Energy and Buildings 65 (2013) 419–428

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Energy and Buildings

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Modeling of ventilated façades for energy building simulation

software
Víctor Manuel Soto Francés a , Emilio José Sarabia Escriva a,∗ , José Manuel Pinazo Ojer a ,
Emilie Bannier b , Vicente Cantavella Soler b , Gonzalo Silva Moreno b
a
Departamento de Termodinámica Aplicada, Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain
b
Instituto de Tecnología Cerámica, Universitat Jaume I, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This article presents a complete mathematical model which improves the description of the thermal
Received 27 July 2012 response of a ventilated façade. The model has been validated experimentally for a wide variety of weather
Received in revised form 3 June 2013 conditions; hot and cold days, cloudy and sunny and with clear or dark coloured external board with very
Accepted 9 June 2013
good matching. In the validation process the improvement to achieve the matching between the model
and the experiences takes into account the influence of the wind direction on the velocity of the air inside
Keywords:
the ventilated space.
Energy efficiency
© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Building simulation
Ventilated façade

1. Introduction
Nowadays the use of ventilated façades is widespread in the
tertiary building sector. The reason is that it may reduce the cooling
and heating energy demands of the building. It is to be expected a
greater effect in Mediterranean climates, with warm summers and
mild winters [1].
There are many typologies of ventilated façades according to dif-
ferent criteria: the material of the external board, the distribution
and position of the openings, the radiant properties of the external
board, the size and shape of the space between the wall and the
external board, etcetera. GhaffarianHoseini et al. [2] have done an
extensive classification of the different existing typologies. In addi-
tion, they have highlighted the main potentials of each one. Some
literature calls intelligent façades this type of construction, because
of their energy saving potential. The façade behaviour is different
depending on the external board material used. The most common
materials are glasses (translucent), ceramic or metallic (opaque) or
PV modules. According to the external board, façades are divided
into three groups: sealed cavity façade, where the air cavity and the
outside air are not connected; closed joints with open grills (at the
top and bottom), in this case the air cavity is in contact with the
outside air and an air flow exists through the cavity; the last type is
the open joints and open grills, which represents the most common
construction. According to Marinosci et al. [3] the second model is
simpler than the last one and their results can be used to describe
both situations.
In our case, we have studied a continuous external board of
ceramic or metallic material (opaque in any case), without frontal
openings. The apertures are located at the bottom and top of the
wall. No connection exists between the ventilated channel, formed
by the wall and the external board, and the building inside. A basic
description can be observed in Fig. 1.
Many different approaches exist to the modeling of the venti-
lated façades. Recent ones like Sanjuan et al. [4] and Giancola et al.
[5] use CFD methods. However in this paper we focus on simpler
approaches, like Balocco [6] and [7], which can be used in hourly
energy simulation software.
Here we present a model based on the EnergyPlus model [8] and
its experimental validation. The experimental data comes from a
facility described in Section 8.1 and placed at Castellón (Spain). The
results show the importance of the wind direction on the façade
behaviour. The original EnergyPlus model has had to be improved
correspondingly, by including this effect, to match the experimen-
tal measurements.

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 963879326.

E-mail addresses: vsoto@ter.upv.es (V.M. Soto Francés), emsaes@upvnet.upv.es
(E.J. Sarabia Escriva), jmpinazo@ter.upv.es (J.M. Pinazo Ojer),
emilie.bannier@itc.uji.es (E. Bannier), vicente.cantavella@itc.uji.es
(V. Cantavella Soler), gonzalo.silva@itc.uji.es (G. Silva Moreno).
URL: http://www.vpclima.upv.es/ (J.M. Pinazo Ojer).
2. Integration of the façade model into a simulation code
Fig. 2 shows the heat exchange at the ventilated façade. Our goal
is to get a model, as simple as possible, which allows us to put it
into hourly simulation software. Therefore an accurate model is

0378-7788/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.06.015
420 V.M. Soto Francés et al. / Energy and Buildings 65 (2013) 419–428

Nomenclature

Wdir wind direction [rad]

T temperature [K]
q heat flux [W/m2 ]
hr equivalent radiation coefficient [W/m2 K]
hc convection coefficient [W/m2 K]
ε emission coefficient of the external board long
wavelength >3 ␮m [dimensionless]
˛ emission coefficient of the external board short
wavelength <3 ␮m, commonly known as absorption
coefficient [dimensionless]
z height of the channel from the bottom [m]
L half the height of the external board [m]
b width of the external board [m]
e cavity thickness [m]
v velocity [m/s]
G solar radiation [W/m2 ]
Cp specific heat capacity [kJ/kg K] Fig. 1. Basic scheme of the ventilated facade.
 density [kg/m3 ]
Ain cross section of the channel [m2 ]
CD discharge coefficient [dimensionless]
Cv discharge coefficient [dimensionless] The transfer function [9] or the original response factors [10] of a
Ccover sky cloudiness index [dimensionless] wall, can be computed from the outside surface temperature of the
h hour [h] massive wall to the superficial temperature at its internal side (Tme
Patm atmospheric pressure [hPa] and Tmi in Fig. 2).
P0 pressure at sea level [1000 hPa] Then, the model proposed here for the façade could be used to
ε0 emissivity of a clear sky [dimensionless] compute (in a quasi-steady state manner) the superficial tempera-
Tdp dew point temperature [K] ture at the outside of the massive wall (Tme).
Xt predicted value of a variable at instant t [vble unit] The following simplifying hypotheses have been taken:
X predicted mean value of a variable [vble unit]
Mt measured value of a variable at instant t [vble unit]
1. The exterior tile board is 1 cm thick and its mass is negligi-
M measured mean value of a variable [vble unit]
ble compared with that of the wall behind, which supports it.
p board
Therefore its heat capacity is neglected, as the experimental
wall cavity internal surface of the wall
test confirms. This point will be shown later on. This hypoth-
alr surroundings
esis has also been used previously by the model proposed by
m veg vegetables mass
Griffith [11].
ext exterior
2. Along the height, the temperatures of the external board and the
cavity channel
outside surface temperature of the wall, in contact with the air
avg average along the channel
of the channel, have no big variations and the model assumes a
cavity 0 bottom of the channel
uniform temperature at each element.
cavity L top of the channel
3. The air temperature along the channel changes with the height.
Dif diffuse
The heat exchange can be modelled by using an average temper-
H horizontal
ature of the air along the channel (see Fig. 3).
LW long wavelength
conv convection

needed but not computationally complex or time consuming. The

resulting conduction heat flux, at the massive internal wall, can be
obtained as a result of energy balances at: the external board, the
intermediate ventilated channel and at the outside surface of the
massive wall. The main external weather forcing functions are: the
external dry air temperature, the solar radiation and the speed and
direction of the wind.
Summarizing, the energy balances are deemed at:

1. The external board.

2. The air flowing through the ventilated channel.
3. The outside surface of the massive wall (in touch with the ven-
tilated channel).

Finally, the conduction heat transfer is related to the outside sur-

face temperature of the massive wall by the heat transfer functions
(Note: the details of this calculation are out of the scope of this paper). Fig. 2. Heat exchange balance.
 V.M. Soto Francés et al. / Energy and Buildings 65 (2013) 419–428 421

Fig. 3. Measured temperatures of the air at the ventilated channel (24/10/2010–26/10/2010).

3. Energy balance at the exterior board

Eq. (1) establishes a relationship among the mean air tempera-
As aforementioned, the exterior board temperature Tp is spa- ture inside the channel Tavg cavity air , the temperature of the surface
tially uniform. Fig. 2 shows the scheme of the energy balance. In of the wall Twall cavity , the temperature of the exterior board Tp and
short: the outside weather conditions.

1. Radiation heat exchange in the long wavelength region. It has 4. Energy balance at the cavity (quasi-steady state)
three parts; the exchange with the sky, with the surroundings
(ground and other buildings) and with the vegetable mass. These The energy balance inside the cavity is studied in this section
exchanges are linearised by computing an equivalent radiant as a quasi-stationary state process, since our measurements have
coefficient, the equations are the following: shown that the thermal inertia of the external elements (the exter-
(a) Sky long wave radiation heat exchange. nal board and the air inside the cavity) can be neglected. Thus, the
qLW
p sky
= hr p sky (Tsky − Tp ) output of this model can be used as an input boundary condition
(b) Surroundings long wave radiation heat exchange. to our simulation software. This condition is applied to the mas-
qLW
p alr
= hr p alr (Talr − Tp ) sive inertial part of the ventilated façade, where the thermal inertia
(c) Vegetables mass long wave radiation heat exchange (Note: cannot be generally neglected.
the outside dry air temperature is assumed for this mass). As mentioned previously, the air temperature changes along the
qLW
p m veg = hr p m veg (Text air − Tp ) channel. Therefore, we need an energy balance applied to a differ-
(d) Long wave radiation heat exchange inside the ventilated ential volume, created by the horizontal cross section and a dz in
channel. the channel direction, per unit of width of the façade. The terms of
qLW
p wall cavity
= hr p wall cavity (Twall cavity − Tp ) the energy balance are the following:
2. Radiation heat exchange in the short wavelength region due to
the sun. It depends on the incident radiation and the absorption 1. Change in the internal energy of the air content of the differential
coefficient. volume.

qLW
p ext = ˛p GGlobal e · b · vcavity air · cavity air · Cpcavity air · ıTcavity air (2)

3. Convective heat exchange with the outside air. 2. Convective heat exchange with the exterior board.

hc p cavity · b · ız(Tcavity air − Tp ) (3)

qconv
p ext = hc p ext (Text air − Tp )
3. Convective heat exchange with the wall.
4. Convective heat exchange with the air inside the channel.
hc wall cavity · b · ız(Tcavity air − Twall cavity ) (4)
qconv
p cavity
= hc p cavity (Tavg cavity air − Tp )
then the energy balance can be written as:

The energy balance, with the hypotheses mentioned above, can e · b · vcavity air · cavity air · Cpcavity air · ıTcavity air
be written as: + hc p · bız(Tcavity − Tp ) + hc wall
cavity air cavity
hr p alr (Talr − Tp ) + hr p sky (Tsky − Tp ) + hr p m veg (Text air − Tp ) · b · ız(Tcavity − Twall =0
air cavity ) (5)
+ hr p cavity (Twall cavity − Tp ) + ˛GGlobal + hc p ext (Text air − Tp )
where e · vcavity air · cavity air is the mass flow rate per unit width
+ hc p cavity (Tavg cavity air − Tp ) = 0 (1) of façade [kg s−1 m−1 ], also known as peripheral mass flow rate. In
422 V.M. Soto Francés et al. / Energy and Buildings 65 (2013) 419–428

order to obtain the average value of the temperature of the air, we The effect of the outside wind speed is taken into account as:
proceed as follows:
vwind cavity air = Cv · Ain · vwind (15)
ıTcavity air
+ (Tcavity air − Tcavity air ∞ ) =0 (6) where Cv has usually values in the range [0.25, 0.6] depending on
ız
the openings (see EnergyPlus [8]). In our set-up the value, which
where achieves the adjustment to the measurements, is:
hc wall cavity + hc p cavity Cv · Ain = 0.12 (16)
= (7)
e · vcavity air · cavity air · Cpcavity air
The final speed of the air inside the channel would be obtained
hc wall cavity Twall cavity + hc p cavity Tp as the sum of both effects added independently:
Tcavity air ∞ = (8)
hc wall + hc p
cavity cavity vcavity air = vthermal cavity air + vwind cavity air (17)
If Tcavity air ∞ is taken as constant then, by integrating Eq. (6) This speed has been checked in our facility by measuring the
along the z-axis, one gets: speed at several points inside the channel.
−z
Tcavity = Tcavity ∞ + (Tcavity air 0 − Tcavity air ∞ )e (9)
6. Calculation of convection coefficients
Its average value is given by:
 L The exterior convection always has a natural component and
1
Tavg cavity air = Tcavity air ız the forced convection component which is a function of the wind
L
0
  (10) speed. The well-known equation of Nusselt [12] has been employed
(1 − e−L
Tavg cavity air = Tcavity air ∞ + Tcavity air 0 − Tcavity air ∞)
but it is still commonly used nowadays like Palyvos [13].
L
hc forced = 5.7 + 3.8vwind (18)
Eq. (10) establishes a relationship among the average tempera-
ture of the air inside the channel, Tavg cavity , the temperature of the There is much less references about how to determine the
wall, Twall cavity , the temperature of the board, Tp , and the external convection coefficient inside the channel. It must depend on the
weather conditions. temperature difference between the air and the board, but also on
the air speed inside. We propose the expression from Martin [14],
5. Air velocity inside the channel which was also employed by Aparicio Fernandez [15]. The same
expression is used to calculate the convection coefficient inside the
The value of this velocity is the result of two additive indepen- channel both for the exterior board and the massive wall.
dent effects. Note that in certain cases their contribution can be = 0.85(1.959 + 1.517|Tp − Tavg 1/3
hc p cavity cavity air |
opposite. On one hand, one effect is determined by the difference
between the densities of the air inside and outside the channel + 1.33vair cavity ) (19)
(effect known as thermal velocity). On the other hand, the other
effect on the velocity is due to the wind impinging onto the façade. 1/3
hc wall cavity = 0.85(1.959 + 1.517|Twall cavity − Tavg cavity air |
EnergyPlus uses also these two effects [8], but does not take into
account the wind direction. The thermal velocity can be obtained + 1.33vair cavity ) (20)
from the energy conservation principle, as proposed by Griffith [11]
(see Eq. (11)).
7. Calculation of radiation coefficients
1 (ext air − avg cavity air )
· k · v2cavity air thermal
= ·g ·L (11)
2 avg cavity air The equivalent radiation coefficient between the exterior board
and the sky depends on Tsky , Tp and the view factor Fp−sky (usually
The constant k depends on the resistance of the channel to the taken as 0.5 in open spaces and smaller in urban boundaries, around
airflow and it is a function of the shape of the channel and openings 0.3535 (see Richman [16])). The emissivity at long wavelengths of
area, Ain . One may write per unit width: the external surface of the exterior board is εp ext .
1 2
√ = CD · Ain (12) hr p sky = Fp−sky εp (Tsky + Tp )(Tsky − Tp2 ) (21)
k
The value of Tsky can be computed using different correlations.
The constant CD depends on the shape of the inlet and outlet
The first and more simple was defined by Swinbank [17] in 1963
ports of the channel. In general a default value is 0.65 is assumed
for Text air > 0 (see Eq. (22)).
(EnergyPlus [8]).
Finally, if the air is taken as a perfect gas, the Eq. (11) is trans- Tsky = 0.0552(Text air − 273.15)1.5 (22)
formed into:
 There are more complex equations. For instance, Martin’s pro-
2gL|Tavg cavity air − Tair ext | posal [14] takes into account the factor of cloudiness and the
vthermal cavity air = CD · Ain (13) atmospheric pressure (see Eqs. (23)–(25)).
Tair ext
 0.5
GDif
if Tavg cavity air > Tair ext → upwards(vthermal cavity air > 0) Ccover = 1.4286 − 0.3 (23)
GGlob,H

if Tavg < Tair → downwards(vthermal < 0)

cavity air ext cavity air
ε0 = 0.711 + 0.0056(Tdp − 273.15) + 7.3 · 10−5 (Tdp − 273.15)2
In our experimental set-up, the value which matches the mea-  2h 
sured data is: + 0.013 cos + 12 · 10−5 (Patm − P0 ) (24)
24
1
√ = CD · Ain = 0.29 (14)
k Tsky = Text air [ε0 + (1 − ε0 )Ccover 0.8]0.25 (25)
 V.M. Soto Francés et al. / Energy and Buildings 65 (2013) 419–428 423

Fig. 4. Comparison of Tsky values using Eqs. (22) and (25).

where
1. Cloudy day GDif = GGlob,H so Ccover = 1
2. Clear day GDif = 0.2GGlob,H so Ccover = 0
Both Eqs. (22) and (25) give similar values for Text air > 0 (see
Fig. 4). These conditions are fulfilled at Castellón, where the mea-
surements were taken. Therefore, due to simplicity reasons, we
have employed the Swinbank’s one.
The equivalent coefficient between the exterior board and sur-
roundings depends on the temperatures assumed for them, Tm veg
and Tp , the view factor (Richman [16] proposes 0.5 in urban
surroundings and 0.3535 in open fields), and the coefficient of emis-
sivity (at wavelength >3 ␮m) at the outside of the board εp .
2
hr p alr = Falr εp ((Talr + Tp )(Talr + Tp2 )
interesting effect occurs in this type of façade. The room has an air
conditioner which keeps the inside air temperature constant. The
set-up has been placed on the roof of the Instituto Cerámico de
Castellón (ITC) – 39.59N, 0.05W – Spain. The ventilated façade is
made up of two vertical boards each one composed of four thin tile
bricks. At the central point of each brick thermocouples are placed
(type J. Note: previously to each measurement the accuracy in the
difference of temperatures was checked to be around 0.1 ◦ C) (see
Fig. 7). At the same height, thermocouples are placed at the center
of the channel and on the surface of the massive wall. The air speed
inside the channel is also recorded (OMRON, model D6F-W0401
(0–1 m/s) precision ±0.05 m/s and model D6F-W0401 (0–4 m/s),
precision ±0.2 m/s).
A pyranometer (HUKSEFLUX model LP02 precision ±20 W/m2 )
placed on the top of the room measures the diffuse radiation, while
(26)

The equivalent coefficient between the exterior board and the

vegetables mass depends on their temperature, which is supposed
to be nearly at Text air , Tp , the view factor Fm veg (Richman [16]
proposes 0.1465, in any case the sum of both view factors must
give one) and finally of the coefficient of emissivity (at wavelength
>3 ␮m) at the outside of the board εp .
2
hr p m veg = Fm veg εp ((Text air + Tp )(Text air
+ Tp2 ) (27)

Finally, the equivalent coefficient inside the channel is that

obtained from two infinite parallel surfaces.

((Twall 2
+ Tp )(Twall + Tp2 )
cavity cavity
hr p wall cavity = (28)
(1/εp ) + (1/εwall cavity ) − 1

8. Experimental set-up and validation

8.1. Experimental model description

The experimental set-up is made up of a rectangular room

2.33 m high, 2.6 m wide and 2.1 m deep. One of its faces
(2.6 m × 2.33 m) has been used as a ventilated façade. Well in fact,
into two, one clear and another dark coloured as can be see in Fig. 5.
Fig. 6 shows the scheme with the exact dimensions.
The set-up simulates a room with five adiabatic closures: a roof,
a floor, three walls and a wall facing south turned into a venti-
lated façade. The ventilated façade is oriented southbound in order
to receive a major quantity of radiation, precisely where the most Fig. 5. Experimental set-up.
424 V.M. Soto Francés et al. / Energy and Buildings 65 (2013) 419–428

Fig. 6. Scheme of the experimental set-up. Lengths in mm.

another similar pyranometer placed on the ventilated façade meas-
ures the total radiation incident on that surface. An anemometer
and a weather vane (R.M. YOUNG model 05103V precision in wind
speed ±0.3 m/s or 1% of the measured value, precision in wind
direction ±3◦ ), record the speed and direction of the wind just on
top of the room. The façade is open at its bottom and top to achieve
its ventilation. The gaps between the exterior board and the wall are
10 cm high. These openings are the only communication between
the channel and the outside. The room is airtight. The inside air
temperature of the room, the inside surface temperature of the wall
and the outside dry temperature are also recorded. According to the
tests it was obtained:
CD · Ain = 0.29
Cv · Ain = 0.12
In the surroundings there are neither neighbouring buildings
nor vegetable mass. Thus, according to Richman [16], the view
factors considered for this situation are:
Fsky = 0.5; Falr = 0.3535; Fm veg = 0.1465
The temperature of the surroundings is assumed to be equal to
the outside dry air. Using (reflectometer solar spectrum DEVICES
and SERVICES model SSR-ER precision ±0.01) the coefficient of
emission at short wavelengths (<3␮ m) is ˛p = 0.35 for the clear case
and ˛p = 0.95 for the dark case. The coefficient of emission at long
wavelengths (>3␮ m) (DEVICES and SERVICES model AE1 precision
±0.01) is εp = 0.95. The same values are valid for the surface of the
wall that faces the board (in contact with the air of the channel).
8.2. Results
All the measurement points are recorded in different weather
conditions and types of tile bricks. There are combinations of
sunny–cloudy, warm–cold days with clear and dark colour tile
bricks. Table 1 shows the tested days in each case. Variables selected
for the model verification have been: exterior tile temperature,
mean air temperature and air velocity inside the cavity. Experimen-
tal data were obtained and are represented in all figures every five
minutes (Fig. 11). Hence, in order to compare the proposed mathe-
(29) matical model, the calculated values have been plotted at the same
time instants and they are shown in Figs. 8, 10, 12 and 14. In these,
the time is a known variable measured which allow us to neglect
the internal massive wall dynamics. The results of the model and
the experimental values were quite acceptable. Nevertheless when
looking at the air speed inside the channel it is observed a notorious
(30) discrepancy. The error order was not big but qualitatively impor-
tant. Negative velocities (downwards) were measured while the
model predicted positive values. Looking at Fig. 8 the discrepan-
cies occurred when the wind direction was towards the North, i.e.,
against the ventilated façade.
This led to improve the model by changing the induced veloc-
ity inside the channel, into a function of the wind direction. Fig. 9
shows the registered velocity and direction of the wind. The equa-
tion which adjusted the results was Eq. (31):

Cv Ain = 0.04 + 0.12cos( + Wdir ) (31)

This change improved the match of the temperatures and the

speeds. In Fig. 10 both, measured and calculated values, are put on
top of one each other, showing the better agreement achieved.

Table 1
Test days for each case.

Tile brick type Day type Date

Clear Cold Sunny 12/11/2010

Cloudy 30/11/2010
Black standard Cold Sunny 24/10/2010 and 26/10/2010
Warm Sunny 04/08/2010
Cloudy 16/09/2010
Black (3 mm thickness) Cold Sunny 19/10/2010 and 24/11/2010
Cloudy 29/11/2010 and 30/12/2010
Warm Sunny 22/08/2010 and 11/08/2010
Cloudy 20/09/2010 and 23/09/2010
Fig. 7. Partial view of the sensors.
 V.M. Soto Francés et al. / Energy and Buildings 65 (2013) 419–428 425

Fig. 8. Air speed inside the channel, with Cv constant.

Fig. 9. Wind velocity (primary axis) and wind direction (azimuthal angle in secondary axis).

Fig. 10. Speed of the air inside the channel, with varying Cv according to Eq. (29).
426 V.M. Soto Francés et al. / Energy and Buildings 65 (2013) 419–428

Fig. 11. Exterior temperature and global radiation.

Table 2
Correlation coefficients for the temperature of the board, the average temperature of the air in the channel and its speed.

Tile brick type Day type Temp. board Temp. avg. channel Vel. air channel

Clear Cold Cloudy 0.828 0.966 0.719

Sunny 0.991 0.989 0.846

Dark Cold Cloudy 0.971 0.962 0.639

Sunny 0.973 0.967 0.928
Warm Cloudy 0.987 0.976 0.761
Sunny 0.958 0.975 0.709

In order to quantify the differences between measured data and
the predicted values for the most important variables (channel air
temperature, tile temperature and channel air velocity), the square
of the Pearson product moment correlation coefficient (R2 ) is cal-
culated and shown in Table 2 for different tile colours and different
days (cloudy and sunny).
⎛ ⎞2

⎜ t=1,n
(Xt − X)(Mt − M) ⎟
Using Eq. (29), the measurements match perfectly the calcu-
lated values of the temperature of the air inside the channel and
the exterior tile board temperature (clear and dark), for both cases,
the sunny and cloudy days (see Figs. 12–15).
The same order of adjustment was obtained for different days:
warm, cold, sunny and cloudy, and for both types of tile bricks.
Table 1 shows the days used for the tests, while Table 2 shows
the correlation coefficients obtained in each case. The graphs are
similar to the ones already shown.
R2 = ⎝  ⎠ (32) Obviously, the worse correlations are obtained for low wind
 2
2
speeds due to the accuracy problems. This study has obtained good
(X − X)
t=1,n t
(Mt − M)
t=1,n results for the main forcing external variables which influence the

Fig. 12. Mean temperature of the air inside the channel.

 V.M. Soto Francés et al. / Energy and Buildings 65 (2013) 419–428 427

Fig. 13. Correlation between the mean temperature of the air inside the channel, measured and computed.

Fig. 14. Comparison between measured and computed exterior board temperature.

Fig. 15. Correlation between measured and computed exterior board temperature.
428 V.M. Soto Francés et al. / Energy and Buildings 65 (2013) 419–428
model: dry temperature, solar radiation, colour of the board and
finally the wind speed (we have registered values between 0.01
and 5.5 m/s).
9. Conclusions
The paper presents a complete mathematical model for the cal-
culation of the conduction heat flux at the outer surface of the wall
behind a ventilated façade. This model may be used in computer
energy simulation of buildings. The main conclusions of this study
are listed bellow:
• Although bibliography exists about this subject, this work
describes in detail each variable, the hypotheses employed as well
as the way to quantify them. All values are validated by measure-
ments. Moreover a new parameter is introduced to the existing
models: the wind direction. It influences the air velocity inside
the channel. The model has been validated with an experimental
set-up. All output variables from the model have been checked
against their measured counterpart.
• The model developed assumes some hypotheses, such as ignor-
ing the thermal inertia of the outer piece. Therefore, the model
can be applied safely to façades where the exterior tile has a
smaller width than the one used here. This is: ceramic, metal or
photovoltaic modules, but opaque surfaces in any case.
• Measures have been taken from August 2010 to December 2010
in order to take a wide range of data and combine different
weather conditions. In general, sunny days have better results
compared with the model because the incident radiation is higher
and its effects on the air inside the cavity are more significant than
other variables like exterior temperature and wind. The studied
surface was built southbound, but the mathematical model can
be applied to any orientation.
• The typology of the ventilated façade studied corresponds to a
closed joints with open grills façade. Previous studies [3] concluded
that these results can also be applied to an open joints and grills
façade without losing much precision. Thus, the model now is
more accurate, while it is kept simple and its outputs still can be
computed with a small effort.
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