Functions

LMS Test.Lab

16A

Copyright Siemens Industry Software NV

 Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Time domain functions ................................................................................. 5

Section 1.1 Time Record ........................................................................................ 5
Section 1.2 Autocorrelation .................................................................................... 5
Section 1.3 Crosscorrelation ................................................................................... 6
Section 1.4 Histogram ............................................................................................ 7
Section 1.5 Probability Density .............................................................................. 7
Section 1.6 Probability Distribution ....................................................................... 8

Chapter 2 Frequency domain functions ....................................................................... 9

Section 2.1 Spectrum .............................................................................................. 9
Section 2.2 Autopower Spectrum ......................................................................... 10
Section 2.3 Crosspower spectrum ......................................................................... 11
Section 2.3.1 Coherence .......................................................................................... 12
Section 2.3.2 Ordinary Coherence ........................................................................... 12
Section 2.3.3 Partial Coherence ............................................................................... 13
Section 2.3.4 Virtual Coherence .............................................................................. 14
Section 2.4 Principal Component Spectra ............................................................ 14
Section 2.5 Max Entropy ...................................................................................... 15
Section 2.6 Frequency Response Function ........................................................... 16
Section 2.6.1 The H1 Estimator ............................................................................... 17
Section 2.6.2 The H2 Estimator ............................................................................... 17
Section 2.6.3 The Hv Estimator ............................................................................... 18
Section 2.7 Impulse Response .............................................................................. 19

Chapter 3 Composite functions................................................................................... 21

Section 3.1 Overall level (OA) ............................................................................. 21
Section 3.1.1 ANSI 1.4 time based OA level calculation ........................................ 21
Section 3.2 Frequency section .............................................................................. 22
Section 3.3 Order sections .................................................................................... 23
Section 3.4 Octave sections .................................................................................. 23

Chapter 4 Units ............................................................................................................. 25

Chapter 5 Rms calculations ......................................................................................... 27

Section 5.1 Time and Impulse records .................................................................. 27
Section 5.2 Frequency spectra .............................................................................. 28
Section 5.3 Autopower and crosspower spectra ................................................... 28
Section 5.4 FRF, Impedance, Transmissibility and Transmittance....................... 29
Section 5.5 Sound power, sound intensity (active and reactive), SFTVI and SFUI29
Section 5.6 Particle velocity (active and reactive) ................................................ 29

16A 3
 Chapter 1 Time domain functions

Chapter 1 Time domain functions

In This Chapter
Time Record .......................................................................5
Autocorrelation...................................................................5
Crosscorrelation..................................................................6
Histogram ...........................................................................7
Probability Density .............................................................7
Probability Distribution ......................................................8

Section 1.1 Time Record

N instantaneous time samples x(n), are taken where N = the blocksize. The
result of a time record measurement x(n), is the ensemble average of a series of
M instantaneous time records, where M= the number of averages and A
designates the averaging operator.

Averaging is useful in perceiving signals disguised by the presence of noise.

The specification of the number of averages taken in the determination of a
block of data as well as the various averaging methods used are described in
section 1.4.

In the case of Signature Analysis, a map or waterfall is obtained of all the time
measurements taken during the acquisition. Because this analysis deals with
changing signals, averaging is only useful with signals that change slowly or in
a stepwise fashion.

Section 1.2 Autocorrelation

Correlation is a measure of the similarity between two quantities. The

autocorrelation function is found by taking a signal and comparing it with a
time shifted version of itself.

The time domain autocorrelation function Rxx (t) is thus acquired by

multiplying a signal by the same signal displaced by time (t) and integrating the
product over all time.

16A 5
 Chapter 1 Time domain functions

However this function is more commonly computed by using the corresponding

frequency domain function. In this case the discrete auto correlation function
Rxx(n) of a sampled signal x(n) is calculated as,

where F-1 is the inverse Fourier Transform and Sxx(k) is the discrete autopower
spectrum.

It can be seen that the greatest correlation will occur when t = 0 and the
autocorrelation function will thus be a maximum at this point equal to the mean
square value of x(t). Purely random signals will therefore exhibit just one peak
at t = 0. Periodic signals however will exhibit another peak when the time shift
equals a multiple of the period.

The autocorrelation function of a periodic signal is also periodic and has the
same period as the wave form itself. This property is useful in detecting
signals hidden by noise. The advantage of using the auto correlation function
rather than linear averaging, is that no synchronizing trigger is required. Certain
impulse type signals also show up better using the autocorrelation function
rather than using a frequency domain function.

Section 1.3 Crosscorrelation

Cross correlation is a measure of the similarity between two different signals. It

therefore requires multiple channels. In terms of the time domain it is defined
as:

As in the case of the autocorrelation function the discrete cross correlation

function Rxy (n) between two sampled signals x(n) and y(n) is calculated as,

with Sxy (k) being the discrete crosspower spectrum between the two signals.

Cross correlation indicates the similarity between two signals as a function of

the time shift. It is therefore useful in determining the time difference between
such signals.

6 LMS Test.Lab Functions

 Chapter 1 Time domain functions

Section 1.4 Histogram

The probability histogram q(j) describes the relative occurrence of specific

signal levels. Let the signal input range of a sampled signal x(n) be divided in J
classes. Each class j,j = 0...J-1, can be characterized by an average value xj and
a class increment Dx.

Figure 3-1 Histogram

The probability histogram of a sampled signal x(n) can then be defined as,

The maximum value of J is either the number of time samples (Time data) or
spectral lines in the block.

Section 1.5 Probability Density

The probability density p(j) is a normalized representation of the probability

histogram q(j),

This function is expressed in percents per engineering unit.

16A 7
 Chapter 1 Time domain functions

Section 1.6 Probability Distribution

The probability distribution d(j) gives the probability (in percent) that the signal
level is below a given value. This function is calculated from the probability
histogram, q(t) given in equation 3-6.

8 LMS Test.Lab Functions

 Chapter 2 Frequency domain functions

Chapter 2 Frequency domain functions

In This Chapter
Spectrum.............................................................................9
Autopower Spectrum ..........................................................10
Crosspower spectrum .........................................................11
Principal Component Spectra .............................................14
Max Entropy .......................................................................15
Frequency Response Function............................................16
Impulse Response ...............................................................19

Section 2.1 Spectrum

The instantaneous discrete frequency spectrum X(k),is defined as the discrete

Fourier transform of the instantaneous sampled time record.

The result of a frequency spectrum measurement is the ensemble average of a

series of M instantaneous discrete frequency spectra Xm(k), m = 0...M - 1,

Since only real valued time records are considered the frequency spectrum has a
Hermitian symmetry.

where X* is the complex conjugate.

The number of spectral lines is equal to half the number of time samples.

The FFT algorithms produce a double sided Fourier transform which is

corrected to single-sided spectral quantities. Only the positive frequency values
are considered. These are then adapted according to the format required. A
Peak amplitude multiplies the result by a factor 2, so producing the amplitude of
the time signal in case of a sine wave. Rms amplitude multiplies the result by
p2.

As with time record averaging, the non-synchronous signals will average out.
This function is useful therefore in distinguishing a signal that is contaminated
by noise. When a trigger signal is available the frequency spectrum has the

16A 9
 Chapter 2 Frequency domain functions

advantage over autopower spectrum averaging in that the noise averages to

zero, rather than to its mean square value.

Section 2.2 Autopower Spectrum

The autopower spectrum is the squared magnitude of the frequency spectrum.

The discrete autopower spectrum of a sampled time signal Sxx(k) is defined as
the ensemble average of the squared magnitude of M instantaneous discrete
frequency spectra Xm(k),

where X* is the complex conjugate.

Thus if the frequency spectrum is complex you have phase information, while
the autopower spectrum will be real and contain no phase information.

Since only real valued time records are considered, the autopower spectrum is
symmetric with respect to zero-frequency,

Figure 3-2 Autopower spectra

Of this double sided frequency spectrum, only the positive frequency values are
considered. In order to obtain a time signal power estimate, a summation of the
power spectra values at the positive and negative frequencies must be made,
resulting in the so-called RMS Autopower spectra Gxx(k),

The power spectrum values correspond to the Fourier coefficients resulting

from a double sided Fourier transform but these values are corrected to
single-sided spectral quantities, expressed as RMS or as PEAK amplitude
values. There are a number of formats in which autopower spectra are
presented.

10 LMS Test.Lab Functions

 Chapter 2 Frequency domain functions

The Power Spectral Density normalizes the level with respect to the frequency
resolution. This overcomes differences that may arise from using a specific
Bandwidth. This is the standard way of measuring stationary broadband signals.
For transient signals the Energy Spectral Density may be more interesting since
this looks at the level of the energy rather than the average power over the total
acquisition time and is obtained by multiplying the Power Spectral Density by
the measurement period.

The interrelationship of these autopower formats is shown in Table 3.1. The

parameters A and T are as illustrated in Figure 3-2 , and DF is the frequency
resolution. Examples of the different modes and units are shown below.

Amplitude mode Amplitude format Value other than DC

line
RMS Power A2/2
RMS Linear A/√2
RMS PSD A2/2∆F
RMS ESD A2 T/2∆F
Peak Power A2
Peak Linear A
Peak PSD A2/ ∆F
Peak ESD A2 T/ ∆F
Table 3.1 Autopower spectrum formats

Section 2.3 Crosspower spectrum

The cross power spectrum Sxy is a measure of the mutual power between two
signals at each frequency in the analysis band. It is the dual of the cross
correlation function.

It is defined as the following product -

X*M (K) Is the complex conjugate of the instantaneous frequency

spectrum of the one time signal X(n),

and

Ym (K) Is the instantaneous frequency spectrum of a related time signal Y(n),

The crosspower spectrum contains information about both the magnitude and

16A 11
 Chapter 2 Frequency domain functions

phase of the signals. Its phase at any frequency is the relative phase between the
two signals and as such it is useful in analyzing phase relationships.

Since it is a product, it will have a high value when the both signal levels are
high, and a low value when both signal levels are low. It is therefore an
indicator of major signal levels on both the input and output. Its use in this
respect should be treated with caution however since a high value can also arise
from just the output level without indicating that the input is the cause. The
interdependence of input and output is revealed in the coherence function which
is described in the following subsection.

The cross power spectrum is used in the calculation of frequency response

functions.

The Amplitude mode in which the crosspower spectrum is presented is as

described in the previous section on Autopower spectrum. Rms and PEAK
values are considered.

Section 2.3.1 Coherence

There are three types of coherence functions; the ordinary coherence, partial
coherence and virtual coherence.

Section 2.3.2 Ordinary Coherence

The (squared) ordinary coherence between a signal Xi (N) and Xj(N) is defined
by,

where Sijk is the averaged crosspower. Siik and Sjjk are the averaged
autopowers.

It is a ratio of the maximum energy in a combined output signal due to its

various components, and the total amount of energy in the output signal.
Coherence can be used as a measure of the power in one channel that is caused
by the power in the another channel. As such it is useful in assessing the
accuracy of transfer function measurements. It does not however need to apply
to input and output and can also be measured between shakers.

The coherence function can take values that range between 0 and 1. A high
value (near 1) indicates that the output is due almost entirely to the input and
you can feel confident in the frequency response function measurements. A low
value (near 0) indicates problems such as extraneous input signals not being

12 LMS Test.Lab Functions

 Chapter 2 Frequency domain functions

measured, noise, nonlinearities or time delays in the system.

Multiple coherence (used in the calculation of the measurement function FRF)

The multiple coherence function is the coefficient that describes, in the

frequency domain, the causal relationship between a single signal (an output
spectrum) and a set of other signals (the considered input spectra) as a function
of frequency and all considered references. It is the ratio of the energy in an
output signal, caused by several input signals to the total amount of energy in
the output signal. It is used to verify the amount of noise on the measurements,
as all responses should be related to the applied references (inputs).

The multiple coherence function between a single response spectrum Y(k) and a
set of reference spectra Xi(k) is calculated from

where Syy(k) is the autopower of response signal y(n)

Syy.n!(k) is the part of autopower Syy(k) of which the contributions of all

reference spectra Xi(k) have been eliminated

The value of the multiple coherence is always between 0 and 1.

Section 2.3.3 Partial Coherence

The partial coherence is the ordinary coherence between conditioned signals.

Conditioned signals are those where the causal effects of other signals are
removed in a linear least squares sense.

To define the partial coherence, consider the signals X1..., Xi, Xj,... The partial
coherence between Xi and Xj, after eliminating the signals X1 ... Xg is given by,

with :

Sii?g (k) = autopower of signal Xi without the influences of the signals X1

...xg

Sjj?g (k) = autopower of signal Xj without the influence of the signals X1

...xg

Sij?g (k) = crosspower between signals Xi and Xj without the influences of

the signals X1 ...xg. The partial coherence can take values between 0 and 1.

16A 13
 Chapter 2 Frequency domain functions

Section 2.3.4 Virtual Coherence

The Virtual coherence is an ordinary coherence between a signal and a principal

component which is discussed below. The virtual coherence is calculated from,

with :

S'ii(k) autopower of principal component X'i

S'ij(k) crosspower between signal xj and principal component X'i

The value of the virtual coherence is always between 0 and 1. The sum of the
virtual coherences between any signal and all principal components is also in
the range [0,1].

Section 2.4 Principal Component Spectra

Consider a set of signals, X... Xn. Now assume that a set of perfectly
uncorrelated signals can be determined such that, by linear combinations, they
describe the original set of signals. These signals (indicated by X'1... X'n.) are
called the principal components of the signals in the original set. Note that the
coherence between the principal components is exactly 0, as they are by
definition, perfectly uncorrelated. The principal components are in a sense the
main independent mechanisms (sources) observable in the signal set.

The Principal components can be calculated either on the sampled time data or
on the corresponding spectra. The fundamental relations are,

where:

[S'xx] = diagonal matrix with the autopower of the principal component spectra
on the diagonal.

{X'(K)} = an uncorrelated set of principal component signals. [U] =

unitary transformation matrix.

The major application of the principal component spectra is in determining the

14 LMS Test.Lab Functions

 Chapter 2 Frequency domain functions

number of uncorrelated mechanisms (sources) in a signal set. A well known

example is the diagnosis of multiple input excitation for multiple input/multiple
output FRF estimation.

Section 2.5 Max Entropy

The stationary of a signal is an inherent assumption when applying the FFT or

DFT techniques of spectral processing. This can create a serious limitation;
however, when dealing with signals whose frequency contents are changing
rapidly with time. One standard solution is to choose relatively short time
segments. But because of the limited amount of data and the fact that the FFT
assumes all frequencies to be of equal importance, the resulting FFT spectra
have poor resolution - especially when they contain a few sharp closely spaced
peaks.

An alternative solution for these situations is that of the Autoregressive (AR)

modeling techniques, and the best known of these is the Maximum Entropy
Spectral Analysis (MESA or MEM). The difference with FFT is that they are
data dependent and so aim to reproduce the most prominent features of the
signal spectrum allowing less prominent features to be lost. They make no
assumption of periodicity regarding the data outside of the observation window
and hence do not suffer from leakage. Short data blocks can be used without
compromising the spectral resolution.

Theoretical background

The Auto Regressive-model consists of parameters to be chosen optimally

(parametric estimation technique). The data, of which a spectral estimation is
desired, is fitted with a model by auto regressively minimizing the error
between a sample and a number of previous samples (‘Number of Poles’ ,
Default value: 5) which are weighted with coefficients , with .
This minimizing process is done both forwards and backwards.

The output of this prediction-error AR filter approximates white noise. White

noise has the most randomness (constant frequency level) and therefore has
maximum entropy in an information sense.
Since the spectrum of the output is the spectrum of the input times the spectrum
of the filter, the spectrum of the input may be estimated as the inverse of the
spectrum of the prediction-error filter times the spectrum of white noise which
has a constant level represented by its variance. It was "Burg" who found that
this spectrum, out of all possible spectra, agrees with the measured
autocorrelation function values.
Solving for , while minimizing , is done directly by a method
developed by "Burg". This method guarantees for all possible time series that
. This means the filter is always minimum phase (stable), the

16A 15
 Chapter 2 Frequency domain functions

spectrum is always positive, etc. The Levinson-Durbin recursion algorithm is

used to support this stability constraint.
Using the estimated Burg-model the spectrum is generated according to:

This response spectrum is similar to an all-pole digital filter frequency response.

Important to notice is the ability to calculate the frequency response value for
any frequency .

Practical considerations

The major difficulty in applying this method is the selection of the optimum
filter order or ‘Number of poles’. If it is too low, resonances cannot be properly
resolved. If it is too high, spurious peaks may occur in the spectral estimates.
For statistically reliable estimates, the number of data samples N, does need to
be considerably larger than the model order. The accuracy of the estimation is
also highly dependent on the presence of observation noise.
In accordance with their system modeling nature, AR models are in general not
well suited for identifying single line (sinusoidal or deterministic) spectral
components. In model terms such components result in poles on the unit circle,
leading to ill – defined equations.

Section 2.6 Frequency Response Function

The frequency response function (FRF) matrix [H(k) ] expresses the frequency
domain relationship between the inputs and outputs of a linear time-invariant
system.

If Ni be the number of system inputs and No the number of system outputs, let
{X(N)} be a Ni-vector with the system input signals and {Y(N)} a No-vector
with the system output signals. A frequency response function matrix [ H(k)] of
size (No, Ni) can then be defined such that,

16 LMS Test.Lab Functions

 Chapter 2 Frequency domain functions

The system described above is an ideal one where the output is related directly
to the input and there is no contamination by noise. This is not the case in
reality and various estimators are used to estimate [H(k)] from the measured
input and output signals.

Section 2.6.1 The H1 Estimator

The most commonly used one is the H1-estimator, which assumes that there is
no noise on the input and consequently that all the X measurements are
accurate.

It minimizes the noise on the output in a least squares sense. In this case the
transfer function is given by -

This estimator tends to give an underestimate of the FRF if there is noise on the
input. H1 estimates the anti-resonances better than the resonances. Best results
are obtained with this estimator when the inputs are uncorrelated.

Section 2.6.2 The H2 Estimator

Alternatively, the H2 estimator can be used. This assumes that there is no

noise on the output and consequently that all the Y measurements are accurate.

16A 17
 Chapter 2 Frequency domain functions

It minimizes the noise on the input in a least squares sense and in this case the
transfer function is given by -

This estimator tends to give an overestimate of the FRF if there is noise on the
output. this estimator estimates the resonances better than the anti-resonances.

Note: This estimator can only be implemented in the case of a single output

Section 2.6.3 The Hv Estimator

Finally with the Hv estimator, [ H(k)] is calculated from the eigenvector

corresponding to the smallest eigenvalue of a matrix [ Sxxy]:

This estimator minimizes the global noise contribution in a total least squares
sense. When using this estimator the partitioning of the noise over the input and
output signals can be scaled.

This estimator provides the best overall estimate of the frequency function. It
approximates to the H2 estimator at the resonances and the H1 estimator at the
anti-resonances. It does however require more computational time than the
other two.

Frequency response functions depend on there being at least one reference

channel and one response channel.

18 LMS Test.Lab Functions

 Chapter 2 Frequency domain functions

Section 2.7 Impulse Response

The impulse response (IR) function matrix [h(t)] expresses the time domain
relationship between the inputs and outputs of a linear system. This
relationship takes the form of a convolution integral.

[h(t)] is calculated using the inverse Fourier transform of the frequency

response function as shown below -

Impulse response functions depend on there being at least one reference channel
and one response channel.

The FRF estimators (H1, H2 and Hv) are as described above.

16A 19
 Chapter 3 Composite functions

Chapter 3 Composite functions

In This Chapter
Overall level (OA) ..............................................................21
Frequency section ...............................................................22
Order sections .....................................................................23
Octave sections ...................................................................23
The functions described in this section represent functions that can be acquired
or processed during a Signature analysis. Since this type of analysis is intended
to examine the evolution of signals as a function of changing environment (e.g.
rpm, time, ...), then there needs to be functions that express this evolution.
These are called composite functions as they are derived from the 'basic'
measurement functions described in the previous section, for different
environmental conditions.

Section 3.1 Overall level (OA)

This function describes the evolution of the total energy in the measured signal.
As such it is always expressed as a frequency spectrum rms value. It is
available with all basic measurement functions. Energy correction is applied to
this function.

Section 3.1.1 ANSI 1.4 time based OA level calculation

The time signal is exponentially averaged to calculate the Overall level over a
particular bandwidth. An exponential weighting factor is used (Error!) where Dt
is the sample period of the signal and t is a time constant. The values of t
depends on the type of signal and three standardized values are supplied.

t = 35ms for impulse (peaky) signals

t = 125 ms for fast changing signals

t = 1000 ms for slow changing signals.

When the signal contains spikes and is therefore defined as "impulse" an

additional peak detector mechanism is implemented. In this case the signal is
first averaged using the 35ms averaging time constant and then peaks are
detected using a decay rate of 1500ms.

16A 21
 Chapter 3 Composite functions

Section 3.2 Frequency section

This function describes the evolution of the energy of the measured signal over
the rpm range in a specified frequency band. It is always expressed as an Rms
frequency spectrum and is available only when the basic measurement function
is a frequency domain function.

The frequency section is calculated by integrating over a Bandwidth around the

center frequency value.

The center frequency is the frequency at which the section will be calculated
and is specified by the Center parameter. The Lower bandvalue and the Upper
bandvalue are given by Center frequency +/- {Bandwidth / 2}

The Bandwidth is determined by the Band mode parameter. Possible ways in

which to express the Bandwidth are:
 a fixed frequency range
 a fixed number of spectral lines the lines closest to the exact frequency
value are used.
 a percentage of the selected center frequency
These options are illustrated below.

22 LMS Test.Lab Functions

 Chapter 3 Composite functions

Section 3.3 Order sections

This function describes the evolution of the energy of the measured signal in a
specified 'order' band. Orders are introduced chapter 2.3 in the chapter on types
of testing. An 'order' band is a frequency band whose center frequency changes
as a function of the measurement environment or tracking parameter. It is
necessary therefore that the tracking parameter be a 'frequency' type of
parameter (e.g. rotation speed in rpm). An order is nothing other than a
multiple of this basic tracking parameter. The evolution of the energy in a
specified order band is expressed as a function of the measured rpm. Through
post processing it is also possible to examine it in terms of measured time or
frequency.

Possible means of defining the span for integration are:

 a fixed frequency range
 a fixed number of spectral lines the lines closest to the exact value are used.
 a fixed order Bandwidth
 a percentage of the selected order value
These three options are illustrated below.

Section 3.4 Octave sections

An octave section represents the summation of values over octave bands. The
center frequencies of the bands are defined in the ISO norm 150 266. Possible
octave bands are are 1/1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/12 and 1/24 octaves.

16A 23
 Chapter 4 Units

Chapter 4 Units
To ensure consistency in the manipulation of data LMS software always
operates with an internal set of reference units. The physical quantities with a
canonical dimension of length, angle, mass, time, temperature, current, and
light, each have a corresponding reference unit as listed below:

Canonical dimension Abbreviation Reference unit Abbreviation

length le meter m
angle an radian rad
mass ma kilogram kg
time ti second s
current cu Ampère A
temperature te deg Kelvin 0K
light li candela cd

Table 3.2 Reference units

This means that all data in either the internal data structures of the LMS
software or the database is stored in these units. A physical quantity with a
dimension that is a combination of the above canonical dimensions will be
allocated a unit in the internal unit system that is a combination of the
corresponding reference units.

For example, a quantity with dimension of acceleration (length/time2) will have

a unit that is the reference unit of length divided by the reference unit of time
squared (m/s2).

16A 25
 Chapter 5 Rms calculations

Chapter 5 Rms calculations

In This Chapter
Time and Impulse records ..................................................27
Frequency spectra ...............................................................28
Autopower and crosspower spectra ....................................28
FRF, Impedance, Transmissibility and Transmittance .......29
Sound power, sound intensity (active and reactive), SFTVI and SFUI 29
Particle velocity (active and reactive) ................................29
This section describes the ways in which rms calculations are performed for
different measurement functions. RMS stands for Root Mean Square and is a
measure of the energy in a signal.

If the data is amplitude corrected, then it is automatically converted to energy

correction for the calculations.

Section 5.1 Time and Impulse records

When dealing with time samples, then a certain number of sample must be
analyzed in order to obtain a measure of the nature and the energy in the signal.
This is done by squaring values, summing them and then taking an average
(mean) remove the influence of the number of samples. Then the square root of
the mean is taken to arrive at the rms value. So for a range of samples starting
at sample 0 and ending at sample k

16A 27
 Chapter 5 Rms calculations

Section 5.2 Frequency spectra

The frequency spectrum is first converted to a double sided amplitude spectrum.

The frequency range over which you want the rms value computed is defined by
the upper and lower values of f1 and f2. All lines completely within the range
will be included in the calculations (Ai) where i takes values of 1 to k-1. For
the lines at the beginning and the end (A0 and A k), half of each value is taken.
When A0 is the spectral line at 0Hz (DC), it is not halved.

The rms value is then computed using the following formula

Section 5.3 Autopower and crosspower spectra

These spectra are first converted to a double sided power spectrum. The number
of lines (k) included in the calculations depends on the defined frequency span.
As was the case for the frequency spectrum shown above, the value for the first
and last sample (A0 and A k) are halved. When A0 is the spectral line at 0Hz
(DC), it is not halved. The rms value is then computed using the following
formula

28 LMS Test.Lab Functions

 Chapter 5 Rms calculations

Section 5.4 FRF, Impedance, Transmissibility and

Transmittance

Rms values for these types of functions are not well defined. The Lms
interpretation for an FRF is to find the rms response when a force of amplitude
1 is applied. A force of amplitude 1 has an rms value Frms equal to

where k is the number of samples in the range.

The rms of the response, Xrms is derived from equation 3-28. The rms of the
FRF therefore Hrms is

Section 5.5 Sound power, sound intensity (active and

reactive), SFTVI and SFUI

SFTVI (sound field temporal uniformity indicator) and SFUI (sound field
uniformity indicator) are ISO defined functions for acoustic measurements and
analysis. The rms computes the total energy in a band, so since these are already
a measure of energy, then the values of the spectral lines can simply be added.

Section 5.6 Particle velocity (active and reactive)

Although the particle velocity is basically a frequency spectrum, since it is

calculated as a single sided spectrum it differs by a factor of 2 from equation
3-28.

16A 29
 Spectrum • 11
Index
T
A The H1 Estimator • 20
The H2 Estimator • 21
ANSI 1.4 time based OA level calculation • 25 The Hv Estimator • 21
Autocorrelation • 5 Time and Impulse records • 31
Autopower and crosspower spectra • 33 Time domain functions • 5
Autopower Spectrum • 12 Time Record • 5
C U
Coherence • 14 Units • 29
Composite functions • 25
Crosscorrelation • 7 V
Crosspower spectrum • 13 Virtual Coherence • 16
F
Frequency domain functions • 11
Frequency Response Function • 19
Frequency section • 26
Frequency spectra • 32
FRF, Impedance, Transmissibility and
Transmittance • 33
H
Histogram • 8
I
Impulse Response • 22
M
Max Entropy • 17
O
Octave sections • 28
Order sections • 27
Ordinary Coherence • 15
Overall level (OA) • 25
P
Partial Coherence • 16
Particle velocity (active and reactive) • 34
Principal Component Spectra • 17
Probability Density • 9
Probability Distribution • 9
R
Rms calculations • 31
S
Sound power, sound intensity (active and
reactive), SFTVI and SFUI • 34

16A 31