Relationship Paternalistic; little scope for Deliberative, people share
voice of the poor concerns and shape policies
Level of Application Generalized, but allows Multiple levels, but
regional diversities emphasis on localization
Veal, D., King, J., & Marston, G. (2018). Enhancing the social dimension of development:
Interconnecting the capability approach and applied knowledge of social
workers. International Social Work, 61(4), 600-612.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0020872816651703
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An Introduction to the Human Development and Capability. Retrieved from: ...... https://prd-
idrc.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/openebooks/470-3/index.html
Activity 17. Let’s evaluate your learning. Enumerate the strengths and weaknesses of
Capability approach in social development practice.
1. Strengths:
2. Weaknesses:
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Activity 18. Essay. In this part you need to comprehensively explain your answer base from
your readings and researchers.
1. Why do you think capability approach is more favorable tool/method in social development
practice compared to BNA?
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1. The capability approach asserts that to achieve a quality of life, people should have
the liberty to choose what they want to do and who they want to be, and thus the kind
of life that is effectively controlled. The capability approach is generally accepted as a
flexible and multi-purpose framework rather than a precise theory of well-being.
2. The capability approach is essentially conceived as a conceptual framework or a

range of normative exercises, including (1) the assessment of individual well-being, (2)
the assessment and evaluation of social arrangements, and (3) the structure of policies
and proposals about social change in society
3. Functioning, Capabilities, and Choices are pre-requisites to development.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Functioning Capability Choices Freedom

Agency Amartya Sen Normative Theory Well-being
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ULOc: Examine human development approach as variant to social development practice
To meet the ULOc, the following are terms are defined for you to have an operational
1. Trickle-down power – This refers to the belief that a strong market force will
bring social welfare. It believes that economic growth
is a pre-requisite to social development
2. Life expectancy – It is a statistical measure of the average time of people to
live. The life expectancy among Filipinos based
from 2017 data is 70.95 years.
3. Literacy – It is a statistical measure of people’s ability to read and write.
The literacy rate among Filipinos is 97.95
4. Standard of living - This refers to the degree of wealth and material
comfort available to a person or community.
5. Progress - This refers to the attainment of real freedom where people have
to decide who to be, what to do, and how to live.
Usually it is measured by living a long and a
healthy life, to be educated, and to have access to
resources in order to live a decent life.
In this part you need to fully understand concepts and parameters in order to perform
the ULOc. Please note that you are not limited to refer to these resources exclusively. Thus,
you are expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other resources that are
1. Human Development Approach as a variant of social development

practice
1.1. It is the process of enlarging people’s choices, particularly in terms of

living a long and healthy life, being educated, and having access to
resources to live a decent life. (First UNDP Human Development
Report, 1990).
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1.2. Harmonizes, social, economic, cultural, and other practice areas which
are often done separately.
1.3. Human development paradigm came to recognize the need for

alternative development model due to many factors, including:
1.3.1. Growing evidence did not support then-prevailing belief in trickle-down
power of market forces to spread benefits and end poverty.
1.3.2. Growing awareness of the human costs of structural adjustment

programs.
1.3.3. The ongoing spread of social ills (crime, weakening of social fabric,
HIV/AIDS, pollution, etc.) even in cases of strong and consistent
economic growth.
1.3.4. A wave of democratization in the early ’90s, which raised hope for
people-centered.
1.4. The capability approach developed by Amartya Sen and other provided
the conceptual foundation for an alternative and broader human
development approach defined as the process of enlarging people’s
choice and enhancing human capabilities (the range of things people
can be and do) and freedoms, enabling them to: live a long and healthy
life, have access to knowledge and a decent standard of living, and
participate in the life of their community and decisions affecting their
lives.
1.5. Some of the issues and themes currently considered most to

central human development include:
1.5.1. Social progress – greater access to knowledge, better nutrition, and

health services.
1.5.2. Efficiency – in terms of resources, use and availability. HD is pro- growth

and productivity as long as such growth directly benefits the poor and
other marginalized groups.
1.5.3. Equity – in terms of economic growth and other HD parameters.
1.5.4. Participation and freedom – particularly empowerment, democratic

governance, gender equality, civil and political rights, and cultural
liberty.
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1.5.5. Sustainability – for the future generation in ecological, economic, and

social terms.
1..5.6. Human security – security in daily life against the chronic threat as
hunger and abrupt disruptions, including joblessness, famine, conflict,
etc.
1.6. The HDA is an action-oriented paradigm coined within the UN and

supported by other national and international development actors that
seeks practical change. It is a holistic, interdisciplinary, and integrated
approach that strives to find the vicious circle between the six HD issues
described above.
1.7. It relies on social investment. It is productivist because it promotes

economic development even if the focus is on the social aspect. It
promotes investment in skills or knowledge or the promotion of human
capital. It develops social capital or strong social bonds among
community members. Examples of social investment approach: a.
micro-financing, and b. micro-enterprise and development.
1.8. The HD paradigm defines poverty as human poverty - a multidimensional

condition defined as the denial of choices and opportunities to lead a
tolerable life – including lack of necessities for material well-being (such
as income, education, health, safe water) as well as the denial of
opportunities to enjoy dignity, self-respect and other basic rights.
1.9. The HD approach recognizes that there is no automatic link between

economic growth and human progress. This link must be made through
deliberate policies at all levels and many actors, including the state.
Growth is necessary, but not sufficient. Growth is an important means to
enlarge human choices, but not an end in itself. Economic growth can
result in:
1.9.1. jobless growth (that does not expand employment

opportunities)
1.9.2. ruthless growth (the fruits of growth mostly benefit the rich)
1.9.3. rootless growth (stifles cultural diversity and identity)
1.9.4. futureless growth (depletes natural resources)
1.9.5. voiceless growth (growth without expansion of democracy

and empowerment)
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1.10. Human Development Approach Parameters/Indices
1.10.1. Human Development Index (HDI) - a summary of human

development in a country that measures the average achievements of
people along three dimensions: (1) living a long and healthy life, as
measured by life expectancy at birth; (2) being knowledgeable, as
measured by a combination of the adult literacy rate and the combined
enrollment in primary, secondary, and tertiary education; and (3) having
access to a decent standard of living as measured by an index of
income per capita (GDP measured in PPP US$ to achieve international
comparability.
1.10.2. Human Poverty Index – an index that measures deprivation

along the basic dimension of HDI. It combines the proportion of (1) the
country expected to die at the relatively early age of (40 years in a
developing country, 60 years in developed countries); (2) illiteracy; (3)
and poor access to overall economic resources need for a decent
standard of living.
1.10.3. Life Expectancy at Birth Index- It is the index of the country's

relative achievement in life expectancy at birth.
1.10.4. Educational Index - It measures the country‟s relative

achievement in adult literacy and combined primary, secondary, and
higher secondary. The first index for adult literacy and combined gross
enrolment is calculated. These two indices are combined to calculate
education index with 2/3rd to adult literacy and 1/3rd to gross enrolment.
1.10.5. Health Index - UNDP uses life expectancy as the health

parameter to assess health status. The life expectancy and other
parameters such as IMR (infant mortality rate), CBR (crude birth rate),
CDR (crude death rate), TFR (total fertility rate), GFR (general fertility
rate), TMFR (total marital fertility rate), GMFR (general marital fertility
rate) health-related facilities and amenities were calculated for each of
the tehsils of the study area.
1.10.6. Other Indices: Gender-related Development Index (GDI) – an

indicator that adjusts the average Human Development Index
achievement to reflect inequalities between men and women along the
three basic dimensions mentioned in the HDI.
1.10.7. Gender-empowerment Measure – an indicator that focuses on

the opportunities open to women. It measures inequality-of-opportunities
in three areas: (1) political participation and decision making; (2)
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economic participation and decision making; (3) power over economic

resources.
An Introduction to the Human Development and Capability. Retrieved from: ...... https://prd-
idrc.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/openebooks/470-3/index.html
Alkire, S. & Deneulin, S. (2009) Introducing the Human Development and Capability
Approach. Retrieved from: http://www.ophi.org.uk/wp-
content/uploads/ssAlkire-Deneulin_Ch2.pdf
Alkire, S. & Santos, M.E. (2009). An Introduction to Human Development and Capability
Approach. International Development Research Center. Retrieved from:
https://idl-bnc-idrc.dspacedirect.org/bitstream/handle/10625/40248/IDL-
40248.pdf
Activity 19. Let’s evaluate your learning. Choose the best/correct answer for each item.
Encircle the letter of your choice.
1. Which of the following is the least appropriate statement about Human Development as
one of the dimensions of Development?
a. It is a process of enlarging people’s choice particularly on living a long healthy life
b. Gender Related Index, Gender Empowerment Measure and Human Poverty Index
are the other indicators of Human Development
c. Gender Empowerment Measure is an indicator that adjust the average HDI
achievement to reflect inequalities between men and women along three other
dimensions
d. The three dimensions of Human Development Index are life expectancy, literacy rate
and income per capita
2. It has been described as consumption-oriented, giving the impression "that poverty

elimination is all too easy.”
a. Human Development Approach b. Human Rights Based Approach
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c. Human Basic Needs Approach d. Gender and Development Approach
3. The human development index pays no attention to economic growth. This statement is:
a. True because it engaged into the investment into human capital
b. True because human development is the supply side of developmental work
c. False because economic growth is a pre-requisite to social development
d. False because one of its indicators is income per capita
4. Which three indicators are currently used in Human Development Index?

I. Real GNP per capita II. Birth Rates III. Life expectancy at birth
IV. Employment rates V. Literacy Rate
a. I, III and IV c. I, II and IV
b. I, III and V d. I, II and III
5. What is termed as capability approach to development, which seeks to expand the range
of things that people can do?
a. Human Security c. Human Development
b. National Security d. Economic Development
6. It is defined by its choice of focus upon the moral significance of individuals’ capability of
achieving the kind of lives they have reason to value.
a. Freedom c. Human Development Index
b. Capability approach d. Consumption-oriented approach
7. Basic needs approach differs from Human development approach in terms of poverty
definition. Choose the least inappropriate.
a. Basic needs approach defines poverty as deprivation of opportunities while human
development approach defines poverty as deprivation of consumption
b. Basic needs approach defines poverty as deprivation of consumption while human
development approach defines poverty as deprivation of opportunity
c. Basic needs approach objective is to empower people while human development
approach objective is to rise the subsistence level of living
d. Basic needs approach objective is to rise the subsistence level of living while
human development approach objective is to empower people
8. This ‘people-oriented’ view of development is also called?

a. Human Development c. Capability approach
b. Basic needs approach d. None of the above
9. It proposed the satisfaction of basic human needs as the overriding objective of national
and international development policy.
a. Human Development Approach c. Basic needs approach
b. Consumption-oriented approach d. Both B and C
10. The segment of the population living below poverty threshold is called?
a. Poor b. Poverty incidence c. Marginalized d. Vulnerable
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Activity 20. Essay. In this part you need to comprehensively explain your propositions base
from your readings and researchers.
1. How does Human Development Approach differ from Capability Approach in the practice
of social development.
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2. Identify at least two national government program/project that utilizes Human Development
Approach. Explain why you think it falls under HDA.
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1. Human Development Approach is the process of enlarging people’s choices,

particularly in terms of living a long and healthy life, being educated, and having access
to resources to live a decent life.
2. Capability Approach others provided the conceptual foundation for an alternative

and broader human development approach.
3. HDA relies heavily on social investment i.e. believes that there is no direct link
between economic growth to human flourishing. It is also an action-oriented paradigm
adopted at international and national level by various institutions.
4. There are three main indicators used by HAD. These are life expectancy, literacy rate,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Trickle-down Life expectancy Literacy Standard of Living

power
Progress Human Development Gender-related Gender
Index Development Index empowerment
Measures
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ULOd: Analyze gender and development approach and its implications to social development
practice
To meet the ULOd, the following are terms are defined for you to have an operational
1. Gender – refers to the socially accepted standard of behavior or ideas as to what it

means to be female or male. Relatively, there are different sets of practices,
customs, rules, and norms that are variably translated into a social construct between
being men and women, boys and girls. Thus, gender is culturally determined, which
then defines what is appropriate for men and women, along with its rights and
responsibilities. This often produces an outcome that two genders being valued
differently, asserting the idea that women are second class and subordinate to men.
2. Gender equality – means equal rights, responsibilities, and opportunities men and
women, girls and boys. Equality here does not mean that men and women are the
same, but rights, responsibilities, and opportunities do not depend on sex, that is,
being born as male or female. It means that the interests, needs, and priorities of
both women and men are taken into consideration.
3. Gender mainstreaming - it has been defined by the United Nations as "the process
of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including
legislation, policies or programs, in any area and at all levels." It is a developmental
strategy that integrates experiences and concerns of men and women into the
developmental project/activity/policy design, implementation, monitoring and
evaluation of policies and programs in all political, economic and societal spheres so
that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate
goal (of mainstreaming) is to achieve gender equality".
In this part you need to fully understand concepts, parameter and implications of
gender and development approach to perform the ULOd. Please note that you are not
limited to refer to these resources exclusively. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books,
research articles, and other resources that are available in the university’s library e.g.,
ebrary, search.proquest.com, etc.
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1 Gender and Development Approach as variant of social development practice.
1.1. Gender and Development approach as a variant of social development practice

– assesses the implication for men and women of any planned action. It ensures that
men's and women's concerns became an integral part of the development process.
The ultimate goal is gender equality. (ESCUN, 1997, quoted in UN 1999: ix).
1.2. Simply put, GAD is an approach to development that considers the differential
impact of development programs to men and women. Gender and Development
were mainstreamed in development planning with the publication of Carline Moser's
book, Gender Planning. Moser recommends that development planners should
consider women's practical and strategic needs in planning. GAD is generally a
product of the feminist movements.
1.3. Facts about women's status:
1.3.1. The worlds 66% of its population are comprised of illiterate women
1.3.2. One-third of the global GDP -- about U.S. $11 trillion per year is the
total unpaid work of women, 70% of which is the unpaid time spent on taking
care of family members.
1.3.3. Women only own 1% of the land in the world.
1.3.4. Only 33% of the managerial and administrative posts have been
occupied by women in developed countries, 15% in the African
continent, and 13% in Asia and the Pacific.
1.3.5. Worldwide, women members of parliament are only about 14%, while
women who are cabinet ministers are only 7%.
1.3.6. In the UN System, only 9% of management jobs are hold by women

and 21% of senior management positions, but junior professional civil
service slots had only 48%.
1.4. Development and demography – why gender matters
1.4.1. In countries in which women have lower literacy rates and have less
access to mass media than men, women may know comparatively little
about reproductive health, including ways to avoid unwanted
pregnancies, and, whenever men have more power than women, they
may find it hard to negotiate contraceptive use.
1.4.2. The inequality is more complex in low-fertility countries and seems to

be varied with social ideas and practices about men's participation in
childbearing and homemaking and employment opportunities.
Generally speaking, women who work outside the home have fewer
children than mothers who do not work outside.
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1.4.3. Mothers who do not work maybe find in a traditional arrangement

whereby husband's role is a breadwinner, and the wife's responsibility
is on homemaking practices. However, there is a significant change in
this pattern of relationship in some countries, especially where the
source of income of mothers who have young children is a
commonplace. Fertility is higher when women have more support from
their spouses for housework and childrearing, access to government-
provided family support resources, or both.
1.4.4. Son preference is another problematic area - in some Middle Eastern

and Asian countries, couples may not stop to bear children until they
have a son, thereby contributes to the increase in overall fertility. In
India and China, for instance, son preference has resulted in the
abandonment of female babies and sex-selective abortions on such a
degree that there is now an imbalance between girls and boys.
1.4.5. In countries that have a relatively low life expectancy and high levels of
poverty, gender inequality greatly affects the health of women and girls.
When men are more valued than women, girls and women tend to
receive less health care and nutrition and than those of men and boys
when resources are scarce. A rough estimation of one-half million
mothers die from pregnancy-related causes each year; at least 8
million suffer lifelong health problems linked to pregnancy and
childbirth.
1.4.6. Parents in many developing countries are less likely to send a daughter
than a son to school. In some cultures, educating girls is considered a
waste of family resources because girls join their husband's family
when they marry, and will not contribute to their own parents' support.
1.4.7. Women are more likely illiterate than men, although the picture is much
brighter among children and young adults. Keeping girls in school
longer has become a high priority in development because girls with a
secondary education wait longer to marry, have fewer and healthier
children, and have higher incomes.
1.4.8. A 130-country survey done by the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) in
2004 found out that women hold an average of only 15.4% of the
elected seats; thus, women are underrepresented. A 1995 UNDP
report concluded that 30% is the minimum requirement representation
of women as a group to wield a meaningful influence is legislative
affairs. The IPU survey indicates that only 15 of the countries had
achieved this level. Interestingly, 3 of the 15 – Rwanda (48.8%), South
Africa (32.8%), and Mozambique (30%) – are post-conflict societies,
demonstrating how electoral measures instituted as part of peace
processes can improve women's representation.
 A number of reasons may explain this under-representation:

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• Almost two-thirds of the world's illiterate people are women,

and this undermines their ability to vote effectively
• Political structures are not often 'women or family-friendly.'
• Social and cultural barriers regularly undermine the
participation of women in politics
• Additional reasons may include religious beliefs, employment,
and wage constraints.
1.5. Women in Development Approach (WID)
1.5.1. For the past three decades, a number of specific approaches

have been taken in relation to men's and women's
involvement in and with development. These models or
approaches have set out to explain how development affects
women and men and why women do not experience
development in the same way men do.
These models are:

• Women in Development (WID) approach
• Women and Development (WAD) approach
• Gender and Development (GAD) approach
1.5.2. The Women in Development approach dates back to the 1970s

when the belief was that women had not only been left out of
development but had also become even more disadvantaged
as a result. The Women in Development approach believed
the central issue to be the absence and exclusion of women
from development programs and approaches. Women played
a central role in the life of their community and particularly
within their family as mothers, educators, care providers, and
workers. This approach supported the solution of integrating
women into development programs in order to improve
women's participation in development and access to
resources.
1.5.2.1. Despite increasing the visibility of women in

development issues, the WID approach had a
number of limitations. This approach made
demands for women's inclusion in development,
but it did not call for changes in the overall
structure or economic system in which women
were to be included. The WID approach zeroed
into the issues inequalities between men and
women; however, it disregards economic, legal,
social, and cultural the social factors that give rise
to those inequalities in society. WID focused on
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women almost exclusively and assumed that

women were outside the mainstream of
development.
1.6. Women and Development Approach (WAD).
1.6.1. The Women and Development approach arose in opposition to

WID in the latter part of the 1970s. Harmonizes, social,
economic, cultural, and other practice areas which are often
done separately. It argued that women had always been part
of the development process, wherein it pointed out that
regardless of the setting of work of women, that is, both inside
and outside the household have a significant impact on the
survival and continuance of society. WAD viewed both women
and men as being disadvantaged by the global economic
structures, including class issues and the way wealth was
distributed. Therefore, WAD asserted that the integration of
women into development was to their disadvantage and only
worsened their chances of equality.
1.6.2. This approach was criticized for assuming that the position of
women would improve if and when international structures
became more equitable, thereby underplaying the role of
patriarchy and not adequately addressing the conundrum of
social relations between men and women and their impact
on development.
1.7. Gender and Development Approach (GAD)
1.7.1. The Gender and Development approach came about in the

1980s and represented a coming together of many feminist
ideas. It very obviously looks at the impact of development on
both men and women – supporting the equal participation of
both gender development and emphasizing the equality of
benefit and control in everyday events. GAD is not concerned
solely to women, but it was designed to challenge gender
assigned roles, responsibilities, and expectations between
men and women, which usually put women in disadvantaged
situations.
Measuring equality and inequality:
 The HDI measures health (life expectancy),

knowledge (literacy), and wealth (GDP). This
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allows for a better comparison of poverty,

deprivation, and development internationally.
 Gender-related Development Index – measures

the differences between women and men in
relation to the different dimensions of human
poverty. This allows for the adjustment of the
HDI for gender inequality.
 Gender Empowerment Measure – this

measures gender inequality in the key areas of
economic and political participation and
decision-making. It, therefore, differs from the
GDI, which serves as an indicator of gender
inequality in the basic indicators.
1.7.2. GAD focuses on social or gender relations (division of labor,

etc.) between men and women in society and seeks to
address issues of access and control over resources and
power. It emphasizes both the reproductive and productive
role of women and argues that it is the state's responsibility to
support the social reproduction role (mostly played by women)
for caring and nurturing of children. GAD treats development
as a complex process that is influenced by political, social,
and economic factors rather than as a state or stage of
development. This approach is about empowering those who
are disadvantaged in a community and enhancing and
changing their lives for the better..
1.7.3. In addition, recent work has focused on the Gender, Law and
Development (GLAD) approach, which takes a rights-based
approach to development and brings law and development.
Together to support a more equal access to resources and
equal rights in law. In many countries/societies, the economic,
social and legal system is run by law that has historically
supported men. This is to be expected given the traditional
absence of women from active public participation (voting,
political leadership etc.) and political structure formation
where their original role had been perceived to be one of
homemaker as opposed to decision maker and policy former.
1.7.4. The GLAD approach sets out to ensure legal changes to laws
that discriminate against women's rights. Inheritance and
property rights, for example, have changed in some countries
(though not all) where women are now allowed to inherit land
or are as entitled to the property as their husbands, brothers,
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or sons. Customary and religious laws, however, still

dominate in many countries throughout the world, and these
laws usually discriminate against women's rights.
1.7.5. Some benefits from focusing on gender in development
 Positive changes in gender relations and more

respectful social attitudes towards women
• More decision-making and political participation by
women in the community
• Women's increased knowledge of their legal rights
• Greater likelihood that girls would stay in school
• Reduced violence against women
• Improved communication and mutual support
between men and women on family planning, HIV
and other sexually transmitted infections
• Increased knowledge by men of women's health
care issues
• Shifts in attention about shared roles and
responsibilities between men and women in
childrearing, labor, and reproductive health issues
1.7.6. Including men in the equation. It is evident that women alone

cannot achieve gender equality without involvement and
support from men. This is the reason why men as the fathers,
husbands, religious leaders, politicians, etc. are being
encouraged to engage in addressing social structures and
institutions that limits the equal development and opportunity
for the disadvantaged women with the purpose to bring about
change and improvement of the situations for everyone.
1.7.7. Harmonized Gender and Development Guidelines. The

HGDG sought to assist line or implementing agencies in (1)
complying with Republic Act (RA) No. 7192, known as the
Women in Development and Nation-Building Act, and its
Implementing Rules and Regulations; (2) the integration of
GAD perspective in any developmental project all throughout
the project cycle, that is, assessment to evaluation; and (3)
addressing the issues of inadequate sex-disaggregated data
and statistics for development planning and programming.
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Strategies Goals Vision
 Enhancement of sustainable access of women to

capital, market, information, technology, and
technical assistance [ Enhancement of Gender equality
employment and livelihood skills of women,
particularly in high-value-adding industries and
agricultural activities
 Establishment of an enabling environment that
will ensure the effective implementation of Women’s
policies for the protection of woman workers empowerment
 Increase in women’s awareness of their Increased economic
economic rights and opportunities empowerment of
 Strengthening of women’s representation in women
economic decision-making bodies
 Enhancement of women’s access to/utilization of Sustainable
basic social services development
 Promotion of a gender-responsive delivery of
justice to violence against women (VAW)
survivors
 Formulation and implementation of legislative Protection and
measures that will eliminate gender bias fulfillment of women’s
Peace and social
 Promotion and advancement of women and girl human rights
children’s human rights justice
 GAD mainstreaming in the bureaucracy
 Enhancement of women’s leadership roles and
participation in decision making
 Strengthening of women’s role in promoting
gender-responsive governance Actualization of
 Strengthening of government partnership with human potentials
media in covering various women’s issues beyond basic needs
Gender-responsive
governance
Democratic
participation
Self-determination at
all levels
Respect for human

right
Sources: Philippine Plan for Gender-Responsive Development and Framework Plan for Women.
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Gender Equality Tool. (2007). Definition of Gender Mainstreaming. International Labor

Organization. Retrieved from:
https://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/gender/newsite2002/about/defin.htm
Muyoyeta, L. (n.d.) Wome, Gender, and Development. Women for Change Zambia 80:20
Educating and Acting for a Better World. Retrieved from:
https://developmenteducation.ie/media/documents/women_gender_dev.pdf
NEDA, PCW, & ODAGDN. (2019). Harmonized Gender and Development Guidelines. Third
Edition. Retrieved from: http://www.neda.gov.ph/wp-
content/uploads/2020/01/HGDG-2019.pdf
UNIFEM Statistics on Women and Development: UN Statistics Division. Retrieved from:

https://www.coursehero.com/file/39911682/Gender-and-Development-
OverviewPDF/
Activity 21. Let’s evaluate your learning. Choose the best/correct answer in each item.
Encircle the letter of your choice.
1. It is an approach to development based on the concept that women are marginalized in

development-oriented interventions, with the result that women are often excluded from
benefits of development.
a. WAD b. WID c. Gender mainstreaming d. GAD
2. 6. It refers to the physiological reality of being male and female.

a. Gender b. Sex c. Gender Role d. Sex Role
3. All of the following are true about Gender and Development approach except for:
a. Gender is not a “woman’s issue” but a relational issue
b. Women and men have different and special needs
c. Women cannot be treated as homogenous group
d. Gender differences can also result in men being disadvantaged
e. All of the above are correct statement about GAD
4. Economic marginalization can be manifested through gendered division of labor. Which of

the following is correct statement about division of labor?
a. It is based on gender-structured conceptions of appropriate work
b. It has led to an increase in women’s compensation worldwide
c. It negates multiple burden
d. None of the answers given are correct
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5. This approach emphasizes empowerment of women who are economically and socially
disadvantaged, while paying due consideration to the role of men in eliminating gender
inequality.
a. Women in Development c. Gender in Development
b. Gender and Development d Women in Development
6. It is an umbrella term for any harmful act that is perpetrated against a person’s will and
that is based on socially ascribed difference between male and female.
a. Sex crime c. Induced-violence against gender
b. Sexism d. Gender based violence
7. It is the process of being fair to men and women and involve the use of temporary special
measures to compensate for historical or systematic bias or discrimination.
a. Gender equality c. Gender promotion
b. Gender equity d. Human rights compensation
8. It is the process of assessing the implications for girls and boys/men and women of any
planned action or developmental work.
a. Gender and Development c. Women and Development
b. Women in Development d. Gender Mainstreaming
9. It refers to the physiological reality of being male and female.

a. Gender b. Sex c. Gender Role d. Sex Role
10. It is any violence inflicted on women because of their sex

a. Violence Against Women c. Gender-based violence
b. Violence Against Women and their Children d. Physical violence
Activity 22. In this part, you need to discuss the following items:
1. When can you say that an institution/organization practices gender mainstreaming?
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2. Why is it necessary to include gender concerns into developmental planning and

implementation?
3. Why do you think men are included in the promotion of gender equality and development?
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1. Gender and Development approach as a variant of social development practice –

assesses the implication for men and women of any planned action. It ensures that
men's and women's concerns became an integral part of the development process. The
ultimate goal is gender equality
2. GAD approach evolve from WID and WAD. This means development of approach was
brought by problematic areas these approaches had. GAD is the improved approach of
these models.
3. GAD is not concerned solely to women, but it was designed to challenge gender
assigned roles, responsibilities, and expectations between men and women, which
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Gender Gender Equality Gender mainstreaming Women in

Development
Women and Gender and
Development Development
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ULOe: Examine the human rights-based approach and its implications to social development
practice
To meet the ULOe, the following are terms are defined for you to have an operational
terms as you go to variants of social development. Please refer to these definitions in case
1. Right-holders - refers to individuals or groups that have specific entitlements in

relation to a particular duty-bearer. In essence, all human beings are rights-
holders under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In particular contexts,
there are often specific social groups whose human rights are not fully respected,
protected, realized, or fulfilled. These groups tend to include children in general,
women/girls, ethnic minorities, indigenous peoples, adults, and children with
special needs, migrants, and youth.
2. Duty-bearers - are those actors who have a particular obligation or responsibility
to promote, respect, protect, and fulfill human rights. Duty-bearers can be in the
form of state and non-state actors. However, the ultimate duty-bearer is the state
because it ratifies the international conventions.
3. First generation rights - refer to civil and political rights such as free speech and
conscience and freedom from torture and arbitrary detention.
4. Second generation rights - refers to socio-economic and cultural rights that
include, but not limited to, the rights to justifiable levels of education, healthcare
and housing, and minority language rights.
5. Third generation rights – It focuses on the natural worlds and the right to species
biodiversity and inter-generational equity
In this part you need to fully understand concepts, parameter and implications of
gender and development approach to perform the ULOe. Please note that you are not
limited to refer to these resources exclusively. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books,
1. Human Rights Based Approach to development as variant of social

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1.1. HRBA defined as an approach that “ensures that the rights of

poor and excluded people are respected, promoted, protected,
and fulfilled.”
1.2. Another definition is an approach with “deliberate end explicit

focus on enabling people to achieve the minimum conditions for
living with dignity – in other words, achieving their human
rights.”
1.3. It is a holistic framework methodology with the potential to enrich

operational strategies in key focus areas. It adds a missing
element to present activities by enhancing the enabling
environment for equitable development, and by empowering
people to make their own decisions.
1.4. “Social work embraces first, second, and third generation rights.
These rights are interdependent, mutually reinforcing, and
accommodate both individual and collective rights.” (IFSW)
1.5. The HRBA has a two-fold goal:
1.) to empower rights-holders to claim and exercise their rights;

and
2.) to strengthen the capacity of duty-bearers who have

obligation or responsibility to protect, respect and fulfill the
rights of the most vulnerable, most marginalized, poorest,
and weakest to comply with these obligations and duties.
1.6. For the past decade, human rights have gained prominence as a
universal set of norms and standards that are increasingly
shaping the programs and activities, including within the United
Nations. See the figure below.
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United Nations Charter
Universal Declaration of
Human Rights
International Covenant International Covenant

on Civil and Political on Economic, Social and
Rights (IPCR) Cultural Rights (ICESCR)
+2 Optional Protocols
-Individual Complains
-Death Penalty
Ratified by 144 states Ratified by 142 states (Jan

(Jan. 2000) 2020)
International Convention on Convention Convention on

Convention on the Elimination Against Torture the Rights of
the Elimination of All Forms of and other Cruel, the Child
of All Forms of Discrimination Inhuman or
Racial against Women Degrading
Discrimination Treatment or
Punishment
- Ratified by 165 - Ratified by 191
- Ratified by 118 States
- Ratified by 155 States States
1.7. Key Human Rights Principles
The United Nations has long recognized that human rights are
necessary for the enjoyment and safeguarding of human life, the
achievement of human progress, the protection of human dignity, and
the advancement of human security.
 Universal and Inalienability. Rights are universal and

inalienable. All people everywhere are entitled to the
universality of human rights, as manifested in Article 1 of the
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UDHR, which states, "All human beings are born free and
equal in dignity and rights."
.
 Human rights are indivisible. Human rights are inherent to
every person, whether they relate to civil, cultural, economic,
political or social issues. As a result, all human rights have
equal status and cannot be positioned in a hierarchical order.
Henceforth, denial of one right always impedes the enjoyment
of other rights. Thus, the right of everyone to health or
education cannot be compromised at the expense of the
standard of living.
 Human rights are interdependent and interrelated. The

fulfillment of one right usually depends, wholly or partially,
upon the fulfillment of others. Each right contributes to the full
realization of human worth and dignity through satisfaction with
physical, psychological, developmental, and spiritual needs.
For instance, the fulfillment of the right of health may depend,
in certain circumstances, on the fulfillment of the right to
education or information and the right to development
 Equality and Non-discrimination. By virtue of the inherent worth

and dignity of every person, all individuals are equals. Thus, no
one should suffer discrimination based on race, color, gender,
sexual orientation, age, ethnicity, religion, political or other
opinions, social or geographical origin, disability, property, birth
or other status as established by human rights standards.
 Participation and Inclusion. All people have the right to

participation and access to information with the concern of the
decision-making process that affects their lives and well-being.
Rights-based approaches necessitate a high degree of
participation by communities, civil society, minorities, women,
young people, indigenous peoples, and other identified groups
 Accountability and Rule of Law. This refers to the states and

other duty-bearers of human rights responsibility in fulfilling
human rights. In this matter, they are obliged to follow legal
norms and standards mandated in the international human
rights instruments. If they fail to realize this duty, aggrieved
rights-holders are entitled to institute appropriate redress
proceedings before a competent court or other procedures
provided by law. Thus, different entities such as individuals,
the media, civil society, and the international community play
an important role in holding governments accountable for their
obligation to uphold human rights.
.
1.8. Human Rights and Corresponding Duties
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1.8.1. The identification of duty-bearers and a determination of the

extent of their accountability is crucial to a human rights
approach to programming. International Human Rights Law
declares that signatories to a UN Convention have three types
of obligations: to respect, protect, and fulfill. The obligation to
fulfill includes obligations to "facilitate" and "provide." The
duties described below should be equally applied to all duty-
bearers.
 The Obligation/Duty to Respect requires the duty-

bearer to refrain from interfering directly or indirectly
with the enjoyment of the right.
• The Obligation/Duty to Protect requires the duty-bearer
to take measures that prevent third parties from
interfering with the enjoyment of the right.
• The Obligation/Duty to Fulfil (Facilitate) requires duty-
bearers to adopt appropriate promotional,
administrative, legislative, budgetary, judicial, and
other measures towards the fulfillment of the right.
• The Obligation/Duty to Fulfil (Provide) requires duty-
bearers to directly provide assistance or services for
the realization of the right
1.9. Charity Approach Vs. Basic Needs Approach Vs. Human Rights Based
Approach
1.9.1. The shift from a charity approach to a basic needs approach to

a human rights approach requires a change of language to
reflect this paradigm shift. The following table exemplifies
some differences between the three approaches:
Charity Approach Basic Needs Human Rights Based
Approach Approach
Focus on input not Focus on input not Focus on process

outcome outcome and outcome
Emphasizes increasing Emphasizes meeting Emphasizes realizing
charity needs rights
Recognizes moral Recognizes needs as Recognizes

responsibility of rich valid claims individual and group
towards poor rights as claims
toward legal and
moral duty-bearers
Individuals are seen as Individuals are Individuals and
victim objects of groups are
development empowered to claim
interventions their rights
Individuals deserve Individuals deserve Individuals are
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assistance assistance entitled of assistance
Focuses on manifestation Focuses on Focuses on structural

of problems immediate causes of causes and their
problems manifestations
1.10. Good Programming and Human Rights Programming
1.10.1. In the effort to operationalize a human rights approach to

programming it was discovered that most of the
components of “good programming” are necessary to an
HRAP. While good programming is not the same as HRAP,
the new approach requires the elements of good
programming, as illustrated below:
Good Programming Human Rights Programming

1. People cannot be developed; they must 1. In a human rights approach, people, including
develop themselves. People, including people who are poor, are subjects of rights. It is
people who are poor, should be therefore logical to recognize people who are poor
recognized as key actors in their own as key actors in their development by empowering
development rather than passive them to claim their rights. Human rights
beneficiaries of transfers of commodities programming entails the building of community
and services capacity for people to understand their rights, to
claim their rights, and to make meaningful
contribution to realizing these rights.
2. Participation is crucial, both as an end 2. Participation, including children’s and women’s

and a means. Participation, however, participation is a human right enshrined in many
should not only be seen as “they” conventions; a right often violated. In a human
participate in “our” program or project, but rights approach, participation is both a necessary
rather that “we” behave in such a way that outcome and a necessary part of the process.
we are allowed and invited to participate in Facilitating participation in societal decision-making
“their” development efforts. is an objective in itself.
3. “Empowerment” is important, but is not a 3. Human Rights imply dignity and respect for the
strategy. Empowerment and dis- individual. This means self-esteem and equality.
empowerment are aspects of any strategy, Circumstance and chance should not dominate
such as advocacy, capacity building, or people’s lives. An HRAP implies a people-centered
service delivery. Empowerment means approach to development in which outside support
“the replacement of the dominance of should be catalytic and supportive to people’s own
circumstance and chance over people’s efforts.
choices with the dominance of people’s
choices over circumstance and chance.”
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4. Monitoring of both outcome and process 4. A Human Rights Approach implies accountability
and actual use of information for decision- of those with duties or obligations. Both the
making at all levels of society is very obligations of conduct/effort and the obligation of
important. result must be constantly checked. This requires
monitoring at all levels of society and the use of the
information to design new actions to respect,
protect, facilitate, and fulfil human rights.
5. Role or stakeholder analysis is very 5. Most stakeholders, although not all, are duty-
useful for social mobilization, program bearers. An important step in an HRAP is to identify
development, and evaluation because it key relations between all claim-holders and all duty
identifies clear accountabilities in the bearers. Such an analysis is similar to, but goes
community and society beyond, stakeholder analysis
6. Programs and projects should respond 6. The right to development implies disparity
to basic needs of people, with a focus on reduction. While the ultimate goal is poverty
vulnerable groups. Local ownership is eradication, resource endowment and different
important, and development support from baselines may require different goal setting. The
outside should always build on existing goal of disparity reduction and equity demands
capabilities. Poverty reduction/eradication action to eliminate the worst manifestations of
and disparity reduction should be human rights violation in each context
(commensurate with the country’s socioeconomic
overriding, long-term goals in all
baseline).
development efforts.
7. Pure top-down approaches should be 7. A human rights approach to programming

rejected, because they deny the principle requires respect for local knowledge and the dignity
of “people as actors.” Pure bottom-up of people. An HRAP implies a people-centered
approaches should be rejected because approach to development in which outside support
they are utopian. It is not either/or; it is is only catalytic and supportive to people’s own
both. Synergy between appropriate top efforts. But in many communities, human rights
down and bottom-up approaches should values need to be promoted “from above” because
be promoted. they are not yet internalized.
8.Programmes should be developed on the 8. An HRAP requires an understanding of causes

basis of a situation analysis that identifies at all levels—immediate, underlying and basic. The
priority problems and their immediate, internalization of human rights values makes it
underlying, and basic causes, which inescapable that the basic or structural causes be
should be addressed either simultaneously addressed. The indivisibility of human rights also
or in sequence. emphasizes simultaneous attention to causes at all
levels
9. Goal setting is important. The necessity 9. The realization of human rights requires both
for scaling-up needs to be considered at the achievement of desirable outcomes and
the planning stage. Efforts should have achieving them through a process that reflects
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made to ensure that positive changes are human rights values. An HRAP calls for
sustainable and sustained. This includes simultaneous attention to outcomes and processes.
environmental sustainability.
10. All possible partnerships should be 10. A country’s human rights realization must come
explored with strategic allies, including from within, and be supported from outside. The
donors and NGOs/CBOs. Through UN has an obligation to promote human rights. The
linkages to other development efforts it is UN Reform emphasizes this challenge and the
often possible to leverage additional need for co-operation in choosing among strategies
resources to achieve goals. UNDAF is therefore of particular
importance
11.Good programming includes the 11. No single agency can, or should attempt to, do
identification and pursuit of a specific everything. Cost-effectiveness and cost-efficiency
agency’s comparative advantages. are as important in an HRAP as they are in other
approaches. An agency’s comparative advantage
should decide what action the agency should
address and support.
Child Rights Information Network (CRIN), “Rights based programming” resource page,
Retrieved from: http://www. crin.org/hrbap/.
OHCHR, “Lessons Learned Project” on a human rightsbased approach to development in

the Asia–Pacific region, Retrieved from:
http://www.un.or.th/ohchr/SR/Regional_
Office/forums/llp_regional_consultation/index. htm.
OHCHR, Resource Database on Human Rights Approaches to Development for

Practitioners in Asia and the Pacific. Retrieved from:
http://www.un.or.th/ohchr/SR/ issues/rba/rbamain.html.
Piron, L.H. & O’Neil, T. (2005). “Integrating human rights into development: a synthesis of
donor approaches and experiences” (Overseas Development Institute.
Retrieved from: http:// www.odi.org.uk/rights/publications.html.
Hughes, A, Wheeler, J., Eyben R., & Scott-Villiers, P. (2003). “Rights and Power Workshop:
Report” (Brighton, Institute of Development Studies, 17-20 December 2003). .
Retrieved from: http://www2.ids.ac.uk/
drccitizen/docs/r&pworkshopreportfinal.pdf.
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Moser, C. & Norton, A. (2001).To Claim our Rights: Livelihood security, human rights and
sustainable development. Overseas Development Institute. Retrieved from:
http://www.odi.org.uk/pppg/publications/books/ tcor.pdf.
Nyamu-Musembi, C. (2002). “Towards an actor-oriented perspective on human rights”, IDS

working paper 169. Institute of Development Studies. Retrieved from:
http://www.ids.ac.uk/ids/bookshop/wp/wp169.pdf.
Nyamu-Musembi, C. & Cornwall, C. (2004). “What is the ‘rights-based approach’ all about?
Perspectives from the international development agencies”, IDS working
paper 234. Institute of Development Studies. Retrieved from:
http://www.ids.ac.uk/ids/bookshop/wp/wp234.pdf.
VeneKlasen, L. (2004). “Rights-based approaches and beyond: challenges of linking rights

and participation”. IDS working paper 235. Institute of Development Studies.
Retrieved from: http://www.ids. ac.uk/ids/bookshop/wp/wp235.pdf.
OHCHR. (2004). Human Rights and Poverty Reduction: A Conceptual Framework (New
York and Geneva, United Nations. Retrieved from:
http://www.ohchr.org/english/issues/ poverty/docs/povertyE.pdf.
Activity 23. Let’s evaluate your learning. Choose the best/correct answer per item. Encircle
the letter of your choice.
1. This refers to the actors who have particular obligation or responsibility to respect,
promote and realize human rights and to abstain from human rights violation.
a. State b. Duty-bearers c. Right-holder d. Citizen
2. The Philippines being a member of the UN Human Rights Council means that:
a. The Philippine government should provide mechanisms to protect and promote
human rights
b. The state is the primary duty bearer for human rights in the Philippines
c. The recommendation of the Philippine’s Commission on Human Rights should be
seriously considered
d. The Philippines was elected by the UN General Assembly to seat in the Council
and should therefore support and protect human rights
3. Which of the following characteristics can be classified as rights-based approach?

a. Charity and benevolence do not reflect duty or obligation
b. “The government does not yet have the political will to inforce legislation to iodize
salt”
c. Rights do not imply duties or obligations, although they may generate promises
d. All of the above are characteristics of rights-based approach
4. Which among the following is not an element of an HRBA?

a. Individual deserves assistance
b. Individual are entitled of assistance
c. It focuses on structural and their manifestation
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d. It emphasizes on realizing rights
5. When did the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Created?

a. 1947 b. 1948 c. 1949 d. 1950
6. Human rights and civil rights are the same. This statement is?
a. False because Human rights usually agreed upon rights that people of various
groups believe all people regardless of background while Civil rights deal
more with the agreed upon obligation on government owes to its people
b. False because they don’t have the same characteristics and the rights focuses in
human being
c. True because they have the same characteristics and the rights focuses in human
being
d. True because Human rights usually agreed upon rights that people of various
groups believe all people regardless of background while Civil rights deal
more with the agreed upon obligation on government owes to its people
7. Which of the following statement is incorrect?

a. Basic needs approach views the beneficiary as passive and can only be invited to
participate while Rights based approach views participants as active who
asserts their rights
b. Rights based approach views development as technocratic for the experts while
Basic needs approach views development as transformation of behaviors and
institutions
c. Actions by Basic needs approach are voluntary while actions by Rights based
approach is mandatory
d. Basic needs approach views needs as contextual and open-ended while Rights
based approach views needs as universal and legally established
8. “Human rights do not have to be bought or earned; they belong to people simply because
they are human.” This statement denotes what human rights characteristic?
a. Fundamental b. Inherent c. Indivisible d. Universal
9. “Human rights apply irrespective of one’s origin, status or condition or place; it is

enforceable without national border.” This statement denotes what human rights
characteristic?
a. Fundamental b. Inherent c. Indivisible d. Universal
10. “Human rights cannot be rightfully taken away from a free individual nor be given away
or be forfeited.”
a. Interdependent b. Inherent c. Inalienable d. Indivisible
11. This approach is characterized by deliberate and explicit focus on enabling to achieve
minimum conditions for living with dignity.
a. Basic Needs Approach c. Gender and Development Approach
b. Rights-based Approach d. Capability Approach
12. This category of rights focuses on the natural world and the right to species biodiversity
and intergenerational equity.
a. Civil and political rights c. 3rd generational rights
nd
b. 2 generational rights d. 1st generational rights
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13. All of the following are true about HRBA except for:
a. People are recognized as key actors in their own development rather than passive
recipients of commodities and services
b. Participation is viewed as a goal
c. Strategies are empowering, not disempowering
d. Both outcomes and processes are monitored and evaluated
14. It focuses on empowering the poorest and marginalized by developing their capacity to
know, exercise, claim and seek redress for their needs.
a. Basin needs approach c. Capability approach
b. Rights-based approach d. Human development approach
e. Both c and d
15. An HRBA provides a lens through which to understand and address the many and
overlapping root cause of poverty which can include, except for one:
a. Discrimination
b. Isolation
c. Repression
d. Lack of access to political participation
e. Lack of access to basic resources and services, such as education, justice and
health
Activity 24. You need to discuss and explain comprehensively the items below.
1. How does human rights related to human development? Describe its relationship.
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2. How does human rights-based approach views development and poverty?
3. Is there a possibility to realize human rights when resources are limited?
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1. HRBA is a holistic framework methodology with the potential to enrich operational

strategies in key focus areas. It adds a missing element to present activities by
enhancing the enabling environment for equitable development, and by empowering
people to make their own decisions.
2. It focuses on the empowerment of right-holders to claim their rights and capacitating

duty-bearers in respecting, protecting, and fulfilling the rights of its stakeholders.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Rights-holders Duty-bearers First generation rights Second generation

rights
Third generation Universal Declaration Principles of Human Human Rights
rights of Human Rights Rights Programming
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ULOf: Explain participatory approach and its implications to social development practice
To meet the ULOf, the following are terms are defined for you to have an operational
terms as we you go through variants of social development. Please refer to these definitions
in case you will encounter difficulty in understanding some concepts.
1. Blueprint approach/Top-down approach – This approach is considered

development planned by experts at the top, leading the process.
Because of this, they provide a little room for the people who need the
developmental project/activity meaningful participation that affects their
lives.
2. Bottom-up approach – It emphasizes the participation of the local community in
development initiatives so that they can select their own goals and the
means of achieving them.
In this part you need to fully understand concepts, typology of participation,

characteristics and the obstacles of participatory approach in order to perform the ULOf.
Please note that you are not limited to refer to these resources exclusively. Thus, you are
expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other resources that are available in
the university’s library e.g., ebrary, search.proquest.com, etc.
1. Participatory Development Approach as variant of social development

practice.
1.1. Social development is participatory, empowering, and people-

centered. It is concerned with the process and people's
participation as well as the goal. Participatory development
emerged out of the dissatisfaction of the development workers
with the "blueprint approach" or the "top-down approach."
Participatory and empowering connotes adherence to the
process where the people should be involved in its preparation,
planning, implementation, and evaluation.
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1.2. To understand PA approaches to development, it is necessary to

examine the role that participation plays at all levels and its
function therein. Rahnema (1996) says participation has four
functions:
• Cognitive: Participation is aimed at finding new

knowledge systems and creating a new role and
image for development. Development, as conceived
and designed by expatriate professionals using
western scientific knowledge systems, is often
inappropriate. Local Knowledge Systems (LKS) have
often been ignored or rejected.
• Political: Participation's objective is to legitimize
development as an avenue for helping the poor,
empowering the powerless, and thereby leading to
equitable societies.
• Instrumental: Quite simply, participation is meant to
'make things (projects) work' by providing new
avenues and techniques.
• Social: Participation has given development discourse
a new legitimacy and lease of life. In popular terms, it
has encouraged a flagging industry. Participation was
the approach to bring development to the many and
fulfill basic needs.
.
1.3. In the last few years, there has been an unprecedented call for
participatory practice by government and development
institutions. Rahnema (1996) again gives six reasons:
• Participation, as a concept, is seen as a requirement.

Governments and institutions interested in greater
productivity at low cost are increasingly in need of
'participation' for their purposes. They have also
learned to control the risks in possible unruly abuses of
participation.
• Participation has become a politically attractive slogan:

important political advantages are obtained through the
overt display of participatory intentions. Participatory
slogans create feelings of cooperation between the
public manufacturers of the participatory illusion and
their consumers.
• Participation has become an economically appealing

proposition. Due to small government funds, especially
those focused on rural development, participation in the
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low-cost option. Some critics see this as a form of

government passing the costs to the poor.
• Participation is understood by both means and goals.

Unlike foreign methodologies and government
bureaucrats, participatory approaches aim to close the
gap between the ideal solution to the 'field of reality';
networks on relations, essential both to the success of
on-going projects and long term investments in rural
areas; the cooperation, on the local scene, or
organizations able to carry out development activities.
In this context, grassroots organizations are becoming
the infrastructure through which investment is made.
• Participation is becoming a good fundraising device. In

the last ten years, development-oriented NGOs have
become very much 'in vogue.' This is due to NGOs'
reputation, and their participatory and less
bureaucratized approaches allow them to meet the
needs of the people with greater efficiency and at less
cost.
• An expanded concept of participation could help the

private sector to be directly involved in the development
business: private corporations and consulting agencies
associated with development have been (successfully)
lobbying for the privatization of development, arguing
that governments and international aid agencies waste
taxpayers money.
1.4. Typology of Participation
• Passive participation. In this type, people participate

because they are being told to do so. It is a one-way
process of information whereby administrators or "experts"
announce or inform the project's beneficiary without
listening to their feedback. The language of information
being shared belongs to the "external" professionals.
• Participation in information giving. People's means of

participation is through answering questions posed by an
"extractive" research -- a form of research that does not
consider research subject's inputs to the proceedings; its
findings are not shared with them nor checked for the
accuracy of the results.
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• Participation by consultation. People participate by being

consulted by external professionals. These external
people pre-defined both problems and solutions and may
alter these concerning people's responses. A typical
example of this is a consultative meeting whereby
"external" people do not concede to share their decision-
making power and are under no obligation to consider
people's views.
• Participation for material incentives. People participate

because there is an expected material reward.
Government's residual program, such as food for work or
cash for work, is an example of this. Another form is on-
farm research, as farmers provide the fields but are not
engaged in the experimentation or the process of learning.
It's an understatement that this can be categorized as
"participation", yet people have no stake in prolonging
activities when the incentives are no longer provided.
• Functional participation. People participate by forming

groups to realize predetermined objectives related to the
project initiated by an external organization to develop or
promote the said project. Such involvement does not
happen early in the project cycle or planning, but rather
after significant decisions have been made. These entities
tend to be dependent on external initiators and facilitators
but may become self-dependent.
• Interactive participation. People participate in a joint
assessment of the situation/problem, which leads to action
plans and the formation of new local institutions or the
strengthening of existing ones. It integrates
interdisciplinary methodologies that seek multiple
perspectives and make use of structure and systematic
learning process. These groups exercise control over local
decisions, and so people have a stake in maintaining
structures or practices.
• Self-mobilization. People participate by taking initiatives

independently without relying on external institutions to
change systems. They develop contacts with external
institutions, specifically for resources and technical advice
they need, but exercise autonomy over how resources are
processed to produce an outcome. Such self-initiated
collective action and mobilization may or may not
challenge existing structures maintains inequitable
distributions of wealth and power
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1.5. PA has several major characteristics (Scoones, 1995):
• the processes of participatory research are slow and difficult

• the techniques of PA are complex and require many other
skills, especially of communication, facilitation and negotiation
• wider issues of organizational change, management systems,
ethics and responsibilities also need to be addressed when
using PA
• PA is based on an action-research approach, in which theory
and practice are constantly challenged through experience,
reflection and learning.
1.6. Obstacles to a Participatory Approach
• Local government agencies and bureaucratic forces, despite

their rhetoric of support, have reasons to fear farmer
participation and may seek to divert the threat. They may
appear to accept the participatory programs, but then take
them over and give them a completely different meaning.
• Some professional technical advisers and development
workers find it hard to accept that rural people have something
to contribute to technology development.
• Many organizations, both governmental and non-
governmental, lack the flexibility and the internal openness to
follow a participatory approach. Where bureaucratic or
charismatic leaders dominate and dictate the day-to-day work
of their staff, there is little hope that the latter can develop
strong participatory interaction with their' target group'.
• A large part of the rural population – women and youths - face
special obstacles: heavy labor inputs prevent them from taking
part in meetings; cultural restrictions prevail against appearing
or speaking at open meetings; their expertise and independent
interests are easily neglected in community action. Deviation
from the norm, which is implied in experimentation with new
ideas, sometimes raises very strong opposition.
• In most countries, there are disadvantaged minorities
distinguished by race, religion, or ethnic group. The dominant
groups may strongly resist the participation of these minorities
in development activities.
• The poverty of certain categories of the rural population and
their bad experiences with (non-) supporting agencies may
have robbed them of any hope for improvement, depleted their
self-confidence, and increased their distrust of outsiders. This
results in a 'culture of silence.'
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Cleaver, F. (1999). Paradoxes of Participation: Questioning Participatory Approaches to

Development. Journal of International Development. 11, 597-612. Retrieved
from: https://courses.washington.edu.
"Bottom-up" vs "'top-down" | The Daily Star. Retrieved from:

https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-252290
Laiser, D.M. (2013). Training of Communities on Informal Savings and Collective Marketing:
A Case of Misungwi and Kwimba District. Disesertation submitted to Open
University of Tanzania. Retrieved from:
http://repository.out.ac.tz/888/1/DISSERTATION_-Daniel-FINAL.pdf
Phuyal, K. (2008). Participatory Learning and Action [PLA: A Brief Introduction. Retrieved
from: Part2 Processes Participatory. Retrieved from:
http://www.saciwaters.org/CB/PRM/PRM/IV.%20Readings/2.%20Readings%
20on%20Participatory%20Research%20Methodologies/2.4%20Participatory
%20Learning%20and%20Action%20PLA%20-
%20A%20brief%20introduction_Phuyal%20Kamal.pdf
International Institute for Environment and Development. (1995). Participatory Learning and
Action, A Trainer’s Guide. IIED, London, United Kingdom. Retrieved from:
http://www.managingforimpact.org/sites/default/files/resource/enhancing_own
ership_and_sustainability_part2.pdf
Module II: Introducing Participatory Approaches, Methods. Retrieved from:

http://www.fao.org/3/AD424E/ad424e03.htm
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Activity 25. Let’s evaluate your learning. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of
participatory approach in social development practice.
1. Advantages:
2. Disadvantages:
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Activity 26. You need to comprehensively discuss the following items based from you
readings and researchers.
1. How did participatory approach developed?
2. In your community, identify a program/project driven by participatory approach.

Provide a description about that program/project and categorize which among the
typology of participation the communities/beneficiaries/stakeholders enacted.
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3. Base from your number 2 answer, identify area/s that need/s improvement, and
make some recommendations through the lens of participatory approach.
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1. Social development is participatory, empowering, and people-centered. It is

concerned with the process and people's participation as well as the goal. Participatory
development emerged out of the dissatisfaction of the development workers with the
"blueprint approach" or the "top-down approach." Participatory and empowering
connotes adherence to the process where the people should be involved in its
preparation, planning, implementation, and evaluation.
2. Participation is not limited only to decision-making, it also involves cognitive,

political, instrumental, and social dimensions. It has also various forms, and this is
crucial which participation is being enacted because it will determine the success of the
project aiming towards empowerment.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Blue print Bottom-up approach Passive participation Participation in

approach information giving
Participation for Interactive Functional participation Self-mobilization
material participation
incentives
ULOg: Examine sustainable development as variant to social development practice.
Please proceed to essential knowledge section since all terms are already defined by
previous topics.
In this part you need to fully understand concepts, typology of participation,

characteristics and the obstacles of participatory approach in order to perform the ULOf.
Please note that you are not limited to refer to these resources exclusively. Thus, you are
expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other resources that are available in
the university’s library e.g., ebrary, search.proquest.com, etc.
1. Sustainable Development as a variant of social development practice

– the World Commission on Environment and Development defines
Sustainable Development "as development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs." It contains within its two concepts: the concept of need,
this refers to the essential needs of the world's poor to which greatest
priority should be given; and the idea of limitations imposed but the state
of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet
present and future needs. (World Commission on Environment and
Development. Our Common Future, Oxford University Press: Oxford,
1987)
1.1. The key principle of sustainable development is the integration of

economic, social, and environmental concerns into all aspects of
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decision making. All other principles in the SD framework have

integrated decision making at their core.
1.2. United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, 2030. Instead,

the new SDGs favor collective action by all countries. In 2015, Heads
of State and Government met at the United Nations, Headquarters in
New York, to formulate and agree on the Sustainable Development
Goals until 2030. The dimension of Sustainable Development Goals
as a framework: (1) the right to development for every country, (2)
human rights and social inclusion, (3) convergence and living
standards across countries, and (4) shared responsibilities and
opportunities. Characteristics of SDG Framework: (1) inclusive, (2)
universal, (3) integrated, (4) locally-focused, and (5) technology-
driven.
 Goal 1: No poverty – End poverty in all its forms everywhere:
 Goal 2: Zero Hunger – End hunger, achieve food security and

improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.
 Goal 3: Good Health and Well-being: Ensure healthy lives and

promote well-being at all ages.
 Goal 4: Good Quality Education – Ensure inclusive and

equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all.
 Goal 5: Gender Equality – Achieve gender equality and

empower all women and girls.
 Goal 6: Safe and Clean Water – Ensure availability and

sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.
 Goal 7: Clean and Sustainable Energy – Ensure access to

affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all.
 Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth – Promote

sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and
productive employment and decent work for all.
 Goal 9: - Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive, safe,

resilient industrialization and foster innovation.
 Goal 10: Reduce Inequality – Reduce inequality within and

among countries.
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 Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities - Make cities

and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable industrialization and foster innovation.
 Goal 12: - Ensure sustainable consumption and production

patterns.
 Goal 13 – Take urgent action to combat climate change and its

impacts.
 Goal 14: - Conserve and sustainability use the oceans, seas

and marine resources for sustainable development.
 Goal 15 – Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of

terrestrial ecosystems, sustainability manage forests, combat
desertification, halt and reverse land degradation and halt
biodiversity loss.
 Goal 16: - Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for

sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and
build effective accountable and inclusive institution at all levels.
 Goal 17: - Strengthen means of implementation.
Brief for GSDR 2015 The Concept of Sustainable Development. Retrieved from:
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5839GSDR%2020
15_SD_concept_definiton_rev.pdf
United Nations Development Plan. SDG Report. Retrieved from:

https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-
goals.html
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Activity 27. Let’s evaluate your learning. Identify the difference and commonality between
Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals.
Activity 28. Discuss comprehensively the items below based from your readings and
researchers.
1. What is the main strategy of sustainable development? Cite at least two example
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that manifest the identified strategy.
2. How did SDG developed? Discuss it through historical perspective.
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1. Sustainable Development is the development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
2. The dimension of Sustainable Development Goals as a framework: (1) the right to

development for every country, (2) human rights and social inclusion, (3) convergence
and living standards across countries, and (4) shared responsibilities and opportunities.
Characteristics of SDG Framework: (1) inclusive, (2) universal, (3) integrated, (4) locally-
focused, and (5) technology-driven.
3. It’s principle is to integrate, economic, social and environmental objectives of

society, in order maximize the welfare of human being.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Right to Human rights and Convergence and living Shared

development inclusion standards across responsibilities and
countries opportunities
Inclusive Universal Integrated Locally-focused
Technology-
driven
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Week 8-9: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to
a. Analyze social movement concepts and its implication to

social change and development
b. Examine women/feminist movements and its impact to the
developmental discourse
c. Examine the environmental movements and issues linked to
d. Examine the LGBTQI++ movements and issues in
e. Analyze labor movements and its impact to the
f. Analyze the urban poor movements and issues in
g. Examine the indigenous people movements and issues in
h. Examine the children rights movement and issues in the
context of development
ULOa: Analyze social movement concepts and its implication to social change and
development
To meet the ULOa, the following are terms are defined for you to have an
encounter these terms as we go through different social movements that shape the
development as a concept. Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter
difficulty in understanding some concepts.
1. Social movement - refers to an organized effort by a relatively large number

of people to change (or resist change in) some major aspect or aspects of
society. Social movements are purposeful and organized. Social
movements include those supporting civil rights, gay rights, trade unionism,
environmentalism, and feminism.
2. Collective behavior – Kinds of activities engaged in by sizable but loosely

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organized groups of people. Episodes of collective behavior tend to be

quite spontaneous, as a consequence of an experience shared by the
group members that stirs a sense of common interest and identity.
Collective behavior is random and chaotic. It includes riots, fads and
crazes, panics, cultic religions, rumor.
3. Relative deprivation - The lack of resources (e.g., money, rights, social

equality) is essential to maintain the quality of life considered obviously
within a given socioeconomic group.
4. Absolute deprivation - Another term for absolute poverty is a potentially life-

threatening situation that happens when income falls below a normal level
to maintain food and shelter.
5. Structural strain – This refers to any pressure derived from social factors
such as lack of income or quality of life that drives individuals to commit the
deviant act.
In this part you need to fully understand dynamics of social movements

in order to perform the ULOa. Please note that you are not limited to refer to
these resources exclusively. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books,
research articles, and other resources that are available in the university’s
library e.g., ebrary, search.proquest.com, etc.
1. Social movement.
Social movements include two characteristics about which there is

considerable agreement among the sociologists, which are as follows:
1.1. Collective action - Social movement involves collective action. However,

this collective action takes in the guise of a movement only when sustained
for a long period. This collective action need not have a formal structure. It
could be an informal attempt to promote or resist change, and it should be
able to generate interest and awakening in a significant number of people.
1.2. Oriented towards social change - Social movement is generally oriented

towards bringing about social change. This change could either be total or
partial. Though the movement aims to bring about a change in the values,
norms, ideologies, and structure of the existing system, efforts are also made
by some other social forces to resist the changes and maintain the status
quo. The counter attempts are normally defensive and restorative rather than
innovative and initiating change. They are normally the organized efforts of
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an already established order to maintain itself.
1.3. Stages of social movements
1.3.1. The preliminary stage -This stage can also be called the unrest stage.
In this stage, people find themselves in a state of strain, confusion, or
discontentment. Hence, they are restless. Discontent is an offspring of a
relationship between expected conditions and ideas about those conditions
conceived. When all the members in a society feel satisfaction about
everything, e.g., social welfare programs and even ideologies, there is a zero
chance for any social movement.
1.3.2. The popular stage - In the popular stage, the movement begins to
identify its figure or a leader who promises to address the discontent or
suffering of the people. This leader may be an identified charismatic leader
with some extraordinary characteristics that can lead the movement. He may
speak of reform, revolution, or resistance or express himself so that the
followers are made to feel that he will do something or the other to find a
solution to their problem. If the message of the leader is appropriate and very
many appealing, people will rally around him.
1.3.3. The formalization stage - This is the stage in which programs are
developed, alliances are forged, and organizations and tactics are developed.
In this stage, a party, organization, or group of individuals may put forward an
alternative vision, world-view or ideology, to understand analyses and solve a
prevailing crisis. Once the ideology gains acceptance among people, effort
must be made to translate it into a program that pushes for collective action.
This leads to the beginning of the movement.
1.3.4. The stage of institutionalization of the movement - If the movement

becomes successful, then it deteriorates itself in this last stage where efforts
are institutionalized. Here, it is no longer collective behavior, because it is
organized, follows accepted norms of society, and has replaced its emotional
base with the assumption that change will take time.
1.4. Theories of social movements.
We can identify three main theories concerning the emergence of social

movements. They are the relative deprivation theory, the strain theory, and
the revitalization theory.
1.4.1. Deprivation theory - Relative deprivation is a concept which explains

that one feels deprived according to the gap between expectations and
realizations. According to authors of the deprivation theory, some social
movements emerged when certain people or certain groups of people feel
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deprived of a specific good, service, or resource. Within the deprivation

theory group, there were two branches: relative deprivation and absolute
deprivation. Proponents of relative deprivation, regarded a group to be in a
disadvantageous position vis-à-vis some other group in that society. The
proponents of absolute deprivation, on the other hand, viewed these
concerns of the affected group as an isolated case from other group's
position in society.
1.4.1.1. The deprivation theory offers a powerful justification as to why some

social movements born. However, it fails to explain why in some cases,
deprivation fails to ignite a new social movement. This then gives doubt that
while the existence of deprivation may be a requirement for the beginning of
a social movement, it may be the insufficient condition for the social
movement to emerge. In other words, along with other factors, deprivation
needs to be present for a social movement to be born.
1.4.1.2. Even with the difficulties delineated above, the deprivation theory
offers a partial explanation as to why social movement emerges. For
instance, one can propose the feminist movement begun in the 1960s
because prior that period, women were "deprived" by the society of their
rights and opportunities, favoring men's welfare.
1.4.1.3. Similarly, one can claim that the civil rights movement in the U.S.
emerged because before that movement, non-white people were "deprived"
of their rights and privileges that their white counterparts enjoyed. There is a
pattern as to the social movements were born. It is linked to the deprivation of
basic rights and opportunities, if we try to understand those two movements.
1.4.2. The Strain Theory - The strain theory of social movement has been
propounded by Smelser (1993). The theory argued that any emerging social
movement needs six factors to develop. These six factors are the following:
people in a society experience some type of strain (deprivation); people are
conscious of the problem and its existence; an ideology in the form of a
solution to the problem develops and spreads its influence; an event(s)
transpire that convert this emerging movement into a legitimate social
movement; the society (and its government) recognize the legitimacy of the
movement to be effective, if not, then the movement will collapse; and
mobilization of resources occur as the movement develops further.
1.4.3.1. The structural strain theory can be utilized to explain the birth and
growth of the civil rights movement in the U.S. During the 1960s. It was
popular amongst both non-whites and some whites in the country that the
racial discrimination should not be tolerated (especially at the time, during
Cold Wat, the U.S. was trying to portray the image of inclusivity and global
champion of equality and liberty. Protest all over the country was spreading
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slowly. However, the unforgettable bus incident involving Risa Parks ignited
these civil rights. That incident sporadically became a national phenomenon
that paved the way for the judicial-legal revolution in American society. The
Kennedy and Johnson Administrations were both lenient and receptive to
these changes, and they did not try to repress the emerging movement as it
was slowly growing.
1.4.3. The Theory of Revitalization - The relative deprivation theory and the
strain theory give us the impression that social movements necessarily arise
out of negative conditions such as deprivations and strain. By observing the
historical emergence of a religious movement, Anthony Wallace developed
the theory of revitalization movement. He defines the revitalization movement
as an organized, deliberate, conscious effort by members of a society to
construct a more satisfying culture".
1.4.3.1. The revitalization theory of Wallace is based on two key concepts:

the concept of stress and the other is the maze way.
 Concept of Stress
 Wallace focuses on the dynamics of homeostasis in society by viewing

society as an organism. He argued, "Homeostasis is a mechanism in
which a system tries to maintain its integrity by preserving a minimally
fluctuating, life-supporting matrix and taking emergency measures
under conditions of stress to preserve the constancy of this matrix."
When the system encounters some events in which its homeostasis is
at stake, stress-reducing mechanisms function to restore it. However,
when society comes to a stage where that stress-reducing
mechanisms do not affect, society proceeds to a revitalization
movement. In this framework, Wallace suggests stress as "a condition
in which the social organism is threatened with more or less serious
damage." He identifies some factors of stress: economic distress,
epidemics, climate, ecological change, military defeat, political
subordination, extreme pressure toward acculturation, and so on. The
list of stresses must go beyond the personal level to include such
factors as self-value, human relationships, emotional problems,
disorientation, and relative degradation, and so on.
 Concept of Maze Way
 Another concept in understanding the revitalization movement

theory is the "maze way." Wallace discussed that every person
in society, as a part of the societal organism, required to have a
mental image of his own body and its behavioral regularities, as
well as society and its culture, to act in ways that reduce stress
at all levels of the system. The mental image is termed the
maze way. When an individual, under chronic stress, receives
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recurring information that one's maze way does not result in an

action that decreases the level of stress, one must choose to
either change the maze way to another or maintain the present
maze way and tolerate the stress. The mechanism itself that
changes a maze way is the central idea of the revitalization
movement.
1.4.3.2. Progressive Structure of Revitalization Movement - The evident

process includes: (1) the steady-state, (2) the period of increased individual
stress, (3) the period of cultural distortion, (4) the period of revitalization, and
(5) the new steady stage.
(1) The steady-state refers to the "culturally recognized techniques for

satisfying needs operate in a way that chronic stress varies within tolerable
limits." Wallace implies, "During the first stage, the societal needs are met,
and the stress in the system 'varies within tolerable limits.'" Members would
not question their interpretation of live events in the maze way. Thus, even
though some situations fail to realize their expectations, they are likely to
perceive the failure of their fault in the old system.
(2) The period of individual stress is characterized by rising tension. As

mentioned above, causes can be in the form of "uprooted-ness" such as
natural disaster, war, population explosion, to personal difficulties such as
unmet desires, uncured diseases, or loss of loved ones. The individual in the
context of society will try to address this situation both internally and
externally. The latter can be categorized as non-conforming or revolutionary
at this stage.
(3) The next phase is the stage of cultural distortion. During this period, the
old concept of the system fails to function in preserving the social equilibrium
and is continuously criticized. In this incident, society demonstrates "the
regressive response" in the guise of intra-group violence, alcoholism, the
collapse of kinship, ambivalent dependency, irresponsibility in public officials,
states of depression, guilt, and a variety of psychosomatic and neurotic
disorders. Because the elements in society are in a state of disequilibrium,
society needs an alternative maze way. The newly established way, which
was once conceived as non-conforming, is seen as an important alternative.
(4) The fourth stage is the revitalization phase. Wallace proposes six
functional stages within the revitalization period: (a) maze way reformulation
in which the members begin to imagine their new mental picture of society in
an alternative way from the mainstream imagination, (b) the innovator plays
the prophet's role and leads in spreading the new maze way among
interested individuals, (c) the prophets create an organization that connects
society with their views, (d) the organization adjusts to the resistance from
society, and (e) as the number of individuals who recognize and accept the
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new maze way increases, a cultural transformation occurs.
(5) The revitalization process comes to an end by accomplishing the cultural

transformation. Then, this new steady stage is the beginning of another cycle
of the process
1.4.4. Political Process Theory - Political process theory regards social

movements as a type of political movement rooted in the availability of
political opportunities. This theory views the social movement in question to
the capacity of the state or the authority in charge of the government. If the
government's position is well-established and is prone to coercive behavior,
then the chances for a social movement to fail is high. On the other hand, If
the government is weak or more lenient of resistant behavior, then the
chances for any social movement that is born might have the opportunity to
grow and flourish.
1.4.4.1. Few social movement theories argued that political conditions and
the presence of political opportunities (or lack thereof) are not the only
determinants of social movements' growth. They criticize this theory, for it
solely focuses on the political dimension of the social movement and does
not include cultural factors that might be strong enough to mitigate the degree
of the political factors.
1.4.4.2. Foweraker (1995) studies several examples of social movements in

Latin American countries and how the government's power has affected the
results of those movements. One of the distressing examples is Chile's case,
where pro-democracy movements were brutally dealt with repressive actions
by the U.S.-backed government of General Augusto Pinochet. Foweraker
(1995) compared the fate of the pro-democracy movement in Chile with the
Green (environmental) movement in West European countries. In the Chile
case, the mercilessness of the government repeatedly crushed the pro-
democracy movements. In West European countries, the presence of
cooperative and friendly and national governments ignited the Green
movement's growth to what it is today. These two different cases are realistic
examples of how social movements impact the political (government
systems) that these movements have to contend with.
1.4.5. Resource Mobilization Theory - The resource mobilization theory

claims the importance of the availability of favorable resources in the
emergence of a social movement. Thus, this theory articulates that when
some individuals in a society have certain problems or experience strain, they
may be able to make use of necessary resources to alleviate those problems.
The term "resources" in this light, refer to things like money, labor, social
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status, knowledge, support of the media and political elites, etc. One of the
assets of this theory is that it offers a convincing explanation as to why some
socially-illed situations lead to a successful social movement, whereby some
other similar situations may not lead to a social movement.
1.4.5.1. This theory does offer a good explanation of why some social
movements have been able to grow at a significant rate, even with the
presence of seemingly overwhelming obstacles. A typical example for this is
the civil rights movement in the U.S. The leaders of that movement, primarily
Martin Luther King Jr. and some of his colleagues in Southern Christian
Leadership Conference, were able to gain the support of thousands of
supporters (including many sympathetic whites) in launching and developing
the movement. They were successful in their cause, although the majority of
the white population is against some of the movement's fundamental
objectives (e.g., voting rights to blacks and ending separation of facilities for
whites and non-whites).
1.5. Social movements and social problems
1.5.1. Social movements play a vital role in emphasizing some of the social
problems. Some illed conditions can exist for years or even centuries before
they are recognized as social problems. Racial discrimination, treatment of
women as a second class citizen, inequality, pollution, etc. were all generally
treated as either inevitable or natural or, as less important, until social
movements drew the public's attention, mobilized public opinion, and promote
for change. Thus, the antecedents of a social movement are not only how
social problems are addressed but also to the movement itself. The interplay
of social problems and social movements produces a typical "life cycle" or
"natural history" that often ends with the movement's disappearance.
1.6. Social movements and social change
1.6.1. Social movements do not necessarily offer solutions to social

problems. They may advocate for the cause of social problems but cannot
always ensure a lasting solution. Social movements may provide confident
solutions about social change, and they do bring it. But it is not always a one-
way process. Not only do social movements bring about change, but social
change sometimes gives birth to movements. Social change often breeds
social movements, and movements, in turn, breed additional change.
Smelser has defined a social movement as an organized group effort to
generate socio-cultural change
1.6.2. The social structure is subject to persistent change. Forty years is the
average government time to make important changes. Religion and family will
not remain the same during this period because these institutions are subject
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to change. Society may create an illusion of stability, and individuals may

strive for permanence, the quest for certainly may continue unabated. Yet,
the fact remains that society is an ever-changing phenomenon that grows,
deteriorates, renews and accommodates itself to changing conditions, and
suffers vast modifications over time.
1.6.3. The changes in language, art, philosophy, technology, etc., may not be
included in the term social change, which should be understood to mean
alterations in the field of social relationships. Social relationships are social
processes, social patterns, and social interactions. Thus, social change
means variations of any aspect of social processes, social patterns,
interactions, or social organization. It is a change in an institutional and
normative structure of society.
Collective behaviour | psychology | Britannica.

https://www.britannica.com/science/collective-behaviour
Curran, J., Takata, S. (2003). Relative Deprivation and Deprivation Theory. California
State University. Retrieved from: https://www.thoughtco.com/relative-
deprivation-theory-4177591
Sen, A. & Avci, O. (2016). Why Social Movement Occur: Theories of Social
Movements. Bilgi Ekonomisi ve Yönetimi Dergisi. Retrieved from:
http://www.beykon.org/dergi/2016/SPRING/2016XI.I.10.A.Sen.pdf
Takamizawa, E. (2004). Revitalization Movement Theory and Japanese Mission.

Torch Trinity Journal 7. Retrieved from:
http://www.ttgst.ac.kr/upload/ttgst_resources13/20123-185.pdf
Social Movement and Social Change, Socio Short Notes Retrieved from:
https://www.sociologyguide.com/socio-short-notes/social-movement-
and-social-change.php
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Activity 29. Let’s evaluate your learning. Fill in the blank the word/phrase needed in
each item. Write your answer in the space provided.
1. These are informal activities committed by a relative large

number of people experiencing strain.
2. At this point, social movement begin to identify a person
who has the capacity to influence the people throughout the movement to attain its
end.
3. It suggest that social movement is not just ignited by a
single-phenomenon, but a result of several factors.
4. It is the phase where social movement goals begin to be
accepted and normalize by the mainstream society.
5. It asserts that social movement surfaced due to people
being kept from possessing or enjoying their rights.
6. This is the deliberate process of creating more satisfying
way of life.
7. This is the condition that induce disequelibrium in the
normal system ranging from personal to social dimensions.
8. It assumes that the presence/absence of strong
institutionalized state intervention determines the success or failure of social
movement.
9. This refers to the mental image of a desirable society or
conditions.
10. This posits that for the social movement to occur, despite
the unsurmountable hindrances, knowledge or support from influential people and the
like must be utlize.
researchers.
1. The Civil Rights Movement in the United States was considered a milestone
for equal access to opportunities for both white and non-white. However, the
recent Black Lives Matter Movement in the U.S. began to surface and it that
expands to major countries Europe. With this, explain how the movement
occurred and become a worldwide phenomenon using the deprivation theory.
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2. Human rights are inherent, inalienable, universal, interdependent, and

equal. LGBTQ rights are human rights. Despite the long 20 years of hurdle
and struggles in advancing LGBTQ rights in the Philippines, why does their
advocacy, specifically the Senate Bill no. 689 failed? Discuss your answer
through the lens of political process theory.
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3. Using the resource mobilization theory, explain why the social movement of
the labor sector to abolish contractualization was not successful.
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1. Social movement is an organized effort by a relatively large number of people to

change (or resist change in) some major aspect or aspects of society. Social
movements are purposeful and organized. Social movements include those supporting
civil rights, gay rights, trade unionism, environmentalism, and feminism.
2. There are 4 general phases of social movement. Each phase requires set of activities
for the social movement to achieve social change. It ends with institutionalization
phase in which goals of the movement begin to be normalized and mainstreamed to
society.
3. There are multiple theoretical framework in understanding how social movement

emerged and flourished. These theories have various elements and focus but they all
also explain some conditions as determinants to the success or failure of social
movement.
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In this section, all your questions or clarifications may be listed down. You may wish
to raise you concern through LMS or other modes such as email or sms (in case of
distant learning). After the clarification, you may write your understanding of the
question/ raised in the “answer” portion.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Social movement Collective behavior Relative deprivation Absolute

deprivation
Structural Strain Preliminary stage Popular stage Formalization
Stage
Institutionalization Deprivation theory Strain Theory Revitalization
stage theory
Concept of stress Maze Way Steady-state Period of
Increased
individual stress
Period of Cultural Revitalization The new stage Political process
distortion Period theory
Resource
mobilization
theory
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ULOb: Examine women/feminist movements and its impact to the developmental discourse
To meet the ULOb, the following are terms are defined for you to have an
encounter these terms as you go through feminist movement. Please refer to these
definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in understanding some concepts.
1. Feminism - Feminism is a term used to describe economic, political,

or economic movement for the purpose of establishing
equal rights and legal protection for women. Feminism
incorporates social and political theories and
philosophies with regard to gender inequality, as well as
movement that campaigns for women's rights and
interests.
2. Imperialism – It is a way of governing in which large or powerful
countries seek to extend their authority beyond their
borders.
3. Feudalism – It is a way of structuring society around relationships
that were derived from the cultivating of land in exchange
for service labor.
4. Bureaucrat capitalism – It is a system by which the ruling elite use
government resources and machinery to further enrich
themselves and entrench their families in power at the
expense of the people.
In this part, you need to understand feminism and its movement through a historical
perspective in order to perform the ULOb. Please note that you are not limited
to refer to these resources exclusively. Thus, you are expected to utilize other
books, research articles, and other resources that are available in the
university's library, e.g., ebrary, search.proquest.com, etc.
1. Feminism
Feminism has modified predominant views in a wide range of areas within Western
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society, ranging from culture to law. Feminist activists have advocated for
women's legal rights (voting rights, rights of contract, property rights); for
reproductive rights (including access to quality prenatal care and
contraception; for women's right to bodily integrity and autonomy, for abortion
rights, and; for protection of women and girls from sexual harassment,
domestic violence, and rape; for workplace rights, including equal pay and
maternity leave; against misogyny; and against other forms of gender-specific
discrimination against women.
1.1. Historical roots of feminism around the globe - Feminists and scholars have
divided the feminist movement's history into three "waves." The first wave
refers mainly to the concerned of women's right to vote in the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries. The second wave began in 1960, which refers to the
ideas and actions related to the women's liberation movement campaigned for
social and legal rights for women. The third wave began in the 1990s, which
refers to a continuation of and a reaction to the perceived failures of second-
wave feminism.
1.1.1 First wave feminism
First-wave feminism began in the United States and the United Kingdom. This is
during the nineteenth to the twentieth century that focused on the promotion of
property rights and equal contracts for women and opposition to the idea of
women and their children as objects of possession to their husbands. But, at
the end of the 19th century, movement focused mainly on championing
women's right to suffrage, thus giving them political power. Yet, feminists such
as Margaret Sanger and Voltairine de Cleyre were still active in advocating for
women's reproductive, sexual, and economic rights at this time.
1.1.2. Second-wave feminism
Second-wave feminism began in the early 1960s to late 1980s. This period as
propose by Imelda Wehelehan, was a continuation of the right to the suffrage
movement in the United Kingdom and the United States. Second-wave
feminism persisted to exist at that time while co-existing with third-wave
feminism. The focus of the second wave is mainly on larger issues such as
ending inequality and discrimination. It is the period where the slogan
"Personal is Political" came about. Second-wave feminists viewed women's
political and cultural inequalities as strongly linked and encouraged women to
understand parts of their personal lives as deeply politicized and as reflecting
sexist power structures.
1.1.3. Third-wave feminism
Third-wave feminism is a continuation of the second-wave and a response to the

criticism against the initiatives of and movements. It co-exists with the second-
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wave during the early 1990s, where it tries to integrate race and other cultural
variables in the conceptualization of feminism. According to them, the concept
of feminity was defined by the white upper class; thus, it challenges the
second-wave's paradigm of what is good for females and what is not. The
movement can be traced back in the mid-1980s, where it was spearheaded by
black feminist leaders.
1.2. Typology of feminist movements - Several sub-movements of feminist ideology

have developed over the years and is considered a by-product of the third-
wave feminist movement. Some feminist movements adopted some thought of
other subtypes; thus, movements may overlap. Some of the main subtypes
are identified below:
a. Anarcha - Anarcha-feminism combines the ideology of anarchism with feminism. It

views patriarchy as a privilege that puts man in power and authority. Thus,
struggle against patriarchy is important for part of class struggle, and the
anarchist is the struggle against the State. In general, the philosophy sees the
feminist struggle as an integral component of anarchist struggle and vice-
versa. As L. Susan Brown describes, "as anarchism is a political philosophy
that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist."
b. Socialist and Marxist - Socialist feminism aligns the oppression of women to

Marxist ideas about oppression, exploitation, and labor. Socialist feminists
imply that unequal standing in both the domestic and workplace sphere holds
women down. Socialist feminists view, domestic work, childcare, prostitution,
and marriage as ways wherein women are exploited by a patriarchal system
that devalues women and work they do. Socialist feminists zeroed-in their
energies in the structural problems that affect a great range of women, rather
than the individual's struggles. They view the capitalist system as the main
force that devalues their efforts and womanhood. Marx implies that class
oppression has a direct relationship with gender; that is, when class
oppression vanquished, so does gender oppression. This perspective of
gender oppression, a sub-class of class oppression, is ingenious, and much of
the work of socialist feminists has focused towards separating gender
phenomena from class phenomena.
c. Radical - Radical feminism considers the male-controlled capitalist hierarchy, which

it describes as sexist, as the defining characteristics of women's oppression.
Radical feminists believe that women can only acquire freedom when they
have done away with what they consider a "naturally" oppressive and
dominating patriarchal system. Radical feminists suggest that there is no
significant change in the system when the system itself values the male-based
power and authority responsible for inequality and oppression. Some radical
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feminists see no other way than the total uprooting and reconstruction of
society in order to achieve their goals.
d. Liberal - Liberal feminism purported the equality of men and women through legal
and political reform. In itself is an individualistic form of ideology that zeroed-in
on the actions and choices of women concerning equality. According to them,
personal interactions between men and women are the platforms to transform
society with the assumption that all women are capable of asserting their
ability to overcome inequality; therefore, it is possible for them to change the
society without altering its structure. Issues that are concerning for liberal
feminists are sexual harassment, reproductive and abortion rights, affordable
childcare, affordable health care, voting, education, equal pay for equal work,
and domestic violence.
e. Black - Black feminism argues that class oppression, sexism, and racism are
inseparable terms and concepts. While other forms of feminism tried to
overcome issues of sexism and class oppression, they suggest that racial bias
should be involved. They assert that the liberation of black women entails
freedom for all people since it would necessitate the end of sexism, class
oppression, and racism. One of the products of this movement was Alice
Walker's theory in womanism. It started after the early feminist movements
under the leadership of white women who campaigned for righ to suffrage.
These movements were largely white middle-class movements and had
essentially ignored the oppression based on classism and racism.
Alice Walker and other Womanists openly discussed that black women experienced a
different and more extreme form of oppression that white women.
f. Postcolonial -Postcolonial feminists argue that oppression relating to the colonial

experience, particularly class, racial, and ethnic oppression, has marginalized
women in postcolonial countries. They put into question the assumption that
gender oppression is the foremost force of patriarchy. Postcolonial feminists
are against to the portrayals of women of non-Western societies as voiceless
and passive victims and the imagery of Western women as educated, modern,
and empowered.
g. Environmental - Ecofeminism links feminism with ecology. Ecofeminists see the

domination of women as coming from the same ideologies that resulted in the
domination of the environment. They assert that the patriarchal system, where
men were seen as the one who owns and control the land, are responsible for
the oppression of women and destruction of the natural environment. They
argue that the men in authority, control the land, and therefore they have the
power to exploit it for their own interest. They also argued that in this context,
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women are exploited by men in power for their own, pleasure, profit, and
success. Ecofeminists argue further that women and the environment are both
exploited as objects in the race to domination. Ecofeminism connects the
domination and exploitation of women with that of the environment. In order to
repair social and ecological justice, they feel that women must be hardworking
in creating a healthy environment that women rely heavily on to provide for
their families..
1.3. Historical roots and evolution of the feminist movement in the Philippines
The dynamic feminist/women's movement in the Philippines is the product of a long

history of struggle and participation in various historical conjunctures. As a
nation rigged by a difficult colonial past, it is important to locate the role of
women in the quest for independence. As a society embezzled by unequal
power relations between the masses and the ruling class, it is crucial to place
the women's movement in the struggle for democracy, equality, and social
justice.
1.3.1. The Bayan and the Babaylan: Women in Pre-Colonial Philippines
It is this period where babaylan was the persona of a strong, brave,

wise, and wealthy woman and was the main representation of women in
barangay. Most of the were homosexual and effeminate. They are not
subservient to the datu, who’s the head of the balangay or barangay, but they
work together in important social activities and rituals. She studied and
developed medicine and passed it the next generation. She also determines
the seasons for which the barangay follows her wisdom when to plan and
harvest their crops.
1.3.2. Chains of Chastity: The Colonization of Women's Body in Hispanic Philippines
The colonization of the Spaniards in the country brought radical

change on how babaylan were viewed. The friars labeled them as they
practice black magic, hence against the fundmentals of Christian faith. With
the massive indoctrination, women were acculturated with the practice of
Christian faith such as confession. In this exercise, women’s spiritual belief
and their sexuality were repressed, thus creating the consciousness of one’s
sex and body.
1.3.3. Sisters in Arms: Revolutionaries, suffragists and guerillas
Women's participation in affairs dominated by men can be traced back

to the Philippine Revolution against Spain (1896-1898) and the Filipino-
American War in the years that followed.
Some women in this period began its leadership role in advancing the
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forces of nationalism. Organization like Asociacion Filantropica dela Cruz Roja

began to emerge to fight against foreign invaders. Historical evidence shows
that women in this organization was not just their for logistic support but they
were fighting with Filipino men in arm struggle. Later in 20th century,
Asociacion Feminista Filipina and Asociacion Feminista Ilonga were the
frontliners in advancing women’s right to suffrage. There efforts then created
the La Proteccion de la Infancia, Inc. and later ran the Gota de Leche, an
institution whose concern is for women and children health, i.e., high maternal
and infant mortality rate.
In 1937, Samahang Makabayan ng mga Pilipino was created on the

belief that women’s empowerment effort the in the country were influence by
western values. Distinctively, this organization believed that women should not
participate in politics.
During the World War II, Filipino women were subjected to war crimes
i.e., sex slavery, rape, and they became comfort women. These crimes ignited
women to join the Huk rebellion where they change the perspective of women
joining the war. It only suggests that in times of war, women could also fight.
1.3.4. Women Comrades: Resisting A Dictator and Persisting with the Struggle
As the postwar years were, relatively speaking, years of peace for the
Filipinos, many of whom considered the establishment of the electoral process
as a manifestation of democracy, there seemed little need for women to
agitate for new reforms, much less for structural changes within society
(Santos, 2004: 34). Generally, the women's organizations that time were
concerned with becoming social partners of men.
In the late sixties another social upheaval formed. The Vietnam War
galvanized students into protesting against imperialism, while Vatican II gave
rise to progressive Catholic activists (priests, laity, students) who demanded
social justice and who started questioning authoritarianism in the classroom.
Internally, there was the widening gap between the rich and the poor,
intensifying economic distress and political instability bred by the country's
dependence on foreign capital, and unbridled graft and corruption (Santos,
2004).
Things got worse after the 1969 elections – supposedly the dirtiest in
Philippine history: Protests escalated in multiple folds, and the government
was threatened with the momentum of organizing led by the newly established
Communist Party of the Philippines or CPP in 1969 (Abinales, 2005).
Then came the First Quarter Storm (FQS) of 1970 — a period of

ferment characterized by massive protests marches and violent confrontation
with the police, and propelled largely by a radicalized student movement
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whose agenda called for drastic changes in societal structures by means of

raising the collective consciousness of the Filipino people with respect to the
'three evils' supposedly plaguing the exploited masses, namely, 'imperialism,
feudalism and bureaucrat capitalism' (Santos, 2004). Various nationalist
organizations were established precisely to rally around the cause and to call
for genuine sovereignty and democracy (Santos, 2004).
Along with the rise of the students, workers, peasants and other social
movements, the women's movement gained new momentum as it started to
develop along Marxist-inspired lines. The Malayang Kilusan ng Bagong
Kababaihan (Movement for Freedom by Progressive Women) or MAKIBAKA,
established in July 1969, 'attempted to situate women's liberation within the
context of the struggle against foreign domination and class oppression'
(Valte, 1992). Elumbre (2010) related that the most memorable act of
MAKIBAKA was the protest it staged against the annual Miss Philippines
beauty pageant in 1970. MAKIBAKA was reorganized sometime in the late
1970s by the Communist-led national democratic movement, and the original
autonomously-formed organization was reoriented into an 'arm' of the National
Democratic Front (NDF) (EstradaClaudio, 2005). The organization dwindled
due to the dilution of the women's issues in the national democratic framework
of the CPP, which asserted that women's empowerment would come only
when the class revolution had been won. MAKIBAKA found itself primarily
occupied with national issues, and attempts to forge a link between women's
concerns and national issues, 'proved to be ambitious, and perhaps, untimely'
(Santos, 2004).
In 1975, the Katipunan ng Bagong Pilipina (KABAPA) was founded by

women who had been active in the HUKBALAHAP and subsequent peasant-
based formations. KABAPA's constitution had the flavor of Third World
feminism in that it addressed national, class, and gender issues under its
goals of equality, development, peace, freedom and the happiness of children
(Estrada-Claudio, 2005).
In the eighties, two more women's organizations were founded: the

Kilusang Kababaihang Pilipina (Philippines Women's Movement) or PILIPINA
in 1981, and the Katipunan ng Kalayaan para sa Kababaihan (Organization of
Women for Freedom) or KALAYAAN in 1983. Both of these new organizations
saw the need for a separate and autonomous women's movement with
respect to the national democratic framework (Elumbre, 2010)
PILIPINA, founded by social development advocates, envisioned a

'Philippine society where women possess dignity, autonomy, and equality'
(Santos, Perrena and Fabros, 2007) and proactively engaged in social work
and capacity-building for women. It has always seen development work as an
arena for its advocacy, where the private issues of women intersected with the
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public realm (Santos, et al., 2007). PILIPINA defines women's liberation in

many ways: liberation from sexual and domestic violence, 'liberation from the
dominance of global capitalism, which relegates Third World countries to the
status of wage labor, and Third World women to the lowest end of this labor:
piece work, sexual services;' liberation from unemployment; liberation from the
prospect of environmental disaster (Estrada-Claudio, 2005). The leadership of
the organization was instrumental in the formation of the Women's Action
Network for Development (WAND) and of the party-list Abanse! Pinay.
KALAYAAN, on the other hand, was more similar to MAKIBAKA in its

active engagement on issues of national importance. Estrada-Claudio (2005)
noted that 'the major call “Kalayaan ng Bayan, Kalayaan ng Kababaihan,
Sabay Nating Ipaglaban!” (Let us simultaneously fight for the freedom of the
land and of women) was to a large extent a veering away from the primacy of
class struggle and a broadening and deepening of the Marxist/socialist
perspective that had imbued the national democratic struggle.' Further,
Estrada-Claudio (2005) observed that while the founders were all activists and
cadres of the national democratic movement, it accepted members from
various political streams as well as women from neutral political positions.
These broad types of members contributed to a 'delightful tension of politics'
GABRIELA or General Assembly Binding Women for Reforms,

Integrity, Equality, Leadership, and Action was founded in 1984 by women's
groups of various political persuasions and class composition from the
politically and ideologically inclined, to civic associations. It was the first
attempt at unifying the women's organizations around a feminist agenda, 'even
as political differences were recognized and yet disallowed to derail the effort
towards the building of an autonomous women's movement' (Valte, 1992).
Estrada-Claudio (2005) noted that GABRIELA 'faced the challenge of
sharpening and deepening of feminist issues as opposed to merely integrating
women's issues into its dominant class-oriented political perspective.'
GABRIELA is now referred to as the GABRIELA Women's Network with a
party-list group called Gabriela Women's Party. It 'has maintained the position
that class oppression remains the primary enemy of the people even as it has
taken on feminist issues like violence against women' (Estrada-Claudio, 2005).
By the late eighties, many women's organizations emerged and took

on specific issues that, according to EstradaClaudio (2005), could be
understood based on the following general observations: (1) There was a
need to translate feminist theoretical understanding into concrete
programmatic actions, (2) The issue-focus approach was a necessity since
there was a felt need to put emphasis on feminist issues, e.g. sexual
violence/rape, reproductive rights, sexuality, legislative reforms for women —
issues that social movements would usually consider as being outside of the
broad national concerns, and (3) interests of donors to address gender issues
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also propelled a number of women's groups to set-up programs addressing

these issues, propelled and inspired by the declaration of the UN Decade of
Women in 1995, and with the massively attended Beijing Conference in 1985.
In 1990, the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), one

of the first foreign agencies to direct aid to Philippine NGOs, decided to
establish a Women in Development (WID) Fund. The campaign for
reproductive rights generated interest in other gender-related issues, such as
sexuality, sexual orientation and sexual preference were also advocated in this
period.
Specific concerns were also taken up by women's organizations in

urban poor communities, rural areas, among migrant women, and the like. In
the same period, feminist advocates gained a critical mass and started
conducting regular gender sensitivity seminars for communities, schools,
government offices, and NGOs that led to increased awareness on women's
issues and women's rights. By the early nineties, some colleges and
universities had established women's studies. Meanwhile, the national
government adopted gender mainstreaming as a strategy to make the
bureaucracy gender-responsive, which led to a number of feminist academics
and women's rights advocates becoming consultants to government's
programs on gender mainstreaming (Estrada-Claudio, 2005).
At the policy level, the post-dictatorship years was marked by

significant achievements as well. The 1987 Philippine Constitution mandates
that the State 'recognizes the role of women in national building and shall
ensure the fundamental equality before the law of women and men' (Art. 11,
Sec 14), recognizes women's maternal and economic role (Art. XIII, Sec. 14)
and women's special health needs (Art. XIII, Sec 11), and allows Filipino
women married to aliens to retain their citizenship if they chose to do so (Art.
IV). Not long after the ratification of the Constitution, President Aquino issued
Executive Order 227 (s. 1987) or The New Family Code of the Philippines,
which eliminated many of the discriminatory provisions in the Civil Code of the
Philippines that had been based on Spanish colonial law
Also in 1987, the National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women

(NCRFW), held various consultation workshops among different women's
groups that resulted in the crafting of the Philippine Development Plan for
Women (PDPW) 1989-1992, which became a companion volume to the
Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan (MTPDP) 1987-1992.
1.4. Contemporary Period: From the Ramos Presidency (June 1992) to the Present
1.4.1. Women's Political Participation

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One of the measures to say that women achieve gender equality is the
power held by women in an organization and even the government to make
important decision. The UN encourages every member towards equal
participation of women on decision-making bodies. However, given the
realities of patriarchy reinforce by the culture of catholic, it’s hard to realize this
goal. At the global level, only 22% of all national parliaments are women, and
only 10% is the head of the state. Despite the prevalence of patriarchy in the
Philippines, we exceed the expectation when we ranked 7th in the Global
Gender Gap Index, which measure factors like gender equality, health,
political empowerment, and economic and political opportunities. Base from
the report of World Economic Forum 2016, global gender gap will finally be
close in a span of 82 years.
1.4.2. Women in trade unions and in the labor movement
In the Philippines, 'women hold half the sky', making up 49.6% of the
population as against the men's 50.4% (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2016).
However, women's labor force participation rate (LFPR) has constantly been
lower than men's LFPR, with a gap of 28%-32% since 1998 despite increasing
female employment over the years. In the seventies, the export-oriented
industrialization policy of the Marcos government created export processing
zones (EPZs) that depended on a large supply of young women as cheap
labor for the garment and electronics industries. Since then, an increasing
number of women have joined the paid workforce. Presently, they still
dominate the garments and electronic factories inside the EPZs, although
many are also found in the business process outsourcing (BPO) industry as
call center agents. The majority of women workers remain concentrated in
lower paid and lower status jobs in the formal sector, presumably because
these are the only types of jobs made available to them or the only ones that
allow them to balance work and family responsibilities. As a result, women
workers often lack both individual and collective bargaining power.
Massive organizing of women workers in trade unions, especially in the

garments industry, took place in the seventies primarily in support of the anti-
dictatorship and anti-imperialist struggle. Nevertheless, as women's
organizations flourished after the fall of the Marcos dictatorship, there was also
a surge in the formation of women's committees in the unions. These
developments emerged from a combination of different circumstances and
motivations, such as the vigorous advocacy of the organized women workers
themselves who had the support of the vibrant women's movement that urged
unions to tackle women's issues, the pressure from the international labor
movement that called on all affiliates to put gender equality in their agenda,
and support from local and international NGOs to help raise consciousness on
gender issues (Hega, 2009).
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While innovative gender initiatives flourished within the Filipino trade

union movement such as reforms in union structures to accommodate
women's concerns (e.g., having two shop stewards, a man and a woman, in
particular departments), adoption of policies against sexual harassment in the
workplace, and inclusion of women's issues in Collective Bargaining
Agreements (CBAs) (e.g., menstrual break), 'gender work' remained relegated
to women unionists. The continued separation of the union, the workplace and
household made it difficult for women workers to participate in union activities
and fragmentation of the Filipino trade union movement prevented women
unionist from different unions to come together on common gender concerns.
More importantly, women remained second in command and under-
represented in the leadership, even in sectors where women outnumbered
men as union members.
In the area of legislative advocacy, women trade unionists contributed

significantly to the passage of Republic Act 7877 or the Anti-Sexual
Harassment Law of 1995. This landmark law continues to influence workplace
codes of conduct and trade union advocacies to improve its coverage.
In organizing strategies, the need to further gender equality within the

labour movement contributed in the formation of the Manggagawang
Kababaihang Mithi ay Paglaya (Women Workers Fighting for Freedom) or
MAKALAYA in 1998, which started as a women workers' forum. The founding
members of MAKALAYA were women trade unionists and women from
community-based informal workers’ organizations who were by-products of the
education and training program of the Gender Program (Department) of the
Labor Education and Research Network (LEARN). This all-women
organization was established to respond to the felt need of exploring
organizing strategies that go beyond the traditional trade union way.
Challenging the male-dominated trade union structures and unequal power
relations within the movement, MAKALAYA opened a can of worms in the
form of operational, cultural and ideological resistance from the mostly male
trade union leadership.
Currently, various labor centers and federations still recognize the

formation of the women committee as one of the standing committees of the
union. They continue to allocate leadership roles for women using the gender
quota and to provide budget for gender activities. Affiliates of Industry in the
Philippines are pushing for a 30% quota in the leadership, which was already
adopted by some unions. The Sentro ng mga Nagkakaisa at Progresibong
Manggagawa (Center of United and Progressive Workers) or SENTRO, a
labor center established in 2013, provides for 50% gender quota (as
practicable) in the leadership. However, women trade unionists who were
interviewed for this paper still lament the obvious gap between the written
policies with what are actually being implemented. While there is a gender
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quota in the leadership, there is lack of program to build the capacity of

women to hold leadership position, or the budget to support such a program
remains inadequate. There are well-funded programs that took out women-
specific components, using the argument that gender is already integrated into
projects and will benefit both women and men, and therefore one or two
activities are enough for an all-women gathering. In other words, gender
mainstreaming in trade unionism remains a struggle within a struggle
1.4.3. Fighting for pro-women legislation
Over the last 3 decades, Filipino women have been struggling to

advance their interest in their right to control over their bodies and gender-
based violence in the legislative area. The following subsections are
considered most memorable legislative advocacies by women’s movement.
a. Reproductive Health Rights
The Reproductive Health Law or R.A. 10354 that seeks to provide

maternal care, family planning and adolescent sexuality education, including
contraception had been the most divisive legislative agenda. It took decade to
become a law that supposedly promote the reproductive health of women but
upon its implementation, some group petitioned to the supreme court that
some of the contraceptive product procured and distributed by the government
has abortifacient element, thus delaying its implementation. At present, the
acceptability at the LGU level varies from full support to outright refusal.
b. Violence Against Women
For a long period of time, Violence Against Women (VAW) was largely
ignored until group of gender advocates prioritize this issue due to the
sporadic problems it creates in homes and in the communities. The VAW
issue breeds helplessness and powerlessness among its victim while enabling
the idea that man has the “natural” control of women as well as how they
should live their lives. Because of this, the Philippine Plan for Gender-
Responsive Development or PPGD 1995-2025 was created. It acknowledged
VAW as a serious and urgent human right matters for countless Filipino
women whose life and health are at risk. This framework integrates VAW
issues to developmental planning and implementation to promote gender
equality.
c. The Anti-Rape Law: From crime against chastity to crime against person
Among the landmark achievements of the Philippine women's

movement in the 1990s revolve around the adoption of the Anti-Rape Law in
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1997, overturning the colonial-era law on rape that defined the latter as a
crime against chastity, not against person. Such narrow definition of rape
prevented the effective prosecution of rape crimes and placed undue burden
on the victim. Republic Act 8353 or the Anti-Rape Law of 1997 'expanded the
definition of rape, de-gendered it and recognized the existence of marital rape.
It provides that rape is now a public crime, rather than a crime against chastity,
expanded its coverage by recognizing acts such as insertion of any instrument
into the genital or anal orifice of another person as “rape by sexual assault.”
(National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women, 1999: 4.2.2) A
companion measure to the Anti-Rape Law is Republic Act 8505 or the Rape
Victim Assistance and Protection Act, which provides for psychological, legal,
medical and health assistance towards rape victims, ensures the safety of
victims, and mandates the training of local police, lawyers, social workers and
the like on human rights, gender sensitivity and legal management of rape
cases (Munez, 2004).
d. Embracing Intersectionality: The Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender (LBT) in the

Women's Movement and the Anti-Discrimination Bill
It was only in the beginning of the 1990s that lesbian women were
recognized and mainstreamed in the women’s movement. The invisibility of
lesbian can be attributed to the main problem of women, the patriarchy.
Women’s movement focus was to change the ideology of patriarchy that exist
in the corporations, civil societies, church, government and even in the
families. Thus. Filipino lesbian does not only experience marginalization and
oppression within the existing influence of patriarchy but also within women’s
movement.
1.5. Gains of the Women's Movement
Over the past decade, women’s empowerment in the Philippines was

commendable. Gender advocates and different institutions made it possible to
implement gender-related policies and programs. The most recent
development is the formal recognition given by CHED through CMO no. 1 of
2015 where it give directives to all higher education to practice gender
mainstreaming in the academe. It was also reported the importance of
participation of women in the government’s flagship program of Grassroots
Participatory budgeting at the LGU level. Moreover, the report recognized
the 'primacy of organizing, especially grassroots women' as an important
component of 'women's empowerment and movement building.' What was
new and significant, according to the report, was that organizations focusing
on human rights, VAW, health, environment and disasters had formed
community-based watch groups and other modalities to address increasing
incidence of abuse in the context of calamities (Pineda & Illo, 2015) Also, the
use of social media was seen as an opportunity to 'strengthen and speed up
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advocacies.
1.6. Legislative Victories of Feminist/Women’s Movement
Year Republic Act Description

(RA) Number
1989 6725 An Act Strengthening the Prohibition on Discrimination
Against Women with Respect to Terms and Conditions of
Employment
1990 6949 An Act To Declare March Eight of Every Year as A Working
Special Holiday To Be Known As National Women's Day
6955 Anti-Mail Order Bride Law that outlaws the practice of
matching Filipino women for marriage to foreign nationals
on a mail-order basis
6972 Barangay-Level Total Development and Protection of
Children Act that mandates the establishment of day care
centers in every barangay
1991 7160 Local Government Code of 1991 which introduced a
mechanism for women's participation at the local
government level
1992 7192 Women in Development and Nation Building Act provided
the legal basis for equal opportunities for women and men
7322 Act increasing maternity benefits in favor of women
workers in the private sector
7600 Rooming-in and Breast-Feeding Act that provides
incentives to all government and private health institutions
with rooming-in and breastfeeding practices
1993 7655 Increases the minimum wage for domestic workers
1994 7688 An Act giving representation to women in the Social
Security Commission
1995 7877 The Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995 declared all forms
of sexual harassment in the employment environment as
well as in the education and training environment as
unlawful
7941 Party-list System Act
1997 8353 Anti-Rape Law of 1997 broadened the definition of rape
which may be committed by having carnal knowledge of a
woman under certain circumstances or by committing acts
of sexual assault
1998 8505 An Act Providing Assistance and Protection for Rape
Victims, Establishing for the Purpose A Rape Crisis Center
in Every Province and City
2000 8972 Solo Parents' Welfare Act of 2000 aims to develop a
comprehensive program of social development and welfare
services for solo parents and their children
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2003 9208 Amended Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act which strengthens

the power of the authority to prosecute pre-empted acts of
trafficking; eliminates the privacy clause previously enjoyed
by traffickers; penalizes the confiscation of travel
documents such as passports and working permits from
trafficked persons
2004 9262 Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act of
2004 penalizes the commission of violence against women
and their children (VAWC) in the context of domestic
violence or violence in intimate relationships
2009 9710 Magna Carta of Women is a comprehensive women's
rights law that seeks to eliminate discrimination against
women by recognizing, protecting, fulfilling and promoting
the rights of Filipino women, especially those in the
marginalized sectors
2012 10354 The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act
of 2012 or the Reproductive Health Law provides for a
national policy on responsible parenthood and reproductive
health
10361 The Domestic Workers Act or Batas Kasambahay institutes
policies for the protection and welfare of domestic workers
2013 10398 Declaring November 25 of every year as 'National
Consciousness day for the Elimination of Violence Against
Women and Children'
History and theory of feminism - CA Water Info. Retrieved from: http://gender.cawater-

info.net/knowledge_base/rubricator/feminism_e.htm
Hega, M., Alphora, C., & Evangelista, S. (2017). Feminism and the Women's
Movement in the Philippines: Struggles, Advances, and Challenges.
Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. Retrieved from: https://library.fes.de/pdf-
files/bueros/philippinen/14072.pdf
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Activity 31. Let’s evaluate your learning. You need the determine the value of each
statement whether it is correct or not. If the statement is correct write “True”.
Conversely, if the statement is incorrect write “False” and modify the word/phrases in
the sentence to correct the statement.
1 Socialist and Marxist feminism believe that in order to
achieve gender equality, it must be through the legal and politcal reform.
2. Second-wave feminism is the expansion of the political
right’s movement of the firs-wave feminism. It campaigned for the inclusion of race
and other cultural factors on veiwing feminity.
3. Radical feminism advocates for the right of women to
abortions.
4. Anarcha-feminism believes that those people in power are
able to take advantage of women distinctly because they are seen as passive and
rather helpless.
5. Women labor participation rate is equal to the population
rate.
6. In the late 1980’s, women’s movement incorporates
specific issues such as rape that were once ignored.
7 MAKIBAKA’s brand of leadership become instrumental in
the creation of Women’s Action Network for Development.
8. The R.A. 7877 or the Anti-Rape Law broadened the
definition of rape which may be committed by having carnal knowledge of a woman
under certain circumstances or by committing acts of sexual assault.
9. Imperialism refers to the way of governing in which large
or powerful countries seek to extend their authority beyond their borders.
10. The Philippines ranked the 7 th place in the Global
Gender Gap Index in 2015.
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researchers.
1. What do you mean by the feminist phase “Personal is Political?”
2. In the legislative arena today, there are more laws advancing women’s
interest compared to men. Do you think it’s unfair? Why or why not?
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3. How does feminist movement reconceptualize development?
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1. Feminist activists have campaigned for women's legal rights (rights of contract,
property rights, voting rights); for women's right to bodily integrity and autonomy,
for abortion rights, and for reproductive rights (including access to contraception
and quality prenatal care); for protection of women and girls from domestic
violence, sexual harassment and rape; for workplace rights, including maternity
leave and equal pay; against misogyny; and against other forms of gender-specific
discrimination against women
2. The global feminist movement can be categorized in to three phases: first-wave

feminism, second-wave feminism and third-wave feminism. These movement
greatly contributes to the rights and privileges women enjoying today. It helps how
we understand gender dynamics in relation to development.
3. The Philippine experience was rooted back in the precolonial times where
babaylan was portrayed to be strong leader and not subservient to datu. Over the
course of the movement, broad issues like right to suffrage and even personal
issues like gender-based violence were included in their plight. These efforts
resulted to the close gap in gender in the country and more policies that favors
women’s interest.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Feminism Imperialism Feudalism Bureaucrat

capitalism
First-wave Second-wave Third-wave feminism Anarcha-feminism
feminism feminism
Socialist and Liberal Feminism Black Feminism Ecofeminism
Marxist
Feminism
Post-colonial
feminism
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ULOc: Examine the environmental movements and issues linked to developmental discourse
To meet the ULOc, the following are terms are defined for you to have an
encounter these terms as you go through environmental movments. Please refer to
1. Environmentalism - meaning a social struggle over crucial natural resources and,

simultaneously, a struggle over the symbolic power to define environmental
responsibilities and how environmental problems should be understood and solved.
In this part you need to understand characteristics of environmental movements in

order to perform the ULOc. Please note that you are not limited to refer to these
resources exclusively. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books, research
articles, and other resources that are available in the university’s library e.g., ebrary,
1. Environmental movements - environmental movements are a people's protest for

protecting the natural environment from degradation, decay and destruction by
various activities of human beings and for promoting the development of the fragile
ecosystem, which is required for human development. In short, an environmental
movement may be conceived as the organized political expression of
environmentalism
1.1. May also defined as loose, noninstitutionalized network that includes, as well as
individuals and groups who have no organizational affiliation, organizations of varying
degrees of formality, that is engaged in collective action, and that is motivated by
shared identity or, at least, shared environmental concern.
1.2. Evolution and Development of Environmental Movements
The modern environmental movements developed sometimes in the second half of

the 1960s in Europe and North America. Its origin dates back to the 1960s, there, in
the wake of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring(1962), the Torrey Canyon Oil Tanker
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Disaster (1967), Paul Ehrlich's The Population Bomb (1968) and the First Earth Day
(of 1970), the concern over human use and abuse of environment proliferated. These
may be regarded as the founding blocks of the modern environmental movement.
During the early years, the environmental movements were the preserves of relatively
small numbers of radical activists such as those associated with the environmental
groups- Friends of the Earth and Green Peace (both founded in 1971). Then on,
several environmental movements originated, developed, diversified and proliferated
across the global plank that it has become a more mainstream political concern.
Today, an environmental movement exists as an extremely large and heterogeneous
movement, which can be examined in terms of its different constituent groups, their
favored political tactics, their ideological orientations, and the number and scale of
their environmental concern.
1.3. Features and Characteristics of the Environmental Movements
1. Conceptually, the 'environmental movement' is an 'envelop' term. This is

because it encompasses a variety of socially and discursively
constructed' ideologies and actions, theories and practices. Hence, its
understanding warrants the unpacking of the envelop and exploring its
contents.
2. Environmental movements are not spontaneous developments; the
origin; growth and development of environmental movements cannot be
attributed to -a single factor \within a given temporal specific. Like other
new social movements, the environmental movements too have complex
roots. The formation of environmental movements, therefore, does not
owe- to a single issue or a sudden crisis
3. The environmental movements are not elitist movements in an excluding
sense, nor they are mass movements comparable to· those seeking
economic or political reforms. Its participants cut across social and
economic classes.
4. Most of the environmental movements are generally non-class,
nonpolitical, non-violent and non-revolutionary democratic mobilizations.
5. The environmental movements are characterized by a diversity of
organizations, certain common orientations, varying emphases and
strategies and multifarious strands of ideologies because, ideologically,
ecologism is still 'thin' with a soft and developing conceptual core. They
are also headed by many. leaders or they have many centers of
leadership, which is not organized in a hierarchy.
6. The environmental movements are characterized by their material,
political and ideological expressions. In the Indian context, the material
context is provided by the wide ranging shortages of, threats to, and
struggles over natural resources. The political expression has been the
organization by social action groups of the victims of environmental
degradations. The crusading Gandhian, the Marxists, the appropriate
technologists the ideology of conservation and the perspective of
indigenous ecological management, and eco-feminism.
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7. The environmental movement are a social force attempting to shape the

world's future, although the movements contains several paradoxes and
contradictions.
8. Environmental movements mostly oppose the capitalization of nature by
the market system and the. state control over natural resources.
9. Environmental movements are the responses to systemic contradictions.
Whether pursuing post- material values or material requirements of life
(in the South), the environmental movements are endowed with a
generalized radicalism that is directed at the system as a whole.
10. The environmental movements are also characterized by their dynamism
and they are transformative in nature.
11. In the domain of theory, the environmental movements have
demonstrated the ultimate unity of science. It ~as drawn the attention of
a great diversity of scientific disciplines thereby offering occasion for the
development of an interdisciplinary collaboration. No other area of
human concern has drawn a parallel diversity of scientific disciplines
towards its understanding.
12. The environmental movements are also characterized by its inherent,
weaknesses and limitations. The environmental movements; and for that
matter the literature on it, is handicapped by ambiguity.
13. The environmental movements in the Third World quite often take the
form of anti-state agitations. This is because most of the movements
owe their origin to the capitalization of nature by the market system,
which is quite often mediated by the 'state.
14. The environmental movements have a materialistic form of expression,
focusing on the defense of environmental resources, which are needed
for survival and livelihood.
15. The environmental movements are quite often simultaneously economic
(protecting livelihoods) and cultural, resisting displacement from spaces
that carry their identity, belief systems and their ways of living.
1.4. Environmental issues and its link to development of the Philippines.
1.4.1. Why environment matters to Philippines development?
a. Firstly, there is international consensus that poverty can no longer

be measured in simple financial units (dollars-per-day) or food security
measures (cost-of-food-basket) alone. The Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) describe many dimensions of poverty beyond income and food, each
of which include environmental deprivations. The poorest people worldwide –
and in the Philippines – describe their poverty not just in financial terms but
also in terms of environmental deprivations. They describe a lack of access to
clean water and sanitation for health; lack of farm-to-market roads and
electricity; poor soils and diminished forest cover threatening land-based
livelihoods; exposure to environmental hazards; and so on. Understanding of
such wider dimensions of poverty is highly incomplete, however, and
consequently they are too rarely included in development or poverty reduction
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policies, plans, targets and initiatives.
b. Secondly, there is a growing understanding that development

patterns dominated by economic growth alone can become damaging. Growth
and development are not interchangeable. While economic growth in the right
places and within ecological limits is a contributor to development, any
development which is continually dominated by growth objectives is
unsustainable. A recent paper in the scientific journal, Nature (2009) ,
indicated that global economic activity has already breached three of nine
‘planetary boundaries’: (a.) biodiversity is being destroyed at 10-100 times the
natural extinction rate (b.) the nitrogen cycle is being disrupted by excessive
pollution through fertilizer run-off, and other pollutants (c.) and climate change
has already occurred to an extent that built-in temperature rises will increase
the incidence of floods, droughts and temperature stress, and associated
health and livelihood problems, especially in tropical zones.
Exceeding each one of these boundaries – or experiencing the ‘side-

effects of growth’ – tends to affect poorer people most. Poor people cannot
afford the physical protection from the ensuing hazards such as pollution and
floods, the substitutes for the foregone environmental services such as clean
water and shelter, or indeed the insurance to compensate for losses. Clearly,
better knowledge and response strategies are needed to minimize
environmental change – or to improve resilience to it. We will look at the
Philippines’ fitness in this regard.
c. Thirdly, there is public and political confusion about what the paths
for improving human wellbeing should be, with the result that both poor people
and ecosystems lose out. Countries with higher levels of GDP tend to have
higher UN Human Development Indices: higher educational levels, life
expectancy, better health, and so on, as well as a higher income per day.
From this we might conclude that, for poorer countries and people at least,
economic growth needs to be accelerated if the urge for ’modernization’ is to
be satisfied. Until such time that true wealth indicators – of clean fresh air,
pesticide-free organic food, social capital, and traditional healing – are also
popularized, rural areas will always be bluntly judged as poor, their poverty
being measured by their lack of access to formal services and cash income
1.4.2. Linked development and environmental issues facing the Philippines
a. Approximately 33 per cent of Filipinos live below the poverty line.

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) concludes that Philippines’ overall
economic growth, while significant, has translated into disappointingly little
poverty reduction in recent years. The benefits of prevailing non-inclusive
growth patterns are enjoyed by elites more than the majority. Income
inequality in the Philippines is among the highest in South East Asia, with a
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Gini coefficient per capita income of 0.45.
b. The Philippines is ranked 105th out of 182 countries in the Human

Development Index (HDI) and 54th among 135 countries in the Human
Poverty Index (HPI). Both of these measure factors beyond the standard cash
income and food basket criteria. The HDI measures human development in
three dimensions: living a long and healthy life (measured by life expectancy);
being educated (measured by adult literacy and gross enrolment in education);
and having a decent standard of living (measured by purchasing power parity
and income). The HPI ranks countries based on the probability of not surviving
to age 40, the adult literacy rate, people not using an improved water source,
and percentage of children underweight for age. It is noteworthy that in the
same year, the Philippines ranks 4th highest in remittances, with US$ 16,291
million being transferred, with an average US$ 185 per person remittance. The
high level of cash remittances with little human development suggests that
cash is not enough to meet immediate needs and that there are few incentives
for migrants to invest in longer-term developmental activities.
c. Poverty is unevenly distributed and is more severe and widespread

in rural areas than in urban areas, with a poverty incidence of almost 49 per
cent compared to 19 per cent. The rural poor live predominantly in Mindanao
and the Visayas, depending primarily on subsistence farming and fishing for a
livelihood. The urban poor are concentrated in Luzon. Mindanao Island has
the highest poverty incidence at 38.8 per cent but Luzon Island has the
highest number of poor families: (almost 2 million). The four provinces of the
Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) are amongst the ten
poorest provinces, making this region the poorest in the country. The Ifugao
province of the Cordillera Autonomous Region (CAR) of Luzon, home to one
of the largest indigenous populations, is also among those provinces with
severe poverty. Communities in these two regions, ARMM and CAR, are
particularly isolated and under-serviced, living amid uncertainty and conflict
and benefitting little from investment in economic or social infrastructure.
However, both ARMM and CAR are primarily conflict areas, meaning they lack
more than simply education and health facilities or livelihood opportunities.
ARMM autonomy has so far done little to tackle poverty and illegal activities
have caused environmental degradation.
d. The government’s own assessment of the sustainability of key

environmental assets is also not favorable. The DENR itself has declared that,
“the Philippines suffers from severe deforestation, declining fish production
and overflowing trash. Over 100,000 hectares of forests are lost every year.
About 70 per cent of coral reefs are destroyed – overfishing and destructive
fishing practices threaten the country’s food security. Less than 40 per cent of
solid waste is collected; the rest clogs rivers and streets. Almost 58 per cent of
all groundwater is contaminated, with only seven per cent of domestic
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effluents being managed.” Although forests in the Philippines have increased

in area, much is secondary growth forests, agro-forestry farms and tree
plantations. Forest biodiversity has been reduced: the Philippines is one of
seventeen megadiverse countries in the world but it is also one of the hottest
’hot spots’ for habitat destruction, and only 800,000 hectares of virgin forest
are left. This is the outcome of both legal and illegal logging in the 1970s,
which generated substantial revenues for the country. The DENR’s own
environmental sustainability assessment identifies official ratings from ‘poor’ to
‘bad’ (see Table 1). Here the lack of good data is worrying, however,
especially in relation to many years of environmental advocacy.
e. A majority of the Philippines’ poor people depend directly upon the

quantity and quality of environmental assets that can support their livelihoods.
An estimated two-thirds of the Philippine population depends directly on
natural resources for a living – the agriculture and fisheries sectors alone
contributing 20 per cent to GDP and directly employing about 40 per cent of
the labor force.
f. Consequently, environmental deprivations and vulnerabilities make

up a large part of how people experience poverty. Environmental degradation
in the Philippines can be hugely damaging to poor people’s livelihoods, as well
as to the economy as a whole. Below are four broad groups of people whose
poverty has distinct linkages to environmental conditions: the upland, lowland,
coastal and urban poor.
(1) The upland poor: the upland poor, often referred to as the
‘poorest of the poor’, primarily consist of cultural or tribal communities,
slash-and-burn shifting cultivators or kaingineros and rice and corn
farmers who have been forced to resettle due to lack of security of
tenure in agricultural areas. They are typically subsistence farmers,
often with no alternative source of income. These farmers usually
cultivate informally tenured land, have extremely limited access to
infrastructure, market and social resources and face high food
insecurity due to the seasonal availability of crops. They live in areas
operationally defined as areas with a slope of 18 degrees or more,
which constitutes just over half of the land in the Philippines.
(2.) The lowland poor: the lowland poor consist of landless

agricultural workers and small farm owners and cultivators who own
between one and three hectares. The landless have neither ownership
nor farming rights and typically earn a living from the sale of labor to
either plantations or smaller farms. While agriculture is the major
source of income for the lowland poor, off-farm income opportunities,
particularly seasonal migration to urban centers by household heads,
play a role. Many of the environmental concerns that affect the
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livelihoods of the lowland poor are externalities of upland

environmental degradation. Denudation of upland watersheds in turn
degrades irrigation infrastructure, thus irrigated land has become
partially rain-fed, which in turn has reduced rice yields. Upper
watershed erosion and degradation leads to an average annual loss of
4,200 hectares of wet season irrigated land and 2,700 hectares dry
season irrigated land. This amounts to a production loss of
approximately 24,000 tons annually. The prevalence of uncultivable
land has also resulted in increased migration of lowland farmers to
upland areas. Lowland farmers are also under pressure from
population pressure and competition for land and resources from large-
scale commercial enterprises.
(3.) The coastal poor: approximately two thirds of the country’s

population resides in coastal areas. Of the over one million fishing
labor force, over 60 per cent are engaged in small-scale and
subsistence municipal fishing. The majority of municipal fishers are
poor, with about 1.3 million Filipinos deriving direct income from small-
scale fishing. These fishermen do not use boats, or they use boats
weighing less than three tones, operate in inland waters and marine
waters within three miles of the coast, and receive low yields per unit
effort. Given the importance of municipal fishing to the livelihoods of
the coastal poor and the Filipino economy, the extent of coastal and
marine resource degradation affecting fisheries is staggering. Nearly
half of coral reefs, which produce 10 to 15 per cent of the country’s
marine fishery, are under high threat from destructive fishing methods
such as blast, cyanide, near-shore trawling and Muro-ami, siltation
coming from denuded watersheds and pollution from domestic and
agricultural waste. Over-fishing is evident from the decrease in
municipal fisheries and the rate of increase in production of commercial
fisheries. The ADB estimates that the economic loss of over-fishing is
Ph6.5 billion (US$125 million) annually in lost fish catch. The livelihood
of poor fishers is further threatened by the encroachment of illegal
commercial fishing in municipal waters.
(4.) The urban poor: the rapid urbanization of the Philippines,

with more than two million people being added to the urban population
annually, is straining the capability of the country to provide adequate
infrastructure, social services and urban environmental infrastructure.
Together with a lack of rights for recent migrants into cities, increasing
numbers are obliged to live in slums which are very poorly serviced.
This in turn increases the vulnerability of the poor to the health impacts
of air and water pollution. In urban areas, the poor suffer
disproportionately more from exposure to indoor and outdoor pollution
and water pollution because they lack the resources to take
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preventative or curative measures; indeed, the Philippines has one of

the highest rates of respiratory illnesses amongst urban populations. In
Manila, Tuberculosis incidents per 1,000 residents are 159 times
higher in poor settlements than in the rest of the city
g. We can also look at poverty/environment links in terms of the

sectors in which people find their livelihood – the poorest being fishermen and
small farmers, with some alarming problems among informal miners too.
h. The institutions through which poor people access, use, benefit

from, and sometimes degrade environmental assets are often informal and
difficult to reach. The informal economy, in which poor people are key players,
can provide a safety net in times of difficulty. This may be more important than
the formal institutions, which are the subject of much poverty and
environmental policy. Different measures need to be available to encourage
good practice in the informal economy – such as education, access to
innovations and small loans.
i. The Philippines continues to suffer from environmental hazards such

as floods, typhoons and climate change, which also affect poor groups
disproportionately. The Philippines experiences on average twenty (20)
tropical typhoons annually and ranks third (3 rd) in terms of people risk to
seasonal weather events.
j. Governance factors contribute to the continuing persistence of both

poverty and environmental problems, as well as the limited effectiveness of
most anti-poverty responses.
k. Too few poor people benefit from the country’s rich natural
resources – which are sometimes extracted from right under their own feet or
above their heads. From the perspective of poor people, further governance
deficits mean that – irrespective of the quality of environmental assets to
sustain livelihoods, or of the particular threat posed by environmental hazards
– they cannot use these resources, protect themselves from hazards, or
counter more powerful players. The poor usually lose out on a proportionate
share of benefits from natural resource wealth. This is due to several factors:
the limited capacity of poor people, as claim holders, to exercise their rights
and engage with state institutions; prevailing competition policy; and the
perceived unresponsive capacity of the State.
l. A significant proportion of the rural poor are landless and have no

legal rights to access natural resources from their surroundings. This is
especially true for those occupying the mountains with slopes of 18 per cent
and above, which are by law generally classified as forest lands. The security
of land and resource tenure is a fundamental requirement for building
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sustainable NRM-based livelihood programs, as it provides the necessary

incentive structure to encourage a long-term commitment.
m. Particular opportunities and constraints face the estimated nine to

twelve million indigenous people in the Philippines, many of whom are
amongst the poorest and most marginalized in the population. After decades
of struggle by indigenous peoples, the Indigenous People’s Rights Act (IPRA)
was passed in 1997. This is the first time that a state in the region explicitly
recognized the rights of indigenous people to their ancestral domains, to self-
determination, and to the free exercise of their culture.
n. Encouraged by interest groups and advocates, a number of LGUs

have tended to become myopic in their views. This has occurred precisely at a
time when broader views – of the links between poverty, and between local,
national and domestic markets – should be shaping local government action.
Instead, the attitude has sometimes been one of “we know more what
direction we would like our provinces to take, because we are more
knowledgeable about conditions in our areas.” The disconnect between
national policies, plans and programs with those at the local levels is such that
– even if the national provisions are clear – they are not implemented at local
level.
Andharia, J. & Sengupta, C. (n.d.). The Environmental Movement: Global Issues and
the Indian Reality. Retrieved from:
http://ijsw.tiss.edu/greenstone/collect/ijsw/index/assoc/HASH01ed/c5c4
171f.dir/doc.pdf
Cuevas, Sining & Peterson, Ann & Robinson, Cathy & Morrison, Tiffany. (2015).
Challenges in Mainstreaming Climate Change Adaptation into Local
Land Use Planning: Evidence from Albay, Philippines. The
International Journal of Climate Change: Impacts and Responses. 7.
45-65. 10.18848/1835-7156/CGP/v07i03/37246.
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Activity 33. Let’s evaluate your learning. Briefly discuss your answer in each item.
1. How does environmental movement began?

_
2. When can we consider a movement/activity an environmental movement?
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researchers.
1. Discuss the rationale and contributions of environmental movement in Palawan,

Philippines. What are the strategies employed by activist and how does it contribute
to the welfare of the local and indigenous people? You can watch the video
documentary at https://youtu.be/j4Q0lJAITk
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2. How does environmental movement reconceptualize development? What’s the

relationship between environmental issues and development?
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Environmental movements are a people's protest for protecting the natural environment
from degradation, decay and destruction by various activities of human beings and for
promoting the development of the fragile ecosystem, which is required for human
development. In short, an environmental movement may be conceived as the organized
political expression of environmentalism.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Environmentalism Ecosystem Non-institutionalized Green Peace

network movement
Sustainability
ULOd: Examine the LGBTQI++ movements and issues in developmental discourse
To meet the ULOd, the following are terms are defined for you to have an
encounter these terms as you go through LGBTQ+ movements. Please refer to these
1. Gender Identity - is an internal sense or awareness. For most people, it can be

described as a kind of man-ness or woman-ness, so to speak. But gender is not
limited to two. It’s not binary. There are many more genders than man and woman
(some people use terms like androgynous, gender queer, butch, femme, boi, third
gender, and the list goes on and on).
People whose gender and assigned sex are the same (i.e. someone
who was male at birth and identifies as a man) are called cisgender (cis is
borrowed from chemistry, meaning same). People whose assigned sex and
gender are different are called transgender (trans is borrowed from chemistry,
meaning different). The term assigned sex is used instead of just sex because
doctors will usually determine a baby to be either male or female even though
the reality is not always that definite. People who have chromosomes,
hormonal profiles or genitals that are not typically male or female are called
intersex. Historically, intersex babies have been operated on and/or assigned
one of the two binary sexes at birth.
Sometimes, trans* is used as an umbrella term for transsexual and

transgender, where the asterisk acts as a wild card. There is not one single,
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consistent definition for each of these terms. Every community and every
individual may define them differently. Trans is an identity that someone
chooses for themselves, and not something you can tell or determine in
others. Some trans people choose to change their bodies (through hormones
or surgical operations), and some do not. Disclosure of trans identity can bring
many different social consequences, especially in schools, and should always
be that individual’s own decision.
2. Gender Expression - While gender identity is internal, gender expression is how a

person publicly presents their gender. This can include behavior and outward
appearance such as how someone dresses, wears their hair, if they use make-up,
their body language and their voice.
Someone else may identify as a woman and dress in a traditionally

masculine way. Another may identify as neither a man nor a woman and
playfully incorporate traditionally masculine and feminine elements in how they
present. Or dress in an androgynous fashion. It’s important to remember that
gender identity and gender expression are not necessarily related.
2. Sexual Orientation - Sexual orientation refers to a person’s emotional and/or sexual

attraction to others. Sexuality is complex and attraction can manifest very differently
for different people. Categories are commonly used to understand our attractions, but
aren’t always inclusive of the vast variety of expression that make up human
sexuality.
Language about sexuality is constantly evolving and deserves our

continued attention and learning. Some common terms today: People who are
attracted to a different gender are referred to as heterosexual or straight.
People who are attracted to people of the same gender are referred to as
lesbian (a woman attracted to other women) and gay (a man attracted to other
men). Some people, however, use the term gay for all same-gender attraction
A person who is attracted to both men and women may identify as

bisexual, and someone who is attracted to all genders may identify as
pansexual. Some people prefer to identify as queer, instead of these other
terms. Some people use queer for themselves as a political statement against
the oppression to which they have been subjected and/or because it’s a
broader, umbrella term. Some aboriginal and indigenous people use the term
two-spirit. People who are uncertain about their sexual orientation are
sometimes referred to as questioning. Some people do not have sexual
attraction or desire, and they may identify as asexual.
In this part you need to understand paradigms and characteristics LGBTQI++

in order to perform the ULOd. Please note that you are not limited to refer to these
resources exclusively. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books, research
articles, and other resources that are available in the university’s library e.g., ebrary,
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1. LGBTQI (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex) activist groups, and
a growing portion of major social institutions such as academia and the news media,
have come to adopt a view of sexual orientation that we might call the “gay identity”
paradigm. The foundations of this paradigm are these beliefs:
1. Sexual orientation is an innate personal characteristic, like race.
2. People are born either gay, lesbian, bisexual, or straight.
3. Homosexual people can never become heterosexual.
4. Being homosexual is essentially no different from being straight, except for
the gender to which one is sexually attracted.
5. There is no harm in being homosexual.
Based on these beliefs (or, in many cases, unspoken presuppositions),
LGBTQI++ activist groups declare, and some others have come to accept, that for
someone to believe that heterosexuality is preferable to homosexuality is equivalent
to believing that one race is superior to another, and therefore represents a form of
bigotry and even “hate” toward individuals who identify as homosexual.
1.1. History of LGBTQI++ visibility in the Philippines
The first account of women and gender crossing men playing major
roles in the Philippine society was the Babaylan, a priestess who was a bounty
of knowledge and spirituality. The babaylan even had the power to take
charge of the barangay (community) in the absence of the datu (community
leader). There were some babaylan who were male called asog, who were
free to have homosexual relations without societal judgement. The asog were
not cross dressers, however. They were gender crossers as they were granted
the same spiritual recognition as the female babaylan. The asog lead the
revolts against the oppression of the Spanish colonial period with various
incantations to boost the revolt’s strength.
During the 300 year Spanish colonization of the Philippines, a change
in ideology was imminent. From the indigenous matriarchy, the Spanish
introduced the patriarchy and the machismo concept which made gender
crossing a ridiculed practice. It was not long until even effeminate men were
also looked down upon, developing regional vernacular for what the Tagalog
call bakla (gay man, also meant confused and cowardly). The American
colonization period further reinforced of Western conceptualizations of gender
and sexuality, cementing it in formal education
Well after the Second World War, gay rights activist Justo established
the Home of the Golden Gays in 1975. Originally intended to serve as a home
for elderly gay men who have been kicked out by their families, mostly due to
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their lack of financial contribution. It has grown into a loving community

composed of vibrant and unique individuals. Unfortunately, the death of Justo
in 2012 led to the closing of the home.
The women’s movement in the 1980s was a highlight in the struggle of
the lesbian community to be visible in the public. The lesbian community has
felt invisible and ignored in the past few decades. With lesbian concerns being
subsumed under women’s and feminist studies which was previously
heterosexual in nature, and under the gay movement which previously
prominently conceptualized lesbian women as female version of homosexual
men. As such the lesbian community wanted their voices to be heard in the
fight against the dictatorship. Eventually, the underground women’s
organization MAKIBAKA released a position paper including sexual orientation
issues in the movement. Later in the 1990s the issue of gender and sexuality
became a major concern in the women’s movement, leading to the formation
of The Lesbian Collective, LESBOND, the media advocacy group Can’t Live in
the Closet, and the first National Lesbian Rights Conference
One of the more memorable moments in the history of the LGBT
movement in the Philippines was the first LGBT Pride March on June 26, 1994
to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the Stonewall Riot. The march was
not only the first gay pride march in the Philippines, but in Asia. This event was
organized by the Progressive Organization of Gays in the Philippines
(PROGAY Philippines) and the Metropolitan Community Church (MCC)
Manila. The march was small in number, with 60 participants in fact. As they
marched from EDSA at Quezon Avenue to Quezon Memorial Circle in Quezon
City, it was the first time for the public to see members of the LGBT community
speak out for equality at such a scale
More recently, the Psychological Association of the Philippines (PAP)
released LGBT Non-Discrimination Policy Resolution in October 2011. This
was in response to overwhelming letters, calls, and ethics complaints against
a certified psychologist who recommended conversion therapy for children
who come out as gay or lesbian to achieve a “happy family life”. This policy
statement affirmed the inherent dignity and equality of LGBT individuals as
well as the right to not be discriminated against based on their sexual
orientation, gender identity and expression. This resolution also reinforced the
same position in 1973 viewing same-gender sexual orientations as healthy,
non-disordered variant of human sexuality, love, and relationships. The
resolution was later translated to Tagalog in November, 2014
Some existing Philippine laws are sometimes used to extort LGBT
members while some out right limit gender expression and ignore gender
identity in work environments. Fortunately on June 30, 2016 the first
transgender representative in the congress, Geraldine B. Roman submitted
House Bill 267, otherwise known as the Anti-SOGI Discrimination Act, and is
currently up for approval. Beyond laws and policies, the ordinary members of
the LGBTQ+ community play a significant role in this vision of equality - to
remain visible and fight the stigma
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1.2. The Sustainable Development Goals and LGBTQ Inclusion
1.2.1. Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
Discrimination can lead to poverty, but the reverse is also true. The poorer
someone is, the more they are discriminated against in daily life and the less they can
afford the means of escape, such as migration to a safer neighborhood or more
secure accommodation.
Exclusion and discrimination make it harder for LGBT people to earn money,
stay secure and pursue their goals. This discrimination takes many forms, from a
trans person being limited to insecure and unsafe employment, to a lesbian being
refused access to communal land, to a gay or bi man being denied a loan. Many
LGBT people are also rejected from the family support that most of us rely on. Formal
social assistance can also discriminate by not recognizing same-sex couples or
parents.
EXAMPLE: LGBT people in the Philippines are often barred from higher
education and limited to irregular and low-paying jobs. On the other hand, research
shows that LGBT people who are able to contribute to the household are more
accepted socially and within families (Thoreson 2011).
Recommended Actions:
 Conduct research for a better understanding of how LGBT people are

discriminated against economically.
 Make sure private sector development projects are designed to
address the economic needs of LGBT people.
 Make sure social assistance programs (such as cash-transfers)
recognize the need of LGBT people and provide assistance for the
poorest, in particular by strengthening community feedback
mechanisms.
 Support LGBT people to set up their own businesses
1.2.2. Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.
LGBT exclusion from healthcare is unfortunately not confined to sexual and

reproductive health. LGBT people are poorly served across the sector, due to
discrimination, lack of awareness by health-workers and inappropriate services. For
example, trans people seeking to transition medically can find that provision is either
harmful or non-existent. Also, in some societies where women are not allowed to
access health services independently of male relatives, lesbian and bi women are at a
particular disadvantage. In addition, LGBT people, who face greater mental health
care challenges often due to exclusion and stigma from family and wider society, can
find a lack of appropriate support.
EXAMPLE: Research shows that in India MSM are less likely to access critical
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health services, such as HIV testing, treatment and condoms, due to discrimination by
healthcare providers (Lorway et al, 2014). In Lebanon the mental health of MSM was
found to be directly shaped by the experience of stigma in their family, and in their
schools, universities and work places (Wagner et al., 2013)
Make sure all healthcare services, whether general, mental or sexual

and reproductive, include LGBT people by:
 Putting LGBT-inclusive anti-discrimination policies in place.

 Training healthcare providers to understand the needs of LGBT people
and respond effectively.
 Create outreach health services for LGBT people who are unable to
leave their homes, due to discrimination or exclusion. Develop
services that meet the specifi c needs of LGBT people,
including:
 HIV and other STI prevention, treatment, care and support services for
all LGBT people.
 Safe-spaces and services that address the wider health needs of
LGBT people.
 Services for trans people to transition safely
1.2.3. Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality of education and promote
lifelong learning opportunities for all.
In schools and universities around the world, young people are bullied or
excluded by teachers and peers, because they are (or are perceived to be) LGBT or
questioning their sexual orientation or gender identity. Some fi nd it impossible to
continue with their studies and leave prematurely, while others might suffer in silence
and get poor results, in turn affecting their future prospects. For some, the impact of
all this on their mental health and well-being will last well beyond their student years.
However, when schools and universities promote human rights for all and
profile positive LGBT role models, harmful social attitudes can be challenged before
they become fixed. All young people are then able to learn in a safe and enabling
environment and become equipped for the future.
EXAMPLE: LGBT youth in Brazil who were ‘out’ at school suffered the most
severe forms of physical violence and social discrimination, and represented the
highest number of students who reported suicidal thoughts (Teixeira-Filho et al.,
2011).
 Provide guidance and training for teachers and counsellors on how to

deal sensitively with LGBT students and students who are questioning
their sexual orientation and/or gender identity.
 Adopt a zero-tolerance policy towards homophobic, biophobic and
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transphobic bullying.
 Make sure that all teaching curricula are LGBT-inclusive and profile
positive LGBT role models.
 Make sure that all sexual and reproductive education covers the
specific needs of LGBT students and those who are questioning their
sexual orientation and/or gender identity.
 Promote a culture of non-discrimination and acceptance (in schools,
universities and wider society), emphasizing that LGBT rights are
human rights
1.2.4. Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
Lesbian, bi and trans women can experience multiple discrimination and

violence, because of their intersecting LGBT status and gender. For example, while
women in general are taken less seriously than men when reporting crimes to the
authorities, they will be taken even less seriously if they are identified as a lesbian or
bi
Sadly, instead of helping, development programs can reinforce the inequalities

that LBT women face, by only providing support to opposite-sex couples and families.
In addition, these programs often work with a narrow definition of ‘gender’ that is not
trans-inclusive. However, Goal 5 calls for an end to all discrimination and violence
against women and girls, which includes lesbophobia, biphobia and transphobia.
At the same time, much more needs to be done to tackle harmful gender
stereotypes that limit all people from being themselves and pursuing their goals.
Gender-based violence is often driven by a desire to punish people who don’t
conform to gender norms (OHCHR 2011) and, as a result, male and non-binary
people who move away from these norms are also targeted.
Countering these problems requires a careful approach: working with the

whole community to address gender stereotypes, but also prioritizing support for LBT
women, as they are most affected by gender-based discrimination and violence.
EXAMPLE: In 2014, ActionAid surveyed women and girls in nine townships in
South Africa, who were mostly lesbian or bi. Only 12% felt safe from verbal and
physical abuse in their neighborhoods and 27% said they never felt safe.
 Make sure that all programs working on gender equality and violence
against women and girls address the particular issues faced by
lesbian, bi and trans women.
 Make sure that funding grants prioritize organizations led by LBT
women.
 Expand the definition of ‘gender’ used in policies and programs to
become fully trans-inclusive.
 Create programs that challenge harmful gender norms more widely,
through addressing the impact of such norms on male and non-binary
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people, as well as the wider population.
1.2.5. Goal 10: Reduce Inequality within and among countries.
Discrimination against LGBT people is often reinforced by laws, policies and

practices that either fail to take LGBT needs into account or deliberately exclude
them. These laws, policies and practices reinforce negative social attitudes, and
encourage backlash against the LGBT communities calling for equality.
Globally, the list of discriminatory laws and policies is vast. It includes:
 Requiring trans people to undergo forced sterilization before they can

change their legal gender
 Failing to provide opportunities for trans people to change their legal
gender
 Making same-sex relations illegal
 Forbidding LGBT groups to form non-governmental organizations and
publicly campaign for their rights
 Excluding same-sex couples and trans people from accessing social
services
EXAMPLE: Sex with someone of the same sex is illegal in 75 countries, and
punishable by death in 10. Just 55 countries recognize trans peoples’ rights to change
their name and gender on official documents.
 Fund LGBT groups working for an end to discriminatory laws, policies

and practices.
 Support campaigns, led by LGBT groups, that call for an end to
discriminatory laws and policies.
 Make sure everyone in your organization understands that the phrase
‘other status’ in Target 10.2 includes LGBT people and puts it into
practice.
 Make sure that your development partners (whether public, private or
third sector) do not discriminate, in line with Target 10.2.
1.2.6. Goal 11: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable.
The high rate of LGBT homelessness is directly linked to discrimination.

Rejected or abused by family and bullied by friends, many LGBT people are forced to
leave home. Prejudice from landlords can also mean that many LGBT people find
themselves on the streets.
While homeless, LGBT people, particularly young people and the elderly, are
more vulnerable to physical violence, sexual abuse and physical and mental health
problems. A lack of appropriate support services and poor understanding of their
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needs by providers can lead to them being unable to get help. In some Northern
countries, this problem has been worsened by budget cuts to important services in a
way that particularly impacts LGBT homeless people.
EXAMPLE: Studies from Italy, Turkey and Uganda uncovered high rates of
LGBTI homelessness. They discovered that assumptions of heterosexuality made by
housing providers contributed to young LGBTI people being turned away from
accessing housing services (Botti and D’Ippoliti 2014, Biçmen and Bekiroğulları 2014,
Nyanzi 2013)
 Support and train local government and housing associations to take

 account of the specific needs of LGBT young people.
 Provide specialist services, such as safe houses, for LGBT groups at risk
 of homelessness, particularly young people and the elderly.
 Provide affordable and non-discriminatory housing options for LGBT
 people.
 Take account of the needs of LGBT communities for safe housing.
1.2.7. Goal 16: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development,
provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive
institutions at all levels.
Any form of violent attack against anyone is unacceptable, but LGBT people in
many countries face the additional challenge of police and security services refusing
to take their reports of violence seriously. In some contexts, the police and security
services that are meant to protect instead attack and harass LGBT people, especially
where there are discriminatory laws in place.
Where LGBT people cannot rely on the state’s protection, they do not report
violence and death threats for fear that they themselves might be arrested.
Homophobic, transphobic and biphobic attitudes in the media and legal system, along
with laws that prevent civil society groups from speaking out, mean that LGBT people
are highly vulnerable to fundamental human rights abuses.
However, when police and security services are trained in how to deal
sensitively with LGBT hate crime, it can then be possible for them to provide the
proper support.
EXAMPLE: One third of trans people in the EU have experienced violence or
were threatened with violence in the last five years. About two fifths of trans people
who were victims of violence in the last 12 months said they had been violently
attacked three times or more in the same year (EU Agency for Fundamental Rights
2015).
 Make sure that all programs working on policing, the criminal justice
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system and/or civil society actively address LGBT hate crime.

 Provide training on sensitivity and effective response to LGBT
discrimination and hate crime for police, security services and the
criminal justice system, or support those groups already providing such
training.
 Build the capacity of police and/or LGBT groups to document instances
of hate crime against them.
UNDP, USAID (2014). Being LGBT in Asia: The Philippines Country Report.
Bangkok.
Dorey, K. (2016). The Sustainable Development Goals And Lgbt Inclusion. Stonewall
International. Retrieved from:
https://www.stonewall.org.uk/resources/lgbt-inclusion-and-sustainable-
development-goals
Rozul, C.D. (2017. The History of LGBTQ+ Visibility in the Philippines. Retrieved from
http://www.loveyourself.ph/2017/06/the-history-of-lgbtq-visibility-in.html
Activity 35. Let’s evaluate your learning. Fill in the blank the needed word or phrase
in each item.
1. This refers to a propose policy that aims to end
discrimination against LGBTQ.
2. A precolonial person who were effeminate and the first
historical account of gender crossing.
3. It refers to a person’s emotional and/or sexual attraction to
others.
4. It is the external presentation of one’s gender.
5. It’s an institution intended to serve as a home for elderly gay
men who have been kicked out by their families.
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researchers.
1. What do you think will be the social work contribution to the LGBTQ’s plight
against discrimination and promotion of their rights?
2. How does LGBTQ movement reconceptualize development? What’s the

relationship between LGTQ issues to development?
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1. LGBTQ people are poorly served across the sector due to discrimination, lack of
awareness by health-workers and inappropriate services that results to poverty. LGBT
people in many countries face the additional challenge of police and security services
refusing to take their reports of violence seriously. In family context, some are rejected
or abused by family and bullied by friends, many LGBT people are forced to leave
home
2. The above problems call for a movement to change the paradigm of the population
when it comes to the fluidity of gender. Thus, academe and other group of interested
people invest in research. Other activist held an annual event, laws proposing anti-
discrimination is in the process of approval, and promotion of gender-mainstreaming
and gender-responsive policies and activities were made just to promote the cause of
LGBTQ.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Gender Identity Gender Expression Sexual Orientation Discrimination

LGBTQ++
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ULOe: Analyze labor movements and its impact to the developmental discourse
To meet the ULOe, the following are terms are defined for you to have an
encounter these terms as you go through labor movments. Please refer to these
1. Labor Movement – Conceptually, there are two main wings of labor movement;
social movement unionism and political labor movement. However, in
this paper we will refer labor movement as to the former since much of
the labor movement in the country are spearheaded by grassroots
organizations and groups.
The trade union movement, while comprising only about 10%

of the labor force, is the most organized and active component of the
labor movement. The leaders of the trade union movement together
with the intelligentsia form the middle class and the revolutionary
intellectuals (communists, socialists, nationalists, etc.) are the
traditional leaders of the labor movement.
The Philippine labor movement is a social movement of

workers and farmers led by middle class illustrados and socialist
intellectuals. The labor movement is composed of labor organizations
like trade unions, farmers’ associations, cooperatives, and other
sectoral and people’s organizations often called non-government
organizations (NGOs)
2. Trade Union Movement – consists of collective action of working people

developed to represent and campaign for better working conditions and
treatment for their employees, by implementation of labor and
employment laws, from government.
3. Political Labor Movement – It includes a political party that represents the interests
of employees, often known as a labor party or workers party.
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In this part you need to understand issues and characteristics of children’s

rights movement in order to perform the ULOe. Please note that you are not limited to
refer to these resources exclusively. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books,
1. Unionism
` Today, the adverse impact of globalization has thrown unions on the
defensive. Trade union movements in many parts of the world have been in
decline in terms of membership, bargaining power, political power and
influence, and institutional vitality. Indeed, globalization has tremendously
altered the terrain where unions supposedly have the domain in ensuring
that workers’ rights are respected.
Reasons for union membership decline have been attributed to a host

of factors among which are the following:
• increasing global economic competition and capital mobility

• rapid pace of technological innovations in production
• restructuring of national economies from manufacturing to
services
• privatization of public services, rise of contingent employment
arrangements, and
• mounting resistance of employers to unionization.
Beginning in the 1990’s, unions experienced difficulties in union
organizing.
• Even at the early phase of contact building, union organizers

encounter apathy among the workers themselves, as they fear to
be identified by management as union sympathizers much more
as key leaders and thus they might be subjected to any form of
harassment by management.
• Many workers today give more weight to keeping their job than
being a union member if the latter threatens their job security.
• In effect, union avoidance by employers makes union organizing
difficult.
2. Social movement unionism
Below is an attempt to present a summary of SMU as derived from

various sources.
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1. SMU is about trade unions building solidarity alliances and

coalitions, not only with each other (i.e. fellow unions or workers
organizations), but with other groups who are facing similar
interests and problems.
a. These groups include political forces or parties, the informal
sector, community groups, civil society, and others. Example of
problems or interests they might be concerned with are:
privatization, the value added tax, or gender issues.
2. Issues tackled by coalitions are varied, and they go beyond
organizing, collective bargaining, job regulation and other
traditional concerns of the labor movement.
a. The target may be (but not always) increased worker and union
control over the labor process, investments,
subcontracting/outsourcing, and other issues that impact
negatively on labor and the general populace.
b. SMU works on a broader social and political agenda. The aim
generally is to bring about social change or social
transformation
3. SMU entails the internationalism of the labor movement
because alliances go beyond the enterprise, local and national
boundaries. Therefore, information about the struggles of labor
in other parts of the world is vital.
a. Membership in international trade secretariats can serve as a
means to effect such alliances, although these may not be
necessary.
4. Thus, SMU also involves considerable union participation in
transnational network movements.
a. The green movement, women’s liberation, work-life balance,
anti-pollution, food security, eradication or minimization of child
labor, domestic violence, migrant labor issues, anti-poverty, and
antidiscrimination campaigns are examples of such
transnational network movements.
5. SMU is a means to confront the globalization of capital (i.e.,
neoliberal globalization) and production.
a. It is an articulation of the saying: “united we stand, divided we
fall,” and therefore, it can serve as a means to strengthen the
domain of the trade union movement.
6. It is often posed as a viable means to address the union crisis
being felt world-wide.
a. Some strongly believe that it is the only means to avert union
decline.
7. With SMU, there is a greater likelihood of protecting/ advancing
the rights and welfare of weak social classes, medium and
small enterprise workers, informal sector workers as well as
irregular workers, if they are within the ambit of groups forming
SMU alliances.
a. This would depend of course on how strong and persistent the
groups are in advancing their cause.
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8. SMU networks use various forms of collective actions such as

demos, rallies and the like.
a. There are four Cs that serve as instruments to link these
networks: communication, coordination, collaboration and
cooperation; particularly in the sharing of resources. Having
such activities on a sustained basis bring more possibilities for
success.
9. Unions usually provide the leadership among coalition
members of Social Movement Unionism, although there is no
structure of dominance.
a. This means that participating groups are on an equal footing,
but unions are expected to take the lead or initiative in various
activities, especially in those that affect the workers.
10. Coalition-building is not a recent innovation of Social Movement
Unionism since it has formed part of the repertoire of many
unions, worldwide.
a. But the present context is different because of the ever
increasing effects of globalization. In fact, SMU has spurred far-
reaching interests as a means to confront the globalization of
capital (i.e., neoliberal globalization) and production, and as a
means to revitalize unions to many proponents of SMU.
3. Labor movements in the Philippines.

The history of Philippines trade union movement/labor movement
reveals 3 major features – communist infiltration and influence, government
intervention and management domination.
a. The early beginning, 1899-1903
Don Isabelo de los Reyes, the father of the Philippine labor

movement, unified the movement in 1902 under the first labor
federation, the Union Obrera Democratica (UOD) despite the
continuing repression under the American colonial regime. UOD led by
de los Reyes, Dominador Gomez, Lope K. Santos and Hermenegildo
Cruz led to the creation of the Bureau of Labor in 1908 which
recognised labor organisations. The labor movement then became part
of the independence movement.
b. Trade Unionism During the Early American Period, 1905–1920
In 1908, with the UOD experience, the Americans legally

recognised labor unionism through the creation of the Bureau of Labor.
This ended labor union repression. Trade unionism veered towards
political unionism and lobbied for nationalism, early independence and
elections. This was the concept of political unionism that was
advocated by de los Reyes, Gomez and Santos.
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The Congreso Obrero de Filipinas (COF) organised by Lope K.

Santos in 1913 was not very successful since their membership were
mostly agricultural workers who were not qualified to vote. The voting
rights granted to Filipinos in 1906 were limited to property owners and
the literate. De los Reyes and Gomez were elected to the legislative
body not because of the labor movement but because of their being
members of the Filipino upper class elites.
c. Rapid Growth of Trade Unionism And Communism, 1920–1935
The rapid growth of trade and related industries as a result of free

trade policy imposed by the US led to the growth of trade unionism.
Crisanto Evangelista, an original COF member, organised the
Katipunan ng mga Anakpawis in 1929, and later, the Partido
Komunista ng Pilipinas (PKP or Communist Party of the Philippines) in
1930.
President Manuel Quezon to adopt a social justice program in

1935 with the establishment of the Commonwealth. The Social Justice
Program was calculated to win the support of labor since it included an
8-hour labor law, the extension of workmen’s compensation, minimum
wage legislation, the establishments of GSIS and legal protection of
members of ‘legitimate labor unions.’ This program granted only
minimum demands of the tenants and workers and preserved the basic
character of Philippine society which is dominated by dynastic elites.
d. Period of Compulsory Arbitration and Political Unionism, 1935–53
The period 1935 to 1953 was known as the period of compulsory

arbitration and political unionism. Compulsory arbitration under the
Court of Industrial Relations meant the dominant and interventionist
role played by the government in the labor management relations. The
system of compulsory arbitration under the newly established
Commonwealth Government headed by President Quezon was aimed
to weaken the radical labor wing under the Partido Komunista ng
Pilipinas (PKP). As advocated by the PKP, there was a shift to a
radical and militant mode of settling disputes particularly in tenancy
disputes (which accounted for most of the case back logs). This
eventually led to the dominance of political unionism within organised
labor.
i. Pre-War Period, 1935–1941
President Quezon’s Social Justice program enacted new labor

laws which led to the regulation of trade union activities and work
stoppages were minimised. CA 103 created a Court of Industrial
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Relations (CIR) and compulsory arbitration was institutionalised as the

mode of setting labor disputes. CA 213 provided for the following:
• made punishable intimidation or coercion with the intent of

preventing a worker from joining a ‘legitimate labor organisation’
• the regulation of a ‘legitimate labor organisations’ requires the
investigation by the Constabulary of its activities.
In a bid to win the support of labor, President Quezon pardoned

Crisanto Evangelista in 1938. The following year, 1939, the PKP of
Evangelista merged with the Socialist Party of Abad Santos in order to
strengthen its organisation with the coming of the 2nd World War. This
led to the resurgence of communist activities in the Philippines labor
movement.
There were two progressive elites that were leading the labor
movement—the communist revolutionary intellectuals and the
nationalists. The goal of the communists was to change the social
order towards socialism, while that of the nationalists was complete
independence from the USA. The communists took the upper hand in
leading the labor movement because they were more skilled in
agitation and organising which contributed to the strengthening of both
the trade union movement and the labor movement.
ii. War Years
Labor activities were suppressed during the Japanese occupation

but the communists under the leadership of the scientist Vicente Lava
were prepared. They channeled their efforts into guerilla resistance
activities against the Japanese Imperial Army. Under the
HUKBALAHAP, they established a merger with the
socialist/nationalists (Abad Santos and Luis Taruc) and allied with the
conservative Filipino dynastic and middle class elites (led by Quezon)
and the American colonial administration (led by McArthur)
iii. Post-War Period
There was the resurgence of the communist movement within the

labor movement from 1945–1950. The communists initiated the
Committee on Labor Organisation (later Congress of Labor
Organisations or CLO) which became the most dominant labor
federation during the post-war era. Headed by Guillermo Capadocia,
Mariano Balgos and poet-writer Amado V. Hernandez, the CLO usually
reflected the stand of the Communist Party of the Philippines (PKP).
In 1949, the CLO affiliated with the communist-leaning World

Federation of Trade Unions and by 1950, it has 78 affiliate labor
organisations and 100,00 members. The CLO assumed an aggressive
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and militant stand in bargaining for workers against management.
Top leaders of the PKP and the CLO were arrested in 1950. The
Department of Labor cancelled the registration of CLO for being a
communist front. Labor organisations and federations not run by
communists disaffiliated with the CLO and those run by communists
were divided due to stepped-up government surveillance and
repressive activities.
By 1951, the mass-based segment of the labor movement

(peasant and agricultural worker based) was weakened considerably
and organised labor became more concentrated in the modern sector
of the economy. The trade union movement once more became urban
based with membership coming from the industrial worker. The
communists went underground with their military wing renamed
Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan (HMB).
Non-communist segments of the CLO were reorganised under an

environment of strong government intervention into trade union
activities. Among the new federations were:
• Philippine Association of Free Labor Unions (PAFLU, 1951)

organised by Cipriano Cid, former president of CLO.
• National Confederation of Trade Unions (NCFTU) organised by
the under-secretary of Labor who later ran for Senate in 1953
and lost. This signifies the non-existence of a solid labor vote.
• Federation of Free Workers (FFW, 1950) inspired mainly by the
teachings of the Catholic encyclicals through Fr. Walter Hogan,
S.J. and organised by young Ateneans headed by Juan C. Tan.
(Asper, 2002)
• Philippine Trade Unions Council (PTUC) which federated
PAFLU, National Labor Union (NLU), Philippine Labor Unity
Movement (PLUM), National Association of Trade Unions
(NATU), Mindanao Federation of Labor (MLF), Taxi Drivers
Federation, etc. It later affiliated with the International
Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU).
e. Collective Bargaining Era and Economic Unionism, 1953–1965
The labor movement’s demand for less government and foreign

(US) intervention in trade union activities led to the enactment of the
Industrial Peace Act (RA 875 or the Magna Carta of Labor) in 1953.
The Industrial Peace Act featured the following:
• The requirements for registering a union are registration fee,

Constitution and by-laws, sworn anti-communist affidavits of
officers and copy of the last annual financial report of the
union if in existence for more than 1 year.
• Unfair labor practices (ULP) were defined, limited the power of
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the court over wages and working conditions, cases

involving Minimum Wage Law, 8-Hour Law or those
certified by the President as involving national interest and
to issue injunctions in labor disputes.
• Certification election was defined and supervised by the court
to determine the exclusive bargaining agent and to
establish the obligation to bargain collectively.
In 1959, the Katipunang Manggagawang Pilipino was organised to

unify the fragmented trade union movement. It was a failure. In 1953,
the Worker’s Party was organised to field candidates for elections in
Manila. Their candidates lost which once again showed the lack of
solidarity in labor through a unified labor vote.
With the enactment of the 1963 Agricultural Land Reform Code,

the trade union movement expanded its membership among
agricultural workers in the regions. Farm workers were given similar
rights to those enjoyed by the industrial workers, which include the
right to self organisation, minimum wage, 8-hour work, social security,
workmen’s compensation and job security.
In 1965, another concept of labor unity was introduced with the

formation of the Philippine Labor Center (PLC) by Democrito Mendoza.
This concept of one federation- one industry was patterned after the
US system. The PLC started with 7 federations in the transportation,
mining, communications and other industries. This concept, however,
did not gain much ground.
Trade unions during the collective bargaining era were

characterised as fragmented (presence of intra-union rivalries) and
dominated by the lawyers or charismatic leaders. These factors
contributed to a generally weak trade union movement in general and
real gains for the working class were not effectively achieved.
f. Collective Bargaining Within the Framework of Compulsory

Arbitration, 1965 to Present
There was a resurgence of the communist underground
movement with the establishment of a new Communist Party of the
Philippines (CPP) in the 70s under Jose Ma. Sison. This led to the
declaration of Martial Law in 1972 and later, the enactment of the
Labor Code of the Philippines in 1974. The Trade Union Congress of
the Philippines (TUCP) became the labor center to represent labor in
the tripartite system of labor relations in the country under the period of
labor repression. Outside of TUCP however, Kilusang Mayo Uno (May
1 movement, KMU) was organised in 1980 by Felixberto Olalia,
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Cipriano Malonzo and Crispin Beltran (Scipes, 1996)
In 1986, during the post-martial law period, more progressive

groups within TUCP joined a new labor center initiated by the Aquino
administration called the Labor Advisory Consultative Council (LACC)
which included the KMU. KMU later established itself as a labor center
in 1998. Other groups like the FFW, Lakas Manggagawa Labor Center
(LMLC), and the National Confederation of Labor in the Philippines
(NCLP) which included the Bukluran ng Manggagawang Pilipino (BMP)
also followed suit. On record, there are 164 federations and six labor
centers at present. (Bitonio, 1999).
g. The Future of the Labor Movement
Globalization is bringing more threats than opportunities to the

Philippine labor movement. There are several threats since
globalization brings in great changes in technologies which are
characterized by ‘jobless growth’, labor flexibility, higher skill
requirements and more machine intensive production processes. Job
creation in the manufacturing industry subsector has declined and this
is the traditional base of trade unionism. On the other hand, jobs are
increasing in the services sector where organized labor is weakest.
(Ofreneo, 1999 and Bitonio, 1999). Jobs are fast being casualized and
contractualized thereby marginalizing the existence of trade unions.
Added to this, managements are becoming more pro-active and have
become more receptive to union avoidance by competing with union in
providing benefits to the workers.
The new trends and adjustments in the labor movement are

summarized as follows:
• There is a decline in labor militancy and strikes and trade
unions are more cooperative with management in the
implementation of adjustments measures toward
enterprise productivity in exchange for gain sharing
schemes.
• The labor movement is promoting livelihood and labor
entrepreneurship programs in order to create and/or
promote jobs especially among workers in the non-core
manufacturing and service industries and in agri-business
enterprises and plantations.
• There are renewed organizing efforts in the government
sector as a result of privatization and in the informal sector.
• Networking among civil society groups is enhanced for
strengthened pressure politics and other forms of
parliamentary struggles. The trade unions and other civil
society networks have participated in the party list
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elections in Congress and in local governance in

accordance with the Local Government Code.
• There are renewed attempts to unify the fragmented trade
union movement through tactical alliances on national and
local issues affecting labor.
• There are renewed efforts in trade union organizing among
women workers as a result of the increasing labor force
participation among women and among overseas Filipino
workers (OFWs).
• Strengthened institutionalization of tripartism especially
among moderate unions in government agencies and
government-owned and controlled corporations (GOCCs)
and other tripartite bodies.
Aganon, M., Serrano, M. & Certeza, R. (2009). Union Revitalization and Social
Movement Unionism in the Philippines: A handbook. Friedrich Ebert
Stiftung and U.P. School of Labor and Industrial Relations. Retrieved
from: http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/philippinen/07130.pdf
Sibal, Jorge V., A Century of the Philippine Labor Movement, Illawarra Unity - Journal
of the Illawarra Branch of the Australian Society for the Study of Labour
History, 4(1), 2004, 29-41. Retrieved from:
https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=
1005&context=unity
Activity 37. Let’s evaluate your learning. You need the determine the value of each
statement whether it is correct or not. If the statement is correct write “True”.
Conversely, if the statement is incorrect write “False” and modify the word/phrases in
the sentence to correct the statement
1. The labor movement is composed of labor

organizations like trade unions, farmers’ associations, cooperatives, and other
sectoral and people’s organizations often called non-government organizations.
2. Union organizers at an early phase of contact building
encounter indifference among the workers themselves, as they fear to be identified by
management as union sympathizers much more as key leaders and thus they might
be subjected to any form of harassment by management.
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3. Social movement unionism utilize four C’s that serve

as instruments to link the networks: communication, coordination, coalition and
cooperation; particularly in the sharing of resources. Having such activities on a
sustained basis bring more possibilities for success.
4. The Labor Code of the Philippines is a policy that

include 8-hour labor, the extension of workmen’s compensation, minimum wage
legislation among others.
5. Farm workers were given similar rights to those

enjoyed by the industrial workers, which include the right to self-organization,
minimum wage, 8-hour work, social security, workmen’s compensation and job
security through the enactment of the 1963 Agricultural Land Reform Code.
researchers.
1. How did unionism and labor movement reconceptualize development?
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2. For a long period of time, contractualization has been fought for by different
labor groups for it jeopardize the security of tenure among the work force.
What is contractualization? How does it affect the welfare of the labor force?
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1. Labor movement is a collective action of various networks promoting the rights of the
workforce. Along with globalization, which is being characterized by jobless growth, labor
flexibility, higher skill requirements, jobs being casualized and contractualized are some
of the many labor issues that different labor groups try to change.
2. The history of Philippines trade union movement/labor movement reveals 3 major

features – communist infiltration and influence, government intervention and
management domination
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Labor movement Trade union Political movement Social movement

movement unionism
Contractualization Collective
Bargaining
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ULOf: Examine the urban poor movements and its relations to developmental discourse
To meet the ULOf, the following are terms are defined for you to have an
encounter these terms as we you go through urban poor movements. Please refer to
1. Urban poor - refers to individuals or families in urban areas with incomes below the
poverty line as defined by the National Statistical Coordinating
Board(NSCB). They are the underprivileged or homeless sector of
society - the unemployed, underemployed and the irregularly
employed, or who are incapable of meeting the minimum basic needs,
and who live in slums, squatter and resettlement areas, sidewalks,
dumpsites, road right-of-way, cemeteries, unoccupied government or
private lands or along danger zones like railroad tracks, esteros,
riverbanks, high tension wires, or other places in urban areas.
 The urban Poor are integral part of society and are partners in
urbanization and industrialization.
 They help turn the wheel of economy; they are the factory
workers, rank and file government and private employees,
soldiers, lowly paid policemen drivers, vendors, house help
and waiters.
 They are the mass market of industry; A great consumer of
food and medicines, RTW, comics and movies.
 They are source of political power; when they exercise their
right to elect local provincial, regional and national officials.
2. Urban poor organization - refers to voluntary grouping of urban poor with at least
15 members and who are organized along community-
based or occupational-based projects and activities.
3. Community-based organization - refers to an organization within a community, and
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organized along issues and problems common

to the members.
4. Occupation-based organization - refers to an organization with members living

within an urban poor community/ies, having
similar work or livelihood, and organized
primarily along work/livelihood-related issues
and problems.
5. Urban area - refers to all cities regardless of their population density and to
municipalities with a population density of at least 500 persons per
square kilometers.
6. Urbanizing area- refers to sites and lands which, considering present

characteristics and prevailing conditions, display marked and
great potential of becoming an urban area within a period of five
(5) years.
7. Consultation - refers to the constitutionally mandated process whereby the public,

on their own or through peoples’ organizations, is provided an
opportunity to be heard and to participate in the decision-making
process on matters involving the protection and promotion of its
legitimate collective interests, which shall include appropriate
documentation and feedback mechanisms.
8. Accreditation - refers to the process of recognizing an urban poor organization for

purposes of ensuring community action and participation in policy
formulation, program planning, implementation, and evaluation.

rights movement in order to perform the ULOf. Please note that you are not limited to
1. Dimensions of urban poverty
Income is not the only way to define poverty. Deprivation takes many
different forms; and different forms of disadvantage, often in combination, can
cause people to become poor or poorer.
a. Work
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The poorest groups lack the education and skills

essential for finding good work. They can find only
irregular, insecure and low paying jobs, and they fall
deeper into the cycle of poverty.
 They lack of tools, equipment or credit to start small
businesses. Poor-quality, overcrowded, dangerousliving
environments.
 They live in “danger zones” along shorelines and
roadsides, on steep hills, under traffic bridges and in
flood-prone lowlands, where they face disasters both
natural (like typhoons) and man-made (like pollution and
eviction).
b. Living conditions
 They have very poor living conditions in so many

informal settlements. Clean drinking water is an
expensive burden.
 Open defecation, urinary tract and digestive diseases,
and dangers of harassment or assault of women are
some of the worse situation. They the lack of drainage
and garbage collection as sources of disease and pest
infestations and many of the poor cannot afford to buy
medicines or bring their sick to the hospital.
c. Nutrition
 Food sold in informal and other low-income settlements

is of much lower quality than in the higher income areas
of town, and when people do not get enough to eat,
they are less able to work and earn
d. Children and youth
 Public schools are officially free, but the hidden

education costs: transport, informal payments to
schools, uniforms, books and lunch money; lacking
money for these means many children cannot go to
school, or only finish primary education.
e. Legal status
 Many squat illegally on someone else’s land; their

houses, their service connections and their livelihoods
are all illegal and substandard.
 Harassment of the poor in informal settlements by the
police, coercion to pay bribes and denial of the
protection of the law are also common
f. Transport
 Existence of the high costs of transport and the lack of

attention to providing good-quality, low-cost public
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transport.
g. Insecure land and housing
 This is what most clearly separates the poor from the

non-poor. Once even the poorest community gets
secure land and decent housing, then health, income,
jobs, education and status tend to improve. But even
the most active, well-organized community cannot
address its poverty without land security.
h. Political voice
 The lack of political voice as a factor. Individuals and

communities have no power to determine anything, to
ask for anything or to change anything. Many described
a strong, collective, proactive political voice for the poor
as a key part of their solutions to poverty.
To sum up the dimensions we will adopt the factors identified

by Mitlin (2003) that are important in the creation and maintenance of
urban poverty and are of particular relevance to social movements:
 Cash economy. The urban poor enter the labor market

because of the need for cash. Despite the widespread
significance of urban agriculture, money is needed for
basic services, land, “service” payments (to be allowed
to farm, trade and squat), food and clothes.
 Labor markets. The labor market offers low pay to

unskilled and skilled workers, no training opportunities,
few credit opportunities for micro-entrepreneurs, much
job insecurity, and long hours in poor working
conditions. Low pay and little job security make it hard
to invest in securing assets that may offer new
opportunities and greater security. Poor working
conditions increase the likelihood of poor health and
injury.
 Lack of basic services. These are often associated with

the residential location, meaning that the poor spend a
considerable proportion of their income on basic needs
such as water, transport and health services. Lack of
services causes additional difficulties such as the time
taken in securing water or simply in travel to work,
leaving less time for alternative activities. This situation
also increases the risk of ill health. The cost of services,
especially health, creates additional demands on
already overstretched incomes. Lack of effective
policing leaves the poor vulnerable to violence and
exploitation.
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 Discrimination. Mostly in labor and commodity markets,

as well as in residential settlements, increasing the
problems faced by some groups. Such discrimination
makes it even more difficult for individuals and/or
households to secure their livelihoods.
 Lack of appropriate legal and political safeguards and

rights, meaning that the urban poor are vulnerable to
abuse and exploitation. Illegality is commonplace and
may be associated with employment, trading, residence
and access to services. Laws, norms and standards,
even when prepared with good intentions, may result in
considerable difficulties for the poor (for example,
regulations on house construction).
2. The poverty reduction strategies followed by the urban poor movement
a. Individualized (or households) market-based strategies in which the

poor use avenues of labor (and product) market advancement,
particularly around income generation, employment and education.
b. Collective self-help strategies in which residents of a neighborhood,

workers within a trade or others facing a common need come together
to provide collective goods and services.
c. Dependency-based strategies, in which the poor broadly accept their

structural situation and seek to improve their returns within the current
institutional framework by using and extending their patron-client
relationships. The poor seek more advantageous outcomes without
challenging the structural constraints within these relations.
d. Exclusion strategies in which the poor accept the impossibility of

advancement through “socially acceptable” means and adopt methods
associated with criminality.
e. Social movement strategies (which are politicized mass action

undertaken by collectives of the urban poor) in any one of a number of
areas.
The discussion will turns to more explicitly on social movement

strategies that are used by the urban poor to further the
attainment of their needs and to secure their interests. social
movements generally engage with the political system through
a particular objective, whether a need, asset or freedom. Our
discussion of movements is divided between those:
1. Orientated to income: employment and micro-enterprise

markets that engage around issues to do with the scale and
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security of incomes (as related to employment and

entrepreneurship) and which are concerned with exploitation in
labor markets
o Traders and vendors use collective political activities

particularly in respect of trading spaces, a frequent point of
interface with political authorities. Market trading is often zoned
within the city with associated license fees, and informal traders
face harassment from the local authorities that control streets
and markets. Vendors who sell outside designated areas may
face fines, be forcibly evicted, have their goods confiscated
and/or be jailed. In some cases, such payments are associated
with the corrupt practices of officials; and the discussion of self-
help activities below has already touched on how vendors
collaborate to manage this situation.
2. Orientated to assets (land, housing, water – physical and

natural capital) that engage around issues related to shelter
and related services (particularly the consumption of public
goods) and which are concerned with dispossession and
denial, and the protection and extension of assets
o The orientation of social movements to improving

access to assets, most notably land, shelter and basic services,
has long been recognized. Land and access to basic services
such as water, sanitation and waste management are strongly
linked with one another as such services require, for the most
part, physical investments. In part this orientation reflects the
shift to urban settlement and associated higher residential
density, meaning that basic services (notably water, sanitation
and solid waste management) become essential for good
health.
o The scale of movement activity in this area warrants a

further sub-division into four distinct types of collective and
politically orientated action: defensive (anti-eviction) struggles,
land and housing movements, campaigns for water (and other
public goods), and campaigns for more individualized services
(e.g. ration cards).
 Anti-eviction struggles. There is a

long history of anti-eviction struggles. In
some cases, evictions are large scale
(involving tens of thousands of residents)
although many are small. Especially in
the larger cases, protest may also be at a
significant scale. However, there are also
many evictions that take place with little
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protest and much fear. In some

circumstances, communities are strong
enough to resist eviction. In most cases,
street protests and resistance combine
with legal measures to challenge the
eviction through the courts. In terms of
inclusion, it should be recognised that
anti-eviction movements may include all
of those living on the site although
frequently there is differentiation between
owners (those with a primary claim to a
plot) and tenants. However, even
successful defensive actions to prevent
evictions do not necessarily lead to the
successful acquisition of tenure.
 Land and housing struggles.

While closely aligned in their sectoral
interests to anti-eviction struggles, there
are more co-ordinated and strategic
attempts to campaign for better access to
land and housing. These movements go
beyond the defensive position of anti-
eviction movements and develop
proposals to secure improved access to
land and/or housing
 Slum upgrading; access to water

and other public services. A third group
of social movements activities in the field
of shelter works around the provision of
services and sometimes security of
tenure for residents to remain in situ i.e.
the various upgrading and regularization
options for squatters and those living in
areas that are informal sub-divisions of
non-residential land.13 The most
significant difference between such
movements and those related to those
seeking land and housing is that the
organizing base in this case is around
existing neighborhoods and the
incentives for inclusion are therefore
greater. These activities are differentiated
from anti-eviction struggles, as they are
longer-term less-crises driven sets of
activities. A further potential
characteristic is that they may be more
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embedded in political systems as they

most clearly constitute a potential “vote
banks”.
 Other consumption struggles.

Another set of social movement activity is
related to other services that are
provided by the state but which offer
individualized benefits, including transfer
payments. Generally speaking, there
appears to be very few social movement
organizations working in this area. This
may be because it is difficult to bring
together and organize the poor to follow
activities to secure such benefits, or
because such payments are rare in some
countries.
3. Orientated to participation and inclusion (political capital),

often on the basis of identity that engage around issues of
social and/or political exclusion and inclusion (for example
those based on political interests and/or ethnic identity).
o These movements seek a changed political system that

is more inclusive. The movements discussed above have their
collectivism rooted in their struggles in livelihoods or in denial of
assets; these movements have their collectivism rooted in a
shared identity of exclusion. As such, they may not directly
seek to influence the assets that can be secured by the poor
but rather see this as a consequence of securing systemic
political change.
o There are at least three distinct types of groups that

organize collectively to secure such inclusion: those with an
ethnic or racial identity, those with a particular social identity
(for example, women or the old) and those with particular
political affiliations (which may be linked to the other types).
This is not intended to be an exclusive list but the proposal is
most social movements with an explicit agenda for systemic
political inclusion fall into one of these three types.
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Mitlin, D. (2006). The Role of Collective Action and Urban Social Movements in
Reducing Chronic Urban Poverty. Institute of Development Policy and
Management. Retrieved from:
http://www.chronicpoverty.org/uploads/publication_files/WP64%20Mitlin.
pdf
Boonyabancha, S., & Kerr, T. (2015). How urban poor community leaders define and
measure poverty. Environment and Urbanization, 27(2), 637–
656. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247815600945
Activity 39. Let’s evaluate your learning.
1. What are the common issues faced by urban poor?
2. What are the proverty-reduction strategies followed by the urban poor movement?
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researchers.
1. How did urban poor movement reconceptualize development?
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2. What will be the social work activities that can help the urban poor’s plight?
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1. Urban poor in the Philippines refer to the underprivileged or homeless sector of

society - the unemployed, underemployed and the irregularly employed, or who are
incapable of meeting the minimum basic needs, and who live in slums, squatter and
resettlement areas, sidewalks, dumpsites, road right-of-way, cemeteries, unoccupied
government or private lands or along danger zones like railroad tracks, esteros,
riverbanks, high tension wires, or other places in urban areas.
2. There are two general strategies employed by urban poor movement, and these are:
(1) employment and micro-enterprise markets; and (2) land, housing, water – physical
and natural capital) that engage around issues related to shelter and related services
(particularly the consumption of public goods) and which are concerned with
dispossession and denial, and the protection and extension of assets
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Urban poor Urban Poor Community-based Occupation-based

Organization organization organization
Urban area Urbanizing area Consultation Accreditation
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ULOg: Analyze the indigenous people’s issues and movement in the context of development
Please proceed immediately to essential knowledge section because all

terminologies involved were already discussed in the previous topics.

rights movement in order to perform the ULOh. Please note that you are not limited to
1. Indigenous communities’ struggles: basis for social movement

 The Indigenous People represent nearly 14% of the country’s
population. They are among the poorest and the most
disadvantaged social group in the country.
 Illiteracy, unemployment and incidence of poverty are much
higher among them than the rest of the population.
 IP settlements are remote, without access to basic services,
and are characterized by a high incidence of morbidity,
mortality and malnutrition
 There are One hundred Ten (110) major Indigenous groups in
the Philippines. Most of the Indigenous Peoples depend on
traditional swidden agriculture utilizing available upland areas.
However, most of these traditional cultivation sites and fallow
areas have now been degraded and are further threatened by
the influx of migrant farmers who have introduced
unsustainable lowland commercial farming practices.
 Most Indigenous Communities do not have legal recognition
over their traditional lands, thus limiting their ability to freely
conduct their livelihood activities and are denied access to
other natural resources in their communities.
 Across Asia Indigenous and Local communities share a
common situation where traditional resource use and land
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tenure arrangements are not recognized, often undermined and

labeled as “unscientific” and primitive, and at times directly
challenged and opposed by competing interests such as
commercial enterprises including as mining and logging
interests and pressure groups.
 The access of local communities and Indigenous groups over
land, seas and natural resources have gradually decreased and
become limited while control over the same have been partially
or completely been transferred to non-traditional resource
managers led by the state and at times private individuals and
entities including NGOs.
 In most cases, local and Indigenous communities have been
completely disempowered where the dominant societies have
been successful in imposing other resource-use and tenurial
arrangements through legal decrees or at times by physical
force and occupation of traditional territories.
2. Indigenous people’s perspective on human development.
2.1. On empowerment:
 From an indigenous perspective, human development

should be defined by indigenous peoples, from
indigenous peoples, and for indigenous peoples. This is
really the essence of self-determination, its important
collective dimension and the recognition as peoples by
the UN General Assembly with the adoption of the UN
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.
 Indigenous Peoples need to maximize this
understanding and their agency to operate in policy
spaces that influence how development is understood
and operationalized. New perspectives on several
terms/ concepts should be strengthened and developed.
In particular, the concept of “groups” (or sub-groups)
can be very problematic for indigenous peoples.
 Freedoms without opportunities are of no use to
indigenous peoples since the freedoms of a few are
always conditioned by the priorities of the majorities. In
many countries, the constitutional, legal and policy
framework recognizes freedoms, but see the interests of
indigenous peoples as an obstacle to the well-being of
the rest of the population.
 It is important to note that “development” is not a word
that exists in many indigenous languages although there
are terms that include the concept of sustainability,
which has been a focus included in the life ways of
many indigenous peoples. (A closer but still problematic
term may be “sustainable development”). Cognizant of
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this reality and pitfalls of the predominant development

paradigm, the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous
Issues has put forward the concept of “Development
with Culture and Identity”
 It is difficult for indigenous peoples to talk about and
explore development concepts when development has
been so alien to indigenous peoples and actually
contributed to their impoverishment. For instance,
(mega) projects of extractive industries have clearly
caused a devastating impact in indigenous
communities. Any measurement of human development
should look into the negative impact of private
corporations.
 Indigenous peoples from different parts of the world
have been promoting a different concept of
development that is multi-dimensional, holistic, cyclical,
regenerative, and sustainable.
 Human development should include cultural, traditional,
and spiritual elements. For instance, it is important to
evaluate the quality of education (not only looking at
enrollment rates), and the ways modern health practices
have impacted traditional healing practices.
 For indigenous peoples, human development is
embedded in the vibrancy of their cultural life ways. Life
ways are rooted in history and cultural identity, whereas
lifestyles are a matter of choice. Indigenous peoples’ life
ways and collective rights depend on strong traditional
institutions. The understanding of this collective
dimension and other indigenous peoples’ issues
requires capacity-development efforts that need to be
two-way: focused on the capacities of both indigenous
peoples to engage effectively with national and
multilateral institutions and those of governments and
UN staff, especially in UN country offices.
 It is important to highlight that indigenous peoples can
contribute with their knowledge towards holistic
development and a better relationship with nature.
 The framework for collecting information on indigenous
peoples is flawed, and there should be ways of doing so
outside traditional governmental bodies. Empowerment
and participation of traditional indigenous bodies and
mechanisms should be emphasized, as these structures
are still in place in families or tribes that are cross-
boundary, but are invisible to data collection
mechanisms.
 Indigenous peoples have taken the initiative and
produced their own State of the World’s Indigenous
Peoples Report, the first report of its kind prepared and
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launched by the Secretariat of the UN Permanent

Forum on Indigenous Issues, which will be formally
presented in a few days and will hopefully contribute to
the analysis of human development and the HDR 2010.
2.2. On equality (or lack of, and measurement)
 In many countries, data condemns indigenous

peoples and their realities to invisibility, which in turn
perpetuates marginalization and inequality.
 There have been discussions about developing an
“indigenous index” that would emphasize the
aspects of culture and self-identity. The self-
determination of indigenous peoples could be one
key indicator. However, it should not only be up to
governments but also indigenous experts to produce
and analyze data.
 Income levels have been increasing economic
opportunities for indigenous peoples but sometimes
the human cost has been enormous. For instance,
on American Indian land, people do obtain labour
wages, but at a huge sacrifice to quality of life.
Alcoholism, drug abuse, and splintering families are
increasing, along with crime. These forms of
correlation should be included and measured at the
local level rather than on a national, aggregated
level.
 Indigenous peoples often do no benefit from
‘development projects’ especially when extractive
industries undertake activities on indigenous
peoples’ lands. Some of the new indices being
developed should reflect how poverty has actually
increased with the introduction of commercial
activities in indigenous peoples’ lands. For instance,
in Russia, indigenous territories are shrinking, being
taken over by the private sector, and suicide rates
among indigenous peoples are increasing.
 A key indicator for indigenous peoples could be the
effectiveness or robustness of their own traditional
institutions, examined along a spectrum that
includes recuperation, revitalization, empowerment
and agency (since so many traditional institutions
have been affected by or disappeared with
processes of colonization and imposed
development)..
 It is critical to examine human development from the
perspective of indigenous peoples’ food security and
food sovereignty as it has cross-country
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comparability. It should be possible to have

indicators for cross-border indigenous peoples;
since a number of indicators related to and
incorporating gender have been developed, it should
be possible to do the same for indigenous peoples.
 Current educational opportunities are not related to
the ability of indigenous peoples to further their
customs, languages, and culture. Accessing
education that makes use of indigenous cultural
institutions is very important, but this concept has
been pushed into a larger “multi-cultural” issue.
When education data is assessed, it should be
remembered that these indicators demonstrate
education and development in English or other
dominant languages, emphasizing entry into
mainstream economic systems, and does not further
indigenous institutions or systems.
 Good documentation demonstrating the effects of
climate change on indigenous peoples already
exists; less well documented are the effects of the
financial crisis, and also how the predominant
paradigm of development has affected and violated
indigenous peoples’ rights. Indigenous peoples are
not really participating in the processes that cause
so much impact. They are not taking decisions on
initiatives and processes that seriously condition
their communities’ chances to survive and live with
dignity.
2.3. On environmental sustainability
 Environmental sustainability is very important, but

should not be the sole focus of development.
Governments often assess sustainability issues from
an environmental perspective, followed by a strong
economic dimension, and the issue is rarely viewed
from a holistic, indigenous perspective; one in which
human beings interrelate and are part of the mother
earth and where both human beings and nature are
important.
 Indigenous peoples are the ones who have least
contributed to environmental changes and the
erosion of biological diversity, but are the ones who
are experiencing the worst effects of these changes,
a situation of double jeopardy.
 Indigenous peoples have done a great deal of work
to further the cause of environmental sustainability,
and this activism has presented them with a great
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opportunity to voice their views at the international

level and in global negotiations.
De Vera, D. (2007). Indigenous Peoples in the Philippines: A Country Case Study.

Paper Presented at the RNIP Regional Assembly Hanoi, Vietnam.
Retrieved from:
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1a69/faf7a559cd10cdeaf2bd6aebf59d3c
414ea5.pdf
Human Development and Indigenous People: Focus Group Discussion Between

Representative of Indigenous People Experts Group and UNDP.
Retrieved from:
https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/about-us/inter-
agency-support-group.html
researchers.
1. Analyze how IP community conceptualize development in the video-

documentary: The March to Progress in the Philippines at
https://youtu.be/m_TpSvl2e2g.
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2. What will be the social work activities that can help the IP’s plight?
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1. From an indigenous perspective, human development should be defined by

indigenous peoples, from indigenous peoples, and for indigenous peoples.
2. The core elements of social movement of the IP are self-determination, social justice,
right to self-governance and cultural integrity.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Indigenous Culture and UN Declaration on Empowerment

People Identity the Rights of
Indigenous People
Environmental
stability
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ULOh: Analyze the children’s right issues and movement in the context of development
Please proceed immediately to the essential knowledge section because all of

the terms were already discussed in the previous topics.
In this part you need to understand issues and characteristics of children’s rights
movement in order to perform the ULOi. Please note that you are not limited to refer
to these resources exclusively. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books,
1. Situation Analysis of Children in the Philippines

The Philippines is an ethnically diverse, middle-income country with a
young and rapidly urbanizing population. More than half of the
population of 101 million is under the age of 25 years.
1.1. Health
 Deaths of young children have significantly declined in recent
years. Between 1990 to 2015, deaths per 1000 live births of
infants dropped from 41 to 21 and from 59 to 27 among
children under five years. While this represents huge progress,
more work will be needed to reach child mortality targets of 15
and 22 respectively.
 There are very high levels of stunting (33%) and underweight
(21.5%) among children under five, which have actually
increased in recent years. However, the Philippines has
successfully halved the rate of maternal anaemia from over
50% in 1998 to 25% in 2013 and lowered childhood anaemia
among infants.
 Worryingly, childhood immunization rates dropped sharply from
80% in 2013 to 62% in 2015. The Philippines also has one of
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the fastest-growing HIV epidemics in the world: HIV infections

rose by 230% among at risk groups of young people between
2011 and 2015.
 A high proportion of people (90.5% in 2015) have access to
basic drinking water and sanitation has improved in recent
decades. However, as of 2017, 6.66% of the population
continues to drink from unimproved water sources and only
75% of people use basic sanitation services. 5.74% of people
also practise open defecation and a large number of schools,
3,819, lack adequate water and sanitation facilities.
1.2. Child Protection
 A 2015 national study found that children and youth aged 13-24
years are affected by high levels of violence in the Philippines.
2 in 3 experience physical violence, 2 in 5 experience
psychological violence and 1 in 4 experience sexual violence.
About 40% children aged 6-10 years and 70% of older children
suffer from bullying or peer violence
 Child marriage, exploitative child labour and the absence of
universal birth registration are among other child protection
risks. Cyber violence has also emerged as a serious threat:
online sexual abuse of children is the leading cybercrime in the
Philippines.
1.3. Social Inclusion
 Despite rapid economic growth and declining poverty, the

poverty situation remains extremely challenging for children in
the Philippines. Children with disabilities, children from rural
and indigenous communities are more vulnerable to social
discrimination. They are also likely to be more deprived of
social services.
 There has been some encouraging progress in children’s
education. Between 2005 to 2013, enrolment in kindergarten
doubled, with the largest increases within the poorest and most
vulnerable sections of society. Literacy rates also continue to
improve, with 90.3% of people aged 10-64 years functionally
literate (2013).
 However, the Philippines has some way to go to achieve
universal access to quality primary and secondary education. In
2013, less than half (42%) of children aged 3-4 years were
enrolled in day care centres, and in 2015, the net enrolment
rate at primary school level was 91.05% and 68.15% at
secondary school.
 As of 2015, 83.4% (primary) and 73.9 % (secondary) of
enrolled children actually completed their schooling, reflecting a
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fluctuating rise in completion rates from 2010. Around 2.85

million children aged 5-15 years were also estimated to be out
of school.
1.4. Barriers to Fulfilling the Children’s rights in the Philippines
A number of barriers prevent the full realization of children’s rights in

the Philippines:
• National laws and policies are not effectively

disseminated, interpreted or enforced
• Coordination at all levels of government hampers the
delivery of essential services to children
• Inadequate financing of essential sectors affects the
quality of health, education and other services for
children
• Management and integration of national and local
information systems contribute to gaps in data on
children
• Sociocultural norms, practices and beliefs violate
children’s rights
• A shortage of well-trained, qualified professionals at the
local level hinders the delivery of services to children
• The absence of quality social services in remote and
isolated areas puts children and families at risk
• Natural disasters and armed conflicts can have severe
and long lasting consequences for children
1.5. The bases of the children’s right movement in the Philippines are the
barriers identified above. Indeed, the Philippines as one of the signatories of
the International communities that advances the rights of these children
greatly affects how we provide mechanisms that promote the welfare and
rights of our children. Below are the international movement that promotes the
protection and fulfillment of children’s right.
1924. The League of Nations adopts the Geneva Declaration on the

Rights of the Child, drafted by Eglantyne Jebb, founder of the Save the
Children Fund. The Declaration articulates that all people owe children
the right to: means for their development; special help in times of need;
priority for relief; economic freedom and protection from exploitation;
and an upbringing that instils social consciousness and duty.
1946. The United Nations General Assembly establishes the

International Children’s Emergency Fund, UNICEF, with an emphasis
on children throughout the world.
1948. The United Nations General Assembly passes the Universal

Declaration of Human Rights, in which Article 25 entitles mothers and
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children to ‘special care and assistance’ and ‘social protection’.
1959. The United Nations General Assembly adopts the Declaration of

the Rights of the Child, which recognizes, among other rights,
children’s rights to education, play, a supportive environment and
health care.
1966. With the International Covenants on Civil and Political Rights

and on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, United Nations Member
States promise to uphold equal rights – including education and
protection – for all children.
1968. The International Conference on Human Rights is convened to

evaluate the progress made by countries in the 20 years since the
adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. An agenda for
future work is drafted and national commitments to upholding human
rights are bolstered.
1973. The International Labour Organization adopts Convention 138,

which sets 18 as the minimum age for undertaking work that might be
hazardous to a person’s health, safety or morals.
1974. Concerned about the vulnerability of women and children in

emergency and conflict situations, the General Assembly calls on
Member States to observe the Declaration on Protection of Women
and Children I Emergency and Armed-Conflict. The Declaration
prohibits attacks against or imprisonment of civilian women and
children, and upholds the sanctity of the rights of women and children
during armed conflict.
1978. The Commission on Human Rights puts forth a draft of a

Convention on the Rights of the Child for consideration by a working
group of Member States, agencies and intergovernmental and non-
governmental organizations.
1979. To mark the twentieth anniversary of the 1959 Declaration of the

Rights of the Child, the United Nations General Assembly declares
1979 as the International Year of the Child, in which UNICEF plays a
leading role.
1985. The United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the

Administration of Juvenile Justice detail the principles of a justice
system that promotes the best interests of the child, including
education and social services and proportional treatment for child
detainees.
1989. The Convention on the Rights of the Child is adopted by the

United Nations General Assembly and widely acclaimed as a landmark
achievement for human rights, recognizing the roles of children as
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social, economic, political, civil and cultural actors. The Convention

guarantees and sets minimum standards for protecting the rights of
children in all capacities. UNICEF, which helped draft the Convention,
is named in the document as a source of expertise.
1990. The World Summit for Children is held in New York. The
Guidelines for Prevention of Juvenile Deliquency outline strategies for
preventing criminality and protecting young people at high social risk.
1991. Experts from UNICEF, Save the Children, Defence for Children
International and other organizations meet to discuss data gathered
from the reporting process of the Convention on the Rights of the
Child. The meeting leads to the formal establishment of the Child
Rights Netwowrk (CRN) in 1995.
1999. The International Labour Organization (ILO) adopts the Worst

Forms of Child Labor Convention, calling for the immediate prohibition
and elimination of any form of work that is likely to harm the health,
safety or morals of children. UNICEF has been working with the ILO
since 1996 to promote the ratification of international labour standards
and policies concerning child labor.
2000. The United Nations General Assembly adopts two Optional

Protocols to the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child, obligating
State Parties to take key actions to prevent children from partaking in
hostilities during armed conflict and to end the sale, sexual exploitation
and abuse of children.
2002. At the United Nations Special Session on Children, child

delegates address the General Assembly for the first time. The World
Fit for Children agenda was adopted outlining specific goals for
improving the prospects of children over the next decade.
2006. UNICEF co-publishes the Manual for Juvenile Justice Indicators

with the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. The Manual
enables governments to assess the condition of their juvenile justice
systems and make reforms as necessary.
2010. The United Nations Secretary-General issues the Status of the
Convention on the Rights of the Child.
2011. The new Optional Protocol to the 1989 Convention on the Rights
of the Child is adopted. Under this Optional Protocol on a
communications procedure, the Committee on the Rights of the Child
can field complaints of child rights violations and undertake
investigations.
2015. Somalia and South Sudan ratify the Convention. The Convention
is the most widely ratified international instrument with 196 States.
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Only the United States has not ratified to date.
UNICEF. History of Child Rights. Retrieved. from: https://www.unicef.org/child-rights-

convention/history-child-rights
UNICEF. (2017). Situation of Children in the Philippines. Retreived from

https://www.unicef.org/philippines/sites/unicef.org.philippines/files/2019
-02/phl-report-nationalsitanbrief.pdf
Zilden, W. (2007). Children’s Right: International Laws and Practices. The Law Library
Congress, (1), 1-14. Retrieved from: https://www.loc.gov/law/help/child-
rights/pdfs/childrens-rights.pdf
researchers.
1. Watch the video-documentary entitled “Child Prisoners” at

https://youtu.be/SozS1dNtXTl .Analyze the situation of the children through the
lens of social work and existing child welfare policies.
Why do you think social workers are not in favor of lowering the Minimum Age
of Criminal Responsibilities?
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2. How did children’s rights movement reconceptualize development?
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The Philipine children’s rights movement is greatly influence by various International

Covenants and Declarations advancing the rights and interests of children. As one of the
signatories, we follow and contextualize the international tools and indicators in
respecting, protecting and fulfilling the rights of the Filipino children.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Child Protection Children’s Right Social Inclusion Vulnerable

Children
Child-at-Risk Children-in-conflict Child Abuse Children-in-arm
with the Law conflict
Child Labor Sexually abused Child development
children
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Rubric for Essays
Trait Insufficient (60-79%) Emergent (70-79%) Proficient (80-89%) Distinguished (90-

100%)
Depth of Analysis Main points lack Main points are Main points well Main points well
(10 points) detailed development. present with limited developed with developed with
Ideas are vague with detail and quality supporting high quality and
little evidence of development. Some details and quantity support.
critical thinking. critical thinking is quantity. Critical Reveals high
present. thinking is weaved degree of critical
into points thinking.
Coherence of Misunderstands Responds Responds well to Responds
examples prompt and/or adequately to the the prompt comprehensively
(5 points) confuses some prompt, may have analysis goes to the prompt;
significant concepts of some factual, beyond the analysis relevant,
the case example interpretive, or obvious sophisticated, and
conceptual errors or original
irrelevancies
Organization Writing lacks logical Writing is coherent Writing is coherent Writing shows
(5 points) organization. It shows and logically and logically high degree of
some coherence but organized. Some organized with attention to logic
ideas lack unity. points remain transitions used and reasoning of
Serious errors. misplaced and stray between ideas and points. Unity
from the topic. paragraphs to clearly leads the
Transitions evident create coherence. reader to the
but not used Overall unity of conclusion and
throughout essay ideas is present. stirs thought
Writing is coherent regarding the
and logically topic.
organized with
transitions used
between ideas and
paragraphs to
create coherence.
Overall unity of
ideas is present.
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Rubric for Analysis of Situation using Theory
Trait Insufficient (60- Emergent (70-79%) Proficient (80-89%) Distinguished (90-

79%) 100%)
Application of Fails to Demonstrates Demonstrates Demonstrates
theory to the demonstrate minimal acceptable excellence and
case minimal proficiencies to proficiencies to proficiency in
(10 points) proficiencies to describe, explain, describe, predict, or describing,
describe, explain, or or resolve the case resolve the case or predicting, or
resolve the case or or situation as situation as resolving the case
situation as presented; presented; or situation as
presented; provides demonstrates demonstrates presented;
limited evidence of cursory critical critical thinking integrates
critical thinking thinking scholarship in a way
that demonstrates
excellent critical
thinking
Foundational Explanation of Explanation of Explanation of Explanation of
Content theory/theories is theory/theories is theory/theories is theory/theories is
(5 points) inaccurate, vague, overly general and clear, detailed, and grounded, specific,
irrelevant or absent lacking depth accurate arguable, and
complex
Identify concept Misunderstands Responds Responds well to Responds
related to the prompt and/or adequately to the the prompt analysis comprehensively to
case confuses some prompt, may have goes beyond the the prompt;
significant concepts some factual, obvious analysis relevant,
(5 points)
of the case example interpretive, or sophisticated, and
conceptual errors original
or irrelevancies
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Rubric for Case Analysis with SW Interventions
Trait Insufficient (60- Emergent (70-79%) Proficient (80-89%) Distinguished (90-

79%) 100%)
Depth of Analysis Main points lack Main points are Main points well Main points well
(5 points) detailed present with developed with developed with
development. limited detail and quality supporting high quality and
Ideas are vague development. details and quantity support.
with little evidence Some critical quantity. Critical Reveals high
of critical thinking. thinking is present. thinking is weaved degree of critical
into points thinking.
Making Misunderstands Responds Responds well to Comprehensively
connection of prompt and/or adequately to the the prompt; responds to the
perspective/appro confuses some prompt, may have analysis goes prompt; analysis
aches to the significant some factual, beyond the relevant,
situation concepts with interpretative or obvious and sophisticated and
(10 points) regard to conceptual errors explores the uses original; creates
perspectives/appro or irrelevancies and value of clear linkages
aches with regard to perspectives/appro between the
perspectives/appro aches centrality of
aches perspectives/appro
aches to the
situation
Organization Writing lacks Writing is coherent Writing is coherent Writing shows high
(5 points) logical and logically and logically degree of attention
organization. It organized. Some organized with to logic and
shows some points remain transitions used reasoning of
coherence but misplaced and between ideas and points. Unity
ideas lack unity. stray from the paragraphs to clearly leads the
Serious errors. topic. Transitions create coherence. reader to the
evident but not Overall unity of conclusion and
used throughout ideas is present. stirs thought
essay Writing is coherent regarding the
and logically topic.
organized with
transitions used
between ideas and
paragraphs to
create coherence.
Overall unity of
ideas is present.
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Activity Date
Week 1 – 3
Big Picture A: Let’s Check Activities
Big Picture A: Let’s Analyze Activities
Big Picture A: In a Nutshell Activities
Big Picture A: QA List
Big Picture B: Let’s Check Activities
Big Picture B: Let’s Analyze Activities
Big Picture B: In a Nutshell Activities

Big Picture B: QA List
First Examination
Week 4 – 5



Big Picture C: Let’s Analyze Activities
Big Picture C: In a Nutshell Activities
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Big Picture C: QA List

Big Picture D: Let’s Analyze Activities
Big Picture D: In a Nutshell Activities
Big Picture D: QA List
Second Examination
Week 6 – 7

Big Picture C: Let’s Check Activities
Big Picture D: Let’s Check Activities

Big Picture E: Let’s Check Activities

Big Picture E: Let’s Analyze Activities
Big Picture E: In a Nutshell Activities
Big Picture E: QA List
Big Picture F: Let’s Check Activities

Big Picture F: Let’s Analyze Activities
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Big Picture F: In a Nutshell Activities

Big Picture F: QA List
Big Picture G: Let’s Check Activities
Big Picture G: Let’s Analyze Activities
Big Picture G: In a Nutshell Activities

Big Picture G: QA List
Third Examination
Week 8 – 9
Big Picture A Let’s Check Activities


Big Picture C: Let’s Check Activities

Big Picture D: Let’s Check Activities

Big Picture E: Let’s Check Activities
Big Picture E: Let’s Analyze Activities
Big Picture E: In a Nutshell Activities

Big Picture E: QA List
Big Picture F: Let’s Check Activities
Big Picture F: Let’s Analyze Activities
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Big Picture F: In a Nutshell Activities

Big Picture F: QA List
Big Picture G: Let’s Analyze Activities
Big Picture G: In a Nutshell Activities
Big Picture G: QA List

Big Picture H: Let’s Analyze Activities
Big Picture H: In a Nutshell Activities
Big Picture H: QA List
Final Examination
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1) All teachers/Course Facilitators and students are expected to abide by an

honor code of conduct, and thus everyone and all are exhorted to exercise
self-management and self- regulation.
3) All students are guided by professional conduct as learners in attending OBD
or DED courses. Any breach and violation shall be dealt with properly under
existing guidelines, specifically in Section 7 (Student Discipline) in the Student
Handbook.
4) Professional conduct refers to the embodiment and exercise of the University’s

Core Values, specifically in the adherence to intellectual honesty and integrity;
academic excellence by giving due diligence in virtual class participation in all
lectures and activities, as well as fidelity in doing and submitting performance
tasks and assignments; personal discipline in complying with all deadlines;
and observance of data privacy.
5) Plagiarism is a serious intellectual crime and shall be dealt with accordingly.

The University shall institute monitoring mechanisms online to detect and
penalize plagiarism.
6) Students shall independently and honestly take examinations and do

assignments, unless collaboration is clearly required or permitted. Students
shall not resort to dishonesty to improve the result of their assessments (e.g.
examinations, assignments).
7) Students shall not allow anyone else to access their personal LMS account.
Students shall not post or share their answers, assignment or examinations to
others to further academic fraudulence online.
8) By enrolling in OBD or DED courses, students agree and abide by all the
provisions of the Online Code of Conduct, as well as all the requirements and
protocols in handling online courses.
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Course prepared by:
KENJAY N. SALVALEON, RSW

SW Faculty
Course reviewed by:
HELEN Q. OMBLERO, DSD

Program Head
Approved by:
KHRISTINE MARIE D. CONCEPCION, Ph.D.

Dean
282 | P a g e

SW 216 Sim

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UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

College of Arts and Sciences Education

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

Course/Subject: SW 216 – Social Change and Development Perspectives

Name of Teacher: MELVIN C. PILVIRA, RSW

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY. STRICTLY NOT FOR

Big Picture A: Essential Knowledge 13

Big Picture B: Essential Knowledge 24

Big Picture A: Self-help 47

Big Picture A: QA List 51

Big Picture B: Metalanguage 53

Big Picture B: Essential Knowledge 53

Big Picture B: QA List 68

Big Picture C: In a Nutshell 79

Big Picture C: Keywords Index 80

Big Picture D: Essential Knowledge 81

Big Picture D: Self-help 85

Big Picture D: In a Nutshell 90

Big Picture D: Keywords Index 91

Big Picture A: Metalanguage 92

Big Picture A: Self-help 99

Big Picture B: Metalanguage 104

Big Picture B: Self-help 108

Big Picture C: Self-help 116

Big Picture E: Metalanguage 135

Big Picture E: Self-help 142

Big Picture F: Metalanguage 149

Big Picture G: Metalanguage 159

Big Picture A: Essential Knowledge 167

Big Picture A: In a Nutshell 179

Big Picture A: Keywords Index 180

Big Picture C: Essential Knowledge 202

Big Picture D: Essential Knowledge 216

Big Picture D: Keywords Index 227

Big Picture E: Let’s Check Activities 238

Big Picture F: Essential Knowledge 243

Big Picture F: Keywords Index 253

Big Picture H: Metalanguage 264

Big Picture H: Keywords Index 272

Course Outline: SW 216 – Social Change and Development Perspectives

Course Coordinator: MELVIN C. PILVIRA, RSW

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

Assessment Task Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd, 5th, 7th

If the assessment task is done in real time through the

the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time by the course

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating and

However, if the late submission of assessment paper has a

Return of Assignments/ Assessments

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

require some or few of the students for online or virtual

Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course

Re-marking of You should request in writing addressed to the program

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can elevate

Course discussions/exercises – 30%

1st formative assessment – 10%

2nd formative assessment – 10%

3rd formative assessment – 10%

All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA): Final exam

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

Preferred Referencing Depends on the discipline; if uncertain or inadequate, use