Proceedings of the 2011 ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference

PVP 2011
July 17-21, 2011, Baltimore, Maryland

PVP2011-57167

PRESSURE VESSEL BURST DIRECTIONAL EFFECTS

Jihui Geng, Quentin Baker and Kelly Thomas

Baker Engineering and Risk Consultants, Inc.
3330 Oakwell Court, Suite 100
San Antonio, Texas 78218 USA

ABSTRACT solution for the free-field spherical PVB, are often multiplied
Pressure vessel burst (PVB) is a class of explosion for which by adjustment factors.
there are hazards at virtually all chemical processing facilities.
PVBs present both airblast and fragmentation hazards. Blast Examples of such adjustment factors can be found in Tables
prediction methods specific to PVBs were first developed in the 6.11a in the first edition of the CCPS text Guidelines for
1970s and revised blast curves were published in 1995. The Evaluating the Characteristics of Vapor Cloud Explosions,
published blast curves were developed for spherical vessel Flash Fires, and BLEVES [3]. The CCPS book cites a NASA
bursts, whereas most pressure vessels in use in industry are report developed by Wilfred Baker as the source for the
cylindrical. Blast effects around a bursting cylindrical vessel adjustment factors [4]. These are reproduced as Table 1 below.
are not uniform as with a spherical vessel. The blast to the side
of a cylindrical vessel is stronger than off the ends, creating Ps , I , and R are defined according to the following equations:
non-circular pressure contours. The directional effects diminish
p
with distance as the expanding shock wave approaches a Ps = s − 1
spherical shape. A correlation was developed in the 1970s to p0
account for directional effects using high explosive test data, ia 0
the best available resource at the time. Like all test programs, i= 23 13
p E ex
0
pressure transducers extended to limited distances from the
13
R = r  0 
explosive charge, yet the data are often extrapolated to a far p

greater distance. This paper presents the results of recent work  E ex 
on directional effects specific to bursting cylindrical pressure
vessels and provides new correlations for blast overpressure where ps is the side-on pressure, p0 is the ambient pressure, i is
and impulse for a range of vessel geometries and burst specific impulse, a0 is the ambient sound speed, and r is stand-
conditions. The results can be used to predict the airblast off distance. Eex is the energy of the compressed gas in the
hazards from cylindrical PVBs over the range of standoff exploding pressure vessel which is defined as the difference in
distances for which directional effects exist. internal energy between gas occupying the vessel volume, V, at
the initial, or burst pressure p and the same gas occupying the
Keywords: PVB, directional blast, CFD vessel volume at ambient pressure according to Brode’s
equation,
( p − p0 )V ,
INTRODUCTION Eex =
PVB blast load curves have been previously published for a  −1
sphere in free air or a hemisphere placed on the ground [1,2].
In reality, most pressure vessels are cylindrical and/or placed at where  is the ratio of specific heats and p is the initial, or burst
some height above the ground. To account for these geometry pressure.
effects, the non-dimensional side-on peak overpressure and
specific impulse, Ps and i , respectively, obtained from the

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 TABLE 1. ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR
CYLINDRICAL VESSELS
Multiplier for
R Ps I doubled (L=2L) without the ground present. The resultant
<0.3 4 2
≥0.3≤1.6 1.6 1.1
>1.6≤3.5 1.6 1
>3.5 1.4 1
The multipliers in Table 1 for a cylindrical vessel are incorrect
at large distances. As demonstrated by both experiments and
numerical calculations, directional blast effects diminish with
increasing distance, with the load tending to distribute evenly in
all directions. The error in these multipliers can likely be
attributed to the scope of the experiments from which they were
derived. These experiments were conducted with high
explosives of varying shapes and were necessarily limited in
scale. Extrapolating measurements from finite transducer
locations to very large distances is a probable cause of
inaccuracy.
In the paper, the directional blast effects of cylindrical PVBs
were investigated numerically, using BakerRisk’s proprietary
BWTI™ (Blast Wave-Target Interaction) computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) program. Bursting cylinders with different
length–to-diameter ratios were simulated. The results of these
simulations were compared to a baseline simulation of a
hemispherical vessel bursting on the ground and to previous
experimental results using high explosives. The resulting
guidance was incorporated into the new edition of the CCPS
guidelines [5].
PRESSURE VESSELS UNDER CONSIDERATION
Vertical cylindrical pressure vessels of various aspect ratios
(i.e., length to diameter) ratios were evaluated using a
numerical model. The predicted blast overpressure and impulse
were compared to the blast loads from the baseline case of a
hemispherical pressure vessel located on the ground. These
two types of PVBs are depicted in Figure 1.
FIGURE 1. SCHEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF PRESSURE
VESSEL BURSTS UNDER CONSIDERATION
There are two equivalent configurations for the cylindrical PVB
on the ground, as shown in Figure 2. Considering the ground
as a reflecting plane (i.e., a mirror), the original length L can be
cylinder is equivalent to a cylinder with an aspect ratio of L/D
(= 2L/D) in free air. Similarly, if a horizontal cylindrical vessel
with a diameter of d = D / 2 is placed directly on the ground,
the ground can also be treated as a mirror in terms of resultant
blast field. The equivalent cylinder is the one with an aspect
ratio of L/D (= L / 2 d) in free air. Thus, the vertical cylinder
with an aspect ratio of L/D on the ground, the cylinder with an
aspect ratio of L/D in free air and the horizontal cylinder with
an aspect ratio of L/d on the ground are equivalent. In the
following sections, the term “vertical cylinder with an aspect
ratio of L/D” means the same as “vertical cylinder with an
aspect ratio of L/D on the ground” or “horizontal cylinder with
an aspect ratio of L/d on the ground.”
FIGURE 2. EQUIVALENT CYLINDRICAL PVBS
NUMERICAL MODEL
The BWTITM (Blast Wave Target Interaction) simulation
package was used to evaluate the directional effects on blast
loads for the purposes of this evaluation. BWTITM is an
integrated CFD code and visualization system developed by
BakerRisk to provide the capability to simulate the generation
and propagation of blast and shock waves along with the
interaction of such waves with structures (e.g., buildings, blast
walls, etc.). BWTITM has the capability to model the blast
waves resulting from high explosive (HE) detonations, pressure
vessel bursts (PVB) and vapor cloud explosions (VCEs) [6,7].
The two-dimensional (2D) version of BWTITM was employed
in this evaluation.
A schematic of the target distribution employed for cylindrical
PVBs is shown in Figure 3; not all of the targets employed are
shown in this figure. Targets were placed along rays at 0
degrees (axis of symmetry, or vertical), 22.5 degrees, 45
degrees, 67.5 degrees, and 90 degrees (ground plane) at non-
dimensional distances (i.e., R ) of less than 0.1 up to 10. Note
that the dimensionless distance scales with the cube root of
explosion energy, Eex, which in turn scales with the initial
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pressure, P. Therefore, the physical location corresponding to
each value of R varies with burst pressure ratio P/P0. This is
shown in Table 2, which lists the values of R corresponding to
the physical location r/R0, where r is the radial distance and R0
is the radius of the baseline hemisphere. As the burst pressure
ratio is increased, the physical location r/R0 corresponds to a
smaller value of R . The advantage of using dimensionless
parameters is that the results can be extrapolated to pressure
vessels of any scale.
FIGURE 3. SCHEMATIC OF TARGET LOCATIONS
TABLE 2. R VERSUS BURST PRESSURE RATIO [3]
r/R0 @ R
P/P0 R @ r/R0=1 = 0.1 = 0.2
10 0.22 0.45 0.9
20 0.17 0.58 1.2
50 0.13 0.80 1.6
100 0.10 1.01 2.0
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
General Description
Figure 4 shows typical blast pressure contours at selected times
for both a spherical pressure vessel and a cylindrical pressure
vessel with an aspect ratio (length to diameter ratio, L/D) of 5.
An initial bursting pressure (P/P0) is 50. The spherical PVB is
included to serve as a reference. The vertical axis in Figure 4
represents the axis of symmetry for the 2D simulations. Figure
4 only displays one quarter of the geometry. It should be noted
that the pressure and dimension scales are changed for the
different times to maximize resolution at the given time step.
Cylinder dimensions of L and D were determined to ensure
that the equivalent sphere (with the same volume as the
cylinder) has characteristic length (ro) of 1. The scaled
distances shown in the figure are x/ro. Characteristic time is
defined as the time it takes for an acoustic signal to propagate
from the origin to ro, and the times denoted in Figure 4 are
scaled by the characteristic time. The first frame (t=0) in
Figure 4 shows the initial cylindrical gas cloud before
expansion. At time of t=3, an elliptical blast wave front is
generated, with weaker shock waves along the long-axis (i.e.,
cylinder axis) and stronger shock waves along the short-axis
(i.e., the direction normal to the cylinder axis). As the blast
wave propagates outward further, the blast effects become more
evenly distributed and the blast wave begins to approach the
wave from a sphere. Note, however, that even in the last frame
(t=8) shown in Figure 4, the compression and rarefaction waves
are not completely uniform in all directions.
Spherical Cylindrical
FIGURE 4. PRESSURE CONTOURS OF A BLAST FIELD
FOR SPHERICAL AND CYLINDRICAL BURSTS
Overpressure and Impulse vs Distance
Examples of scaled peak overpressure and positive impulse as a
function of scaled distance are given in Figure 5 and Figure 6,
respectively, for cylindrical bursts with an aspect ratio of
L/D = 5 and an initial busting pressure (P/P0) of 50. Sach’s
scaling with the Brode energy equation was used in these two
figures. For the sake of comparison, the blast curves from a
bursting sphere with an equivalent volume (i.e., energy) are
also included in figures. For the cylindrical case, the blast from
the PVB is distinctly non-uniform. Note that in the near field,
the overpressure along the axis of symmetry (0 degrees)
remains higher than for the spherical case. As distance
increases, however, it drops to a value that is less than the
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corresponding overpressure for the sphere. Conversely,
overpressures along the direction normal to cylinder axis (90
degrees) are initially lower than the corresponding values for
the sphere but deteriorate less rapidly after R =0.1, remaining
higher than the overpressures for the sphere out to R
approaching 10. Along the direction of 45 degrees,
overpressure is similar to that for the sphere. Similar trends are
observed when comparing the impulse distributions.
FIGURE 5. SCALED OVERPRESSURE VS DISTANCE
FIGURE 6. SCALED IMPULSE VS DISTANCE
Adjustment Factors
Adjustment factors can be calculated for the cylinder by taking
the ratio of peak blast overpressure or impulse for the given
geometry along a given direction to the corresponding value for
the equivalent spherical PVB. Hence, the blast load for a
cylinder could be estimated as that for a sphere multiplied by
the adjustment factor.
Figure 7 and Figure 8 show overpressure and impulse
adjustment factors, respectively, along the ground plane for
vertical cylinder with an aspect ratio (L/D) of 5 and a burst
pressure ratio (P/P0) of 50. The existing adjustment factors
(i.e., those given in Table 1) are also indicated on each plot.
The existing adjustment factors for overpressure (Figure 7) are
higher than the current results at all distances, whereas those for
impulse (Figure 8) are lower.
FIGURE 7. PRESSURE ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR A
VERTICAL CYLINDER WITH L/D=5 AND P/P0=50
FIGURE 8. IMPULSE ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR A
VERTICAL CYLINDER WITH L/D=5 AND P/P0=50
Influence of Burst pressure ratio and Aspect Ratio
In the previous section, results for a vertical cylinder with an
aspect ratio of 5 and a burst pressure ratio of 50 were presented.
Figure 9 through Figure 12 show the adjustment factors
calculated for overpressure and impulse along the ground plane
for cylinders with aspect ratios of 1, 2, 5, and 10 and for burst
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pressure ratios of 10, 20, 50, and 100. The overpressure and ratios, the adjustment factors for pressure at R <1 (i.e., in the
impulse ratios (i.e., adjustment factors) are taken compared to near field) are less than or equal to the existing adjustment
the baseline hemispherical PVB. Separate plots are provided factors. For large aspect ratios (L/D=10, Figure 12) and lower
for each aspect ratio evaluated. The existing adjustment factors burst pressure ratios (P/P0≥10), the adjustment factors are larger
are indicated in each plot by the dashed red line. than the existing factors for R >1. For impulse, the new
adjustment factors are larger than the existing factors for aspect
For aspect ratios of 1 (Figure 9) and 2 (Figure 10), the ratios greater than 5.
agreement with the existing correction factors for impulse at
scaled standoff distances ( R ) greater than 0.4 is reasonable; in
all other cases, there is significant discrepancy between the
existing adjustment factors and those calculated in this study.
As the aspect ratio increases, the variation of the adjustment
factors for each burst pressure ratio increases. For all aspect

FIGURE 9. ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR PRESSURE AND IMPULSE FOR A VERTICAL CYLINDER WITH L/D=1

FIGURE 10. ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR PRESSURE AND IMPULSE FOR A VERTICAL CYLINDER WITH L/D=2

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 FIGURE 11. ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR PRESSURE AND IMPULSE FOR A VERTICAL CYLINDER WITH L/D=5

FIGURE 12. ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR PRESSURE AND IMPULSE FOR A VERTICAL CYLINDER WITH L/D=10

experimental high explosive data and the numerical treatment

Comparison with High Explosive Experiments deviate significantly for R greater than one.
Overpressure and impulse ratios along the ground plane for the
vertical cylinders can be compared to previous experimental
data from high explosive tests. Figure 13 and Figure 14 below
show a comparison between adjustment factors based on
experiments with vertical high explosive cylinders with aspect
ratios of 3, 6, and 12, and the current numerical simulations
with a burst pressure ratio of 100 and aspect ratios of 2, 5, and
10. The existing adjustment factors are also indicated. Figure
13 depicts the adjustment factors for overpressure and Figure
14 depicts the adjustment factors for impulse. Solid symbols
represent experimental data and open symbols represent
numerical data.

For scaled standoff distances ( R ) between 0.3 and 0.9, the high
explosive data suggests higher overpressures than both the
numerical data and the existing adjustment factors. For R >1,
both the experimental data and the numerical data suggest that FIGURE 13. COMPARISON BETWEEN PRESSURE RATIOS
the existing adjustment factors over predict overpressure. Both FOR NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS AND HIGH EXPLOSIVE
the numerical results and the experimental data predict higher EXPERIMENTS
impulse loads between R of 0.3 and 0.9 than indicated by the
existing adjustment factors. The impulse predicted by the

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FIGURE 14. COMPARISON BETWEEN IMPULSE RATIOS
FOR NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS AND HIGH EXPLOSIVE
EXPERIMENTS
CONCLUSIONS
Blast effects from cylindrical pressure vessels placed at ground
level were shown to be directional, producing blast
overpressures and impulses at various angles and distances that
differ from a surface burst of a hemispherical pressure vessel of
identical burst pressure and volume. Overpressure and impulse
predicted using the spherical PVB blast curves need to be
adjusted for vessel geometry for relatively close stand-off
distances where directional effects occur. At large stand-off
distances, directional effects diminish and blast loads approach
those of hemispherical PVBs.
It was shown that the existing adjustment factors developed
from high explosive data are not a good match for pressure
vessel bursts in many circumstances. In some cases,
overpressure and impulse were under predicted, and in other
cases the loads were over predicted.
Bursting cylindrical vessels have considerable variation in blast
parameters with orientation. Pressures off of the end of the
vessel (along the longitudinal axis) are lower than a comparable
sphere except close to the vessel wall. Conversely,
overpressure to the side of a cylindrical vessel is higher than a
comparable sphere except close to the vessel well.
Adjustment factors were developed for cylindrical vessels to
adjust loads predicted using the spherical bursting vessel blast
curves. A simple correlation was not developed since a number
of parameters (i.e., burst pressure ratio, cylindrical vessel
aspect ratio and standoff) influence the adjustment factors.
REFERENCES
1. Baker, W.E., Cox, P.A., Westine, P.S., Kulesz, J.J. and Strehlow,
R.A., 1983, “Explosion Hazards and Evaluation,” Elsevier
Scientific, New York, NY
2. Tang, M.J., Cao, C.Y., and Baker, Q.A., "Calculation of Blast
Effects from Bursting Vessels," 29th Loss Prevention
Symposium, AIChE March 1995
3. van Wingerden, K. et al., Guidelines for Evaluating the
Characteristics of Vapor Cloud Explosions, Flash Fires,
and BLEVES. Center for Chemical Process Safety,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, ISBN 0-8169-
0474-x, New York, NY, 1994
4. Baker, W.E., et al., Workbook for Prediction Pressure Wave
and Fragment Effects of Exploding Propellant Tanks and
Gas Storage Vessels. NASA CR-134906, NASA Scientific
and Technical Office, Washington DC, 1975
5. Baker, Q.A. et al., Guidelines for Vapor Cloud Explosion,
Pressure Vessel Burst, BLEVE, and Flash Fire Hazards
(Second Edition). Center for Chemical Process Safety,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, ISBN 978-0-
470-25147-8, New York, NY, 2010
6. Geng, J.H. and Thomas, J.K. “Simulation and Application of
Blast Wave-Target Interaction”. 41st Annual Loss
Prevention Symposium, Houston, Texas, April 2007
7. Geng, J.H. and Thomas, J.K. “Reflection of Blast Waves off
Cylindrical Pipes. Proceedings of PVP ’07. PVP 2007-
26692, San Antonio, Texas, July 2007
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