Employee Relations: The International Journal

Specific HR practices and employee commitment: the mediating role of job

satisfaction
Arshad Mahmood, Muhammad Naseer Akhtar, Usman Talat, Chuanmin Shuai, James C. Hyatt,
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Arshad Mahmood, Muhammad Naseer Akhtar, Usman Talat, Chuanmin Shuai, James C. Hyatt,
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Employee Relations: The International Journal, https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-03-2018-0074
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Job satisfaction
Specific HR practices and
employee commitment: the
mediating role of job satisfaction
Arshad Mahmood
School of Economics and Management,
Received 7 March 2018
China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China Revised 26 July 2018
Muhammad Naseer Akhtar 2 September 2018
Accepted 3 September 2018
NUST Business School, National University of Sciences and Technology,
Islamabad, Pakistan
Usman Talat
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Salford Business School, University of Salford, Salford, UK

Chuanmin Shuai
School of Economics and Management,
China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China, and
James C. Hyatt
University of the Cumberlands, Williamsburg, Kentucky, USA

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to increase understanding of the influence mechanisms of specific HR
practices variables – salary, job stability and job enrichment – upon employee commitment, through the
mediating role of job satisfaction, in a developing country context. Crucially, these indicate employee commitment.
Design/methodology/approach – The study analyzed three specific HR practices with a sample of 263
employees in the banking industry of Pakistan. A structural equation modeling methodology is adopted.
Findings – The findings indicate that remuneration strategies were positively related to job satisfaction and
employee commitment. Regarding the intervening impact of job satisfaction, this study found that it mediates
only for non-monetary strategies between job satisfaction and employee commitment.
Research limitations/implications – A key limitation is that this is a cross-sectional study, perhaps not
generalizable over longitudinal approaches. Another limit is posed by the developing country context of this
study, perhaps not applicable to some developed countries.
Practical implications – From an HR perspective, managing salary structure is an ongoing issue.
The proposed model suggests the use of specific practices about satisfaction and commitment as intermediate
steps to manage employee commitment.
Originality/value – The research offers a unique understanding from the developing country context of
Pakistan. This provides a novel study conducted to examine employee commitment using the high-performance
work practices model.
Keywords Employee commitment, Salary, Job satisfaction, HPWS, Job enrichment, Job stability
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
For over two decades, scholars have examined how human capital can be managed to
improve organizational performance and productivity. A part of this effort has involved the
widely adopted concept of high-performance work systems (HPWS) broadly defined as a set
of managerial practices intended to improve employee involvement, practice and performance
(Combs et al., 2006; Posthuma et al., 2013). A central premise in the study of HPWS is that
human resource practices can influence employee commitment and performance, thereby Employee Relations:
The International Journal
improving related outcomes including competitive advantage for organizations (Huselid, 1995; © Emerald Publishing Limited
0142-5455
Luna-Arocas and Camps, 2007). From a broader viewpoint, HPWS represents a valuable DOI 10.1108/ER-03-2018-0074
 ER strategy that categorizes facilitative strategic HR practices designed to enhance workforce
capability, commitment and productivity (Kehoe and Wright, 2013; Posthuma et al., 2013).
HPWS have been recognized as involving iterative loops, whereby the improvements in
employee performance and outcomes resulting from high-performance practices furnish
support for such practices (Shin and Konrad, 2017). Essentially, HPWS consists of various
practices bundled together and combined with work structures and processes, to maximize
employee knowledge, commitment and performance (Bohlander and Snell, 2007, p. 690).
The purpose of our study is to examine the effects of three specific HR practices
(i.e. salary, job stability, job enrichment) on employee commitment, through the mediating
role of job satisfaction. These HR practices form part of the HPWS bundle. That is, they are
a subset of HPWS. Thus, our study contributes to linkages between HR practices and
employee behavior and attitudes (Zhang and Morris, 2014) which often underline
performance. Our study provides a new perspective in the field based on a developing
country perspective. We discuss implications for theory and lessons for practitioners by
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testing a model that is similar to the one tested by Fabi et al. (2015), who examined
behavioral outcomes in Canada, and the one by Luna-Arocas and Camps (2007), who
examined employee behaviors in Spain. Compared to these studies we demonstrate
hypothesized HR–commitment linkages in the context of the banking sector in Pakistan.
This extends the debate to south Asia and offers a developing country context, wherein HR
strategies and practices remain under theorized and poorly visible.
Generally, some evidence has been found in the broader Asian context to indicate that HR
practices influence employee perceptions and, thus, attitudes and behavior across countries
and businesses in the region (Chen et al., 2016; Chadwick et al., 2015; Maharjan and Sekiguchi,
2016). An example is the study by Kim and Choi (2014), which found that greater investment
in employee capability through pecuniary or non-pecuniary measures may improve
organizational commitment. Consequentially, this can give rise to innovative behavior and
better performance on the job. In neighboring country India, post-liberalization during the
1990s meant greater competition amongst businesses across the region. Studies found that HR
practices should be coupled with employee commitment for the production of advantageous
results for Indian firms (Som, 2007; Paul and Anantharaman, 2004). Studies also suggest that
Indian culture characterizing the broader environment where HR–performance linkages
emerge, exercised a significant impact on performance outcomes ( Jain et al., 2012). Employee
satisfaction in the job, in addition to reward and incentives, also involved consideration of
more general social concerns and cultural events (see the review by Bhatnagar, 2007). We
found that similar to studies conducted in India, the Pakistani banking sector is heavily
influenced by context and its impact on employee behavior.
Specifically, our study was conducted in neighboring Pakistan’s banking sector and in
line with previous studies across South Asia, we were aware that proposed relationships
between HR practices and commitment stood under the influence of both immediate
situational factors as well as broader cultural trends. Whilst links between HR practices and
commitment are discussed in other studies, few, if any, studies have involved the banking
sector of Pakistan. Historically, from the viewpoint of Pakistan’s banking sector as well as
within academic circles, little remains known about the application and significance of our
hypothesized links between HR practices and commitment, through the mediating role of
job satisfaction. Therefore, our study is original because it provides a novel perspective that
tests western ideas in the poorly understood developing context of Pakistan.

Theoretical framework
Antecedents and consequence of job satisfaction
Salary and job satisfaction. From a strategic human resource management perspective and
in the context of HPWS dynamics, studies position job satisfaction – our intermediary
 variable – as a key driver of employee commitment (i.e. our dependent variable). The notion Job satisfaction
of job satisfaction, at the crux of our research model (see Figure 1), is defined as an
employee’s attachment to his or her job (De Menezes, 2012; Fabi et al., 2015, p. 774). More
broadly, job satisfaction is defined as an attitudinal construct about working conditions and
treatment in one’s job role (Fiorillo and Nappo, 2014; Joung et al., 2015). Elsewhere, Locke
(1976, p. 1300) defines job satisfaction as a pleasurable emotional state felt in appraising
one’s job experiences. In the current study, we define it as a job-level feeling of contentment
that shapes attitudes. A satisfied workforce is crucial for securing a strategic and
competitive advantage. In turn, a key variable associated with job satisfaction is employee
salary (Terera and Ngirande, 2014). The impact of salary on satisfaction can influence
commitment levels (Porter et al., 1974). The efficiency wage theory suggests that higher
salaries will convince people to remain with their current employer (Selden et al., 2013,
p. 307). Satisfaction has been associated with higher rates of retention as well. Mazzei et al.
(2016) argue that organizations and their management should reflect on the level of wage
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inequality to avoid unfair treatment of employees. Without sight of this issue, satisfaction
levels can dwindle as salary is perceived as unfair. Guan et al. (2014) find that satisfaction in
one’s job will improve if salary increases. Conversely, job dissatisfaction is categorized as a
negative force. Lower salaries are associated with job dissatisfaction (Zhang, You, Liu,
Zheng, Fang, Lu and Wu, 2014; Atefi et al., 2014). These may ultimately underline decisions
to leave organizations (Zopiatis et al., 2014, p. 132). Thus, given the influence of salary on
feelings of satisfaction amongst workforce, we hypothesize that:
H1. Salary has a significant positive impact on employee job satisfaction.
Job stability and job satisfaction. A second antecedent we hypothesize based on reviewed
studies is the concept of job stability. Hackman and Oldham (1974) recognized job stability as
specific satisfaction in one’s job role that has a motivational pull on employees. More recently
Probst (2003, p. 452) defined job stability as “the perceived stability and continuance of one’s
job as one knows it.” Loi et al. (2014) expand this definition to include a continued perception
that one will keep the job alongside desired features of it. We agree and align with the idea
that job stability is the notion of continued and desired stability felt in one’s job (Herzberg,
1968; Probst, 2003; Loi et al., 2014). An employee values job stability as a threshold condition
of job satisfaction. In paid employment, as oppose to self-employment, the feeling of stability
in one’s job is valued to a greater extent and thus appears to contribute more toward job
satisfaction (Millán et al., 2013). With the advent of flatter and delayered organizations,
opportunities have lagged globally; subsequent studies have reported a decline in job stability
in North America (Farber, 2008, p. 746; Osterman, 2013). Since the financial global crisis in
2008, employees across countries in Europe and South Asia have also reported lower levels of
job stability and declining satisfaction (Markovits et al., 2014).
This presents job stability and its impact on job satisfaction as a contemporary concern
worth further examination in the field. Job stability remains a core factor that underpins

Job Stability

Salary Job Satisfaction Job Enrichment

Employee Figure 1.
Commitment Research model
 ER feelings about job satisfaction amongst employees (Sukriket, 2015). However, the
relationship is not always clear. For instance, a study that included seven HR practices
of HPWS suggests that stability in the job was not significantly related to satisfaction,
well-being and performance (Mihail and Kloutsiniotis, 2016). Similarly, another study, which
examined the banking sector in India, suggests that lower salaries in the banking sector,
might be compensated for, with improvements in job stability (Rajadhyaksha, 2012). These
results stand contrary to other studies in two respects. First, they suggest that job stability
does not always correlate with employee satisfaction, commitment and a healthy
relationship between employer and employee (Latorre et al., 2016). Second, salary may be
substituted for by greater job stability suggesting an inverse relationship, rather than a
straight forward positive one. Adopting a broader approach, a study by Mihail and
Kloutsiniotis (2016) highlights that job stability is sensitive to local occupation and industry
context. Given the widespread downturn in job stability reported in reviewed studies,
studies reporting mixed results concerning the variables, and overall lack of studies about
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the impact of job stability in a South Asian, Pakistani context, we hypothesize the following
positive relationship:
H2. Increase in job stability will increase employee job satisfaction.
Job enrichment and job satisfaction. From a human resourcing perspective, to motivate
employees remains a central concern for theorists and practitioners (Bailey, 1993;
Appelbaum et al., 2000; Kundu and Gahlawat, 2016; Hung et al., 2017). In efforts to motivate
workers, practitioners can employ job enrichments strategies. The fundamental idea is to
enrich a job so that it appeals to employee interests and also bestows a sense of
responsibility (Ezenduka et al., 2016). Enriched jobs allow employees the opportunity to use
a range of interesting skills and capabilities (McEvoy and Buller, 2013). Thus, the
experience of doing enriched jobs motivates employees to perform with a sense of
enjoyment, autonomy and ownership of the job. Consequently, enriched jobs offer desirable
levels of employee satisfaction (Choudhary, 2016). A strategic and beneficial consequence of
job satisfaction is increased likelihood of retention of valuable employees who firms have
invested in (Cegarra-Leiva et al., 2012; Deery and Jago, 2015). On a broader scale, satisfied
employees also tend to produce high-quality services and products that lead to satisfied
customers (Malhotra and Mukherjee, 2004). We propose the following hypothesis:
H3. Implementation of job enrichment strategies increases employee job satisfaction.
Job satisfaction and employee commitment. The fourth crucial variable of our study, in
addition to salary, job stability, job enrichment strategies and job satisfaction, is employee
commitment (see Figure 1 – dependent variable). In the literature, the notion of commitment
has been defined as a key cognitive process of identifying with one’s organization (Sheldon,
1971; Buchanan, 1974). Employee commitment is a psychological attitude of the employee.
This attitude enables the employee to identify the goals and values of his or her organization
(Peng et al., 2016, p. 51). Consequently, employees are often motivated to pursue aligned
interests and remain loyal to the organization (Meyer and Allen, 1991). Commitment is
important because it often leads to better job performance ( Jaramillo et al., 2005) and thus
the competitive advantage for organizations. Studies have suggested that commitment
promotes satisfaction in one’s job role (Patrick and Sonia, 2012; Zhang, Wu, Miao, Yan and
Peng, 2014; Peng et al., 2016, p. 55).
In the context of HPWS research, within the past decade studies suggest converse
directionality (job satisfaction→employee commitment). A positive correlation between
job satisfaction and employee commitment has been found by De Menezes (2012), who
examined HR practices designed to enrich the employee experience in the western context
of the UK. Similarly, in the eastern context of China, Fu and Deshpande (2014) found that a
 supportive environment significantly impacted employee commitment to the organization Job satisfaction
through the mediating variable of job satisfaction. Fabi et al. (2015) examined HPWS
and found that satisfaction levels significantly affect commitment and, thus, the intention
to leave or remain with the current organization. Linking our intermediary variable
of job satisfaction with the dependent variable of employee commitment; thus, we
hypothesize that:
H4. Job satisfaction will increase employee commitment.
The mediating role of job satisfaction. Based on Fiorillo and Nappo (2014), Joung et al. (2015)
and Locke (1976), we define job satisfaction as a job-level feeling of contentment that shapes
attitudes about the job. With regard to salary/pay, the equity theory suggests that an
employee will be satisfied with a job if he or she judges the effort expended as adequately
rewarded with salary. Similarly, if they compare their salary with others and judge to be
unfairly paid, the feeling of dissatisfaction ensues. Another interpretation is that satisfaction
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level in a position can be high or low based on the difference between what one believes he
or she should be paid, and what one actually gets paid (Lawler, 1971; Lawler, 1990; Lum
et al., 1998, p. 307). Employees are attracted to monetary compensation and this can be a
significant component in satisfaction levels as well as turnover choices (Pillay, 2009); the
latter indicating commitment and loyalty to one’s organization. Studies have found that
salary is used by employers as a key strategy for improving employee commitment and
retention (Mitchell and Lee, 2001; Horwitz et al., 2003; Terera and Ngirande, 2014). Thus, the
implication of the reviewed studies is that salary can affect satisfaction levels in one’s job,
which, in turn, can mediate the impact of employee commitment and thus performance in
the role. To test the mediation impact of job satisfaction in explaining the indirect impact of
salary on employee commitment, we propose the following hypothesis:
H5. Job satisfaction will mediate the relationship between salary and employee commitment.
H2 and H4 suggest that job stability is related to employee commitment through the
mediating effect of job satisfaction. Reviewed studies demonstrate that job stability, defined
as a sense of stability about one’s job and its desirable aspects (Loi et al., 2014), affects
employee feelings of satisfaction (Farber, 2008, p. 746; Osterman, 2013; Sukriket, 2015). And
studies also suggest that levels of satisfaction in job roles impact on commitment to stay
with an organization and work hard (Millán et al., 2013; Fu and Deshpande, 2014; Fabi et al.,
2015). Studies maintain that feeling of job stability can maintain healthy levels of
commitment (Abegglen, 1958; Morris et al., 1993; Iverson, 1996). Another study asked
whether satisfaction with job stability leads to commitment and thus better employee
performance, a major goal of HPWS. It found some evidence to support this hypothesis
(Yousef, 1998). In the context of paid employment of bankers, in so far as both job stability
and job satisfaction levels may effect employee commitment, we test the mediating impact
of job satisfaction by proposing the hypothesis:
H6. Job satisfaction will mediate the relationship between job stability and employee
commitment.
Our last hypothesis configures the research model in Figure 1 suggested by H3 and H4,
whereby job enrichment is related to employee commitment mediated by job satisfaction.
Prior research recognizes that job enrichment is associated with commitment (Cordery et al.,
1991; Niehoff et al., 2001). In principle, empowering behavior to enrich job roles, often
practiced as part of HPWS, can lead to increased employee commitment and related
concepts like loyalty (Niehoff et al., 2001; Fabi et al., 2015). According to the
abilities-motivation-opportunities framework, enrichment of jobs roles that involve
making the job more interesting and autonomous for individuals can be motivational
 ER (Theriou and Chatzoglou, 2009). Enrichment that expands the scope of work can also offer
opportunities to perform and innovate. Additionally, enriching job roles may drive people to
pursue goals on behalf of the organization to which they find themselves committed
(Bučiūnienė and Škudienė, 2008). Thus, there is a case to argue that job enrichment in so far
as it is motivational and creates opportunities, which drives workers to identify with
organizations, thereby reducing negative turnover intentions. Our research examines the
intermediary impact of job satisfaction when examining job enrichment and commitment.
To this extent, we hypothesize that:
H7. Job satisfaction will mediate the relationship between job enrichment and employee
commitment.
Overall, the reviewed literature has emphasized the importance of our hypotheses. Greater
clarity about the application of this model, particularly within the developing country
context of Pakistan , adds new knowledge and understanding about employee satisfaction
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and commitment. This contributes to the existing literature (specifically see Lum et al., 1998;
Luna-Arocas and Camps, 2007; Fabi et al., 2015), which poses and tests similar process
models in different contexts. The model we examine in the current study aligns with related
studies used to represent and predict behavioral outcomes of employees.

Method
Participants and procedure
Overall, 400 self-completion questionnaires were administered by the researchers (a response
rate of 65.75 percent). A total of 263 non-managerial employees working in various private and
public sector commercial banks based in Rawalpindi/Islamabad region, Pakistan participated
in this study: 172 (65.40 percent) were males, and 111 (34.60 percent) were females.
The majority of the respondents were between 18 to 30 years of age i.e. 145 (55.13 percent), or
31–40 years old (75 ¼ 25.52 percent). Of the respondents, 193 (73.38 percent) were married,
and 70 (26.62 percent) were single. Regarding their academic qualifications, 150 (57.03 percent)
had an undergraduate degree from affiliated colleges/further education colleges/degree
awarding institutes, 101 (38.41 percent) had a postgraduate degree, with only 12 (4.56 percent)
graduated with higher secondary school certificate.
Participants were provided with a self-completion questionnaire pack, which consisted of
the measures of remuneration strategy: salary, job enrichment, job stability, job satisfaction
and employee commitment. Demographic data such as age, gender, marital status,
education, experience and monthly income were also collected. The participants were
informed about the confidentiality, and anonymity issues as well as their right to withdraw
from participating in the current study at any point of time or at any stage.

Measures
Salary
Salary was measured by adapting three items from the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
by Weiss et al. (1967) based on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from completely
unsatisfied ¼ 1 to completely satisfied ¼ 5. A sample item included how an employee feels
about pay, amount of work and salary in comparison with colleagues in similar positions, as
well as workers in similar positions working in the competing firms, “My salary compared
with workers in a similar position with competing firms.” Cronbach’s α ¼ 0.85.

Job enrichment
Job enrichment was measured in the employee survey by adapting three-items from the Job
Diagnostic Survey of Hackman and Oldham (1974, 1975) based on a five-point Likert-type
 scale ranging from strongly disagree ¼ 1, to strongly agree ¼ 5. A sample item is: “Your job Job satisfaction
requires you to do many things at work, using a variety of your skills and talents.”
Cronbach’s α ¼ 0.76.

Job stability
Job stability was measured by adapting two-items from the Job Diagnostic Survey by
Hackman and Oldham (1974, 1975) based on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from
strongly disagree ¼ 1 to strongly agree ¼ 5. A sample item: “If I do a good job the company
won’t fire me.” Cronbach’s α ¼ 0.84.

Employee commitment
Employee commitment was measured by three items based on a five-point Likert-type scale
ranging from “strongly disagree ¼ 1, to strongly agree ¼ 5,” adapted from Mowday et al.,
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1979 – the version of Organizational Commitment Questionnaire. We considered the

measurement and analysis considered by Allen et al. (2003) based on the recommendations
by Bozeman and Perrewé (2001) as cited in Luna-Arocas and Camps (2007,
pp. 26-46). A sample item was, “I am willing to put in a great deal of effort beyond that
normally expected in order to help this organization to be successful.” Cronbach’s α ¼ 0.86.

Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction was measured by adapting two-items from Price (1977) based on a five-point
Likert-type scale ranging from “strongly disagree ¼ 1” to “strongly agree ¼ 5.” A sample
item included, “I find real enjoyment in my job, and I am fairly well satisfied.” Cronbach’s
α ¼ 0.88 (Table I).

Measure/ Factor Cronbach’s

variable Scale/item loadings CR α

Salary S1 I feel about: “My pay and the amount of work I do” 0.84 0.91 0.85
S2 “My salary compared with my colleagues with similar
position within the company” 0.93
S3 “My salary compared with workers in similar position
with competing firms” 0.87
Job JEN1 “Your job requires you to do many things at work, using a
enrichment variety of your skills and talents” 0.66 0.78 0.76
JEN2 “I can make autonomous decisions at work” 0.67
JEN3 “I organize my work as I see fit” 0.87
Job Stability JSB1 “If I do a good job the company won’t fire me” 0.88 0.87 0.84
JSB2 “Compared with my company other companies fire
workers more readily in times of difficulty” 0.87
Employee EC1 “I am willing to put in a great deal of effort beyond that
commitment normally expected in order to help this organization to
be successful” 0.97 0.95 0.88
EC2 “I talk up this organization to my friends as a great
organization to work for” 0.93
EC3 “I would accept almost any type of job assignment in
Table I.
order to keep working for this organization” 0.88
Measures with scale-
Job JS1 “I find real enjoyment in my job, and I am fairly items, composite
satisfaction well satisfied” 0.93 0.94 0.86 reliability, factor
JS2 “I like my job better than the average worker” 0.94 loadings and
Note: Items listed in this table as cited in Luna-Arocas and Camps (2007, pp. 26-46) reliability scales
 ER Analytical procedure
Reliability statistics
We examined the values of average variance extracted (AVE), composite reliability (CR) and
Cronbach’s α through SPSS V. 23. The values of each item showed that it is in the acceptable
range (0.5) e.g. the value of S1 is 0.84 and EC3 is 0.94. AVE and CR are used for checking the
validity of the scale. The minimum acceptable value of AVE should be o0.50 and our
values are within range (job stability ¼ 0.77). Literature suggested that the value of CR
should be greater than 0.70 for each variable. Therefore, the results indicated ( for e.g. CR
value of variable salary is 0.91) that each variable achieved this requirement as shown
in Table II. The last step was to find the reliability of the scale. The minimum value for
reliability should be o 0.60. The results showed that the value of Cronbach’s α is within the
reach of this requirement ( for e.g. job satisfaction ¼ 0.86).

Confirmatory factor analysis

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To find out distinctiveness between the variables, a series of confirmatory factor analysis
were conducted through AMOS v. 23. We tested the hypothesized research model with all
five multi-item constructs in this study and also compared the measurement model fitness
with the number of alternative models in order to find the threats from the biasness of
common method variance if any (Podsakoff, 2003; Akhtar et al., 2016). The CFA values are
shown in Table II. We tested the model fitness of our five-factor multi-item model through
AMOS V. 23. Several studies recommended the standard values for the different
components of model fitness such as RMESA should be W0.08, and the values of CFI,
NNFI, GFI, IFI be o0.90 in order for the model to be significant. Results of the CFA baseline
model showed the best fit, i.e. RMSEA ¼ 0.059; CFI ¼ 0.92; NNFI ¼ 0.92; GFI ¼ 0.91;
and IFI ¼ 0.92.

Correlation coefficients
Table III shows descriptive analysis of the current study, which includes mean, standard
deviation, correlation coefficients and AVE. From the mean, we inferred that the majority of
respondents agreed that of all the survey items, the highest mean value was for job
satisfaction scale (4.01) and the lowest was for job stability (2.31). The maximum value of
standard deviation from mean was 0.84 for job stability, which showed that people felt lower
job stability. The correlational analysis showed that all the values were positive and
significantly related to each variable in this study. The maximum correlation value was 0.52
between commitment and job satisfaction. It can be concluded that these two variables have
a positive medium type relationship. The values of AVE were greater than the values of
correlation coefficients.

Model χ2 df RMSEA CFI NNFI GFI IFI Δχ2 Δdf

One-factor model 948.38*** 47 0.23 0.45 0.44 0.6 0.46 481.43 2

Three-factor model 466.95*** 49 0.16 0.75 0.72 0.78 0.75 273.11 9
Five-factor model 193.84*** 58 0.059 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.92 baseline model
Notes: n ¼ 263, RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation; CFI, comparative fit index; NNFI,
non-normated fit index; GFI, goodness fit index. The five-factor model denotes to our suggested model which
Table II. includes salary, job enrichment, job stability, job satisfaction and commitment. A three-factor model means
Results of combining all independent variable into one variable (salary, job enrichment and job stability), mediating
confirmatory variable (job satisfaction) and combining one dependent variable of this study (commitment). The one-factor
factor analysis model indicates all items includes in one latent variable. ***p o 0.001
 Hypotheses testing Job satisfaction
To test the hypothesis, structure equation modeling was performed with the help of
AMOS v. 23 as shown in Table IV. The first hypothesis related to the positive and
significant effect of salary on job satisfaction was supported ( β ¼ 0.22, p o0.001). The
second hypothesis regarding the positive impact of job stability on job satisfaction was also
supported by a significant relationship ( β ¼ 0.13, p o0.01). Likewise, the third hypothesis
( β ¼ 0.10, p o0.001) for job enrichment and job satisfaction was significantly related.
Finally, the hypothesis that job satisfaction would increase employee commitment was also
supported ( β ¼ 0.47, p o0.001). The next series of hypotheses of this study was regarding
the mediation effect of job satisfaction between commitment and remuneration strategies
(salary, job stability and job enrichment). The results revealed that for financial strategies
( β ¼ 0.15, p o0.01), job satisfaction will not act as a mediator as shown in Table IV.
However, for non-financials strategies such as job stability ( β ¼ 0.04, p W0.05) and job
enrichment ( β ¼ −0.05, p W0.05), it will act as a mediator, and job satisfaction has a
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significant effect on this relationship (Figure 2).

Discussion
The purpose of the current study was to examine the impact of specific HR practices on
employee attitude and behavior in the developing context of Pakistan’s banking sector. Our
study is the first of its kind to test the proposed model in the developing country context of
Pakistan’s banking sector. In this study, we hypothesized predictors (salary, job enrichment
and job stability) and tested their impact on employee commitment through the mediating
role of job satisfaction at work. Past research has explored similar variables and modeled
their dynamics to explain employee commitment and related behavioral outcomes
(Parasuraman, 1989; Lum et al., 1998; Weisman et al., 1980; Luna-Arocas and Camps, 2007;
Fabi et al., 2015).

Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5

1. Salary 2.79 0.77 (0.78)

2. Job enrichment 2.84 0.82 0.35** (0.55)
Table III.
3. Job stability 2.31 0.84 0.37** 0.37** (0.77)
Results of
4. Job satisfaction 4.01 0.69 0.31** 0.27** 0.26** (0.9) mean, standard
5. Commitment 2.96 0.67 0.29** 0.14* 0.20** 0.52** (0.84) deviation, correlation
Notes: Average variance extract (AVE) values are given in diagonal position as bold and italic. and average
*,**Significant at the 0.05 and 0.01 levels, respectively (two-tailed) variance extract

Estimate SE CR p Results Remarks

JSF ← Salary 0.22 0.051 3.739 *** Accepted

JSF ← JE 0.15 0.048 2.581 ** Accepted
JSF ← JST 0.13 0.047 2.175 ** Accepted
EC ← JSF 0.47 0.054 8.551 *** Accepted
EC ← Salary 0.15 0.046 2.678 ** Not accepted No mediation
EC ← JST 0.04 0.042 0.754 0.451 Accepted Full mediation Table IV.
EC ← JE −0.05 0.043 −1.01 0.312 Accepted Full mediation Results of SEM
Notes: JE, job enrichment; JST, job stability; JSF, job satisfaction; EC, commitment. **p-value significant at 0.01; analysis for
***p-value significant at 0.001 hypothesis testing
 ER
Job
0.22***
Satisfaction
Salary
0.47***

0.15** 0.15**

–0.05 Employee
Job Commitment
Enrichment 0.13*

0.04
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Job Stability

Notes: JE, job enrichment; JST, job stability; JSF, job satisfaction; EC, commitment;
Figure 2.
Hypotheses testing SEM, hypothesized research model with regression weights. Standardized
regression weights. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001

In particular, we developed a model that bears similarity to models tested in previous

studies including Luna-Arocas and Camps (2007) and Fabi et al. (2015). We tested behavior
at the individual level of analysis situated in Wright and Boswell’s (2002) typology of HR
management research. Our sample was larger compared with Luna-Arocas and Camps
(2007), and our context is different and offers a developing country perspective compared
with both Luna-Arocas and Camps (2007) and Fabi et al. (2015). Inspired by their study and
in line with their agenda, we agree that further scientific analysis of HR practices and
linkages with attitudes and behavior is needed. (Luna-Arocas and Camps, 2007, p. 39). This
directly supported the need for our own study and the significance and resolve of our
outcomes. Further, our study extends the debate by testing HR performance–commitment
linkages in a South Asian Eastern cultural context. Little is currently known about the
applicability and utility of our hypothesized model that brings forth theory to test its
explanatory power.
With regard to the first four hypothesized relationships, the statistical results revealed
that salary, job enrichment and job stability played a vital role in job satisfaction increase
located within the banking sector. In turn, the mediating variable of job satisfaction was also
positively related to observed increases in employee commitment. Specifically, with respect
to employee commitment, the above variables played a significant and positive role. With
regard to the intermediary effect of job satisfaction, results revealed that enrichment and
stability (non-pecuniary work-related factors, see Lum et al., 1998, p. 306) were important.
However, salary bypassed job satisfaction and showed a direct and positive impact on
commitment. Thus, for Pakistani bankers, salary can earn commitment, whereas
enrichment and stability add to commitment through feelings of satisfaction in the
experience of work.
Interestingly, from a practical viewpoint, the results highlight the importance of the
wider socio-historical context of Pakistan. We believe that widespread low levels of
employment and poverty, as well as the excess supply of labor, may account for employee
insecurities and behavior. Given that employees are readily substitutable and may – often
 implicitly – hold unemployment concerns, there appears to be considerable value placed on Job satisfaction
monetary compensation. In contrast, relatively developed and affluent economies such as
Spain (Luna-Arocas and Camps, 2007) or Canada (Fabi et al., 2015) will provide a different
cultural setting to test proposed relationships. Unemployment is lower in these developed
economies and thus employee insecurities, concerns, attitudes and behaviors reflect this
broader condition.
Past studies find that cultural values have an impact on HR practices in organizational
settings. Accordingly, our study confirms that wider cultural variables influence the impact
of HR practices on employee attitudes and commitment to their bank. Thus, decisions to
leave the banking sector – in addition to variables endogenous to our model – may, to some
extent, rely on extraneous cultural, social and economic variables.
Conclusively, our contribution takes a model similar to those tested by Fabi et al. (2015)
in Canada and Luna-Arocas and Camps (2007) in Spain, and demonstrates hypothesized
effects in an eastern context provided by the banking sector of Pakistan. This extends the
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debate to new regions where HR activity and employee commitment has not been tested,
particularly in the banking sector. In this regard, we note a recent promising study by
Kloutsiniotis and Mihail (2018) that examined HPWS effects on employee outcomes in the
Greek banking sector.

Limitations of study
Whilst the current study does make contributions, it is also limited by its scope. A key
limitation is that our adoption of a cross-sectional study design suggests that perhaps we
cannot generalize over longitudinal approaches. Second, this study is limited in that it uses a
quantitative approach that emphasizes the detection of trends and patterns, whilst it does
not enable detailed qualitative exploration that may be gauged through in-depth interviews
with organizational actors (Beer et al., 2015, p. 432). The latter approach would enable the
discovery of potentially new variables for testing, with additional explanatory power. Third,
another limit is indicated in so far as the nature of employment in private and public sector
is homogenous, which is reflected by shared and similar job characteristics (salary, benefits
or employment contract) across the developing context of Pakistan. Based on this rationale,
multi-group analysis was not used. Lastly, another limit is the constraining influence of
country-level context. That is, cross-cultural generalizability removes or ignores the context,
which may pose significant influence.

Conclusion
Our study suggests that the adoption of specific HR practices can lead to greater employee
satisfaction and commitment, particularly in the banking sector. Fundamentally, monetary
or financial compensation directly buys commitment, whilst non-monetary tactics including
enrichment and stability are mediated by satisfaction levels. To some extent, this suggests
that salary may have an immediate but relatively short-term and superficial impact on
employee motivations to perform. Salary, as an economic necessity for workers, is
exchanged for work performed. However, in testing salary, our results also indicate that
satisfaction is bypassed and thus work is not fulfilled at a deeper psychological level. This
means that salary is not a sufficient means to earn sustainable commitment for bankers in
Pakistan. The implication can be retention problems. Consequently, a worker will pursue
better salaries. We recommend a focus on deeper fulfillment through non-monetary
practices. For example, socially rewarding activities that develop trust reportedly enhance
work engagement ( Jawahar and Schreurs, 2017). Engagement, in turn, connotes employee
commitment (Macey and Schneider, 2008).
On-the-job social support that builds trust, performance and provides autonomy can also
motivate employees toward greater engagement and commitment (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007).
 ER In larger part, breaking away from traditional and historical trends of centralized power hubs in
the Pakistani banking sector, an effective move would involve devolution of responsibility and
power. Employees will not take ownership, feel engaged or provide commitment without job
enrichment that involves the above activities of engendering trust. Further research and practice
may wish to expound on our model in the context of eastern cultures and developing countries.

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Further reading
Appelbaum, E. and Batt, R. (1994), The New American Workplace: Transforming in the United States,
ILR Press, Ithaca, NY.

Corresponding author
Muhammad Naseer Akhtar can be contacted at: naseer.akhtar@nbs.nust.edu.pk

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