College of Algebra

Sets

Definition
What is a set? Well, simply put, it's a collection.
First we specify a common property among "things" (we define this word
later) and then we gather up all the "things" that have this common
property.
For example, the items you wear: hat, shirt, jacket, pants, and so on.
I'm sure you could come up with at least a hundred.
This is known as a set.

Notation
There is a fairly simple notation for sets. We simply list each element (or
"member") separated by a comma, and then put some curly brackets
around the whole thing:｛3,6,91,…｝
The first set {socks, shoes, watches, shirts, ...} we call an infinite set,
the second set {index, middle, ring, pinky} we call a finite set.
But sometimes the "..." can be used in the middle to save writing long
lists:
{a, b, c, ..., x, y, z}
In this case it is a finite set.

Numerical Sets
Set of even numbers: {..., −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, ...}
Set of odd numbers: {..., −3, −1, 1, 3, ...}
Set of prime numbers: {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...}
Positive multiples of 3 that are less than 10: {3, 6, 9}
We can also define a set by its properties, such as {x|x>0} which means
"the set of all x's, such that x is greater than 0".
And we can have sets of numbers that have no common property, they
are
just defined that way. For example:
{2, 3, 6, 828, 3839, 8827}
{4, 5, 6, 10, 21}
{2, 949, 48282, 42882959, 119484203}

Equality
Two sets are equal if they have precisely the same members. Now, at first
glance they may not seem equal, so we may have to examine them
closely!
Example: Are A and B equal where:
A is the set whose members are the first four positive whole numbers
B = {4, 2, 1, 3}
Let's check. They both contain 1. They both contain 2. And 3, And 4. And
we have checked every element of both sets, so: Yes, they are equal!
 Subsets
When we define a set, if we take pieces of that set, we can form what is
called a subset.
Example: the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A subset of this is {1, 2, 3}. Another subset is {3, 4} or even another is {1},
etc.
But {1, 6} is not a subset, since it has an element (6) which is not in the
parent set.
In general: A is a subset of B if and only if every element of A is in B.
Example: Is A a subset of B, where A = {1, 3, 4} and B = {1, 4, 3, 2}?
1 is in A, and 1 is in B as well. So far so good.
3 is in A and 3 is also in B.
4 is in A, and 4 is in B.
That's all the elements of A, and every single one is in B, so we're done.
Yes, A is a subset of B
Note that 2 is in B, but 2 is not in A. But remember, that doesn't matter,
we
only look at the elements in A.
Example: Let A be all multiples of 4 and B be all multiples of 2.
Is A a subset of B? And is B a subset of A?
Well, we can't check every element in these sets, because they have an
infinite number of elements. So we need to get an idea of what the
elements look like in each, and then compare them.
The sets are:
A = {..., −8, −4, 0, 4, 8, ...}
B = {..., −8, −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, ...}
By pairing off members of the two sets, we can see that every member of
A is also a member of B, but not every member of B is a member of A.
So: A is a subset of B, but B is not a subset of A

Proper Subsets
A is a proper subset of B if and only if every element of A is also in B, and
there exists at least one element in B that is not in A.
Example:
{1, 2, 3} is a subset of {1, 2, 3}, but is not a proper subset of {1, 2, 3}.
Example:
{1, 2, 3} is a proper subset of {1, 2, 3, 4} because the element 4 is not in
the first set.
Notice that when A is a proper subset of B then it is also a subset of B.

Empty Set and Subsets

So let's go back to our definition of subsets. We have a set A. We won't
define it any more than that, it could be any set. Is the empty set a
subset
of A?
Going back to our definition of subsets, if every element in the empty
set
is also in A, then the empty set is a subset of A. But what if we
 have no elements?

It takes an introduction to logic to understand this, but this statement is

one
that is "vacuously" or "trivially" true.
A good way to think about it is: we can't find any elements in the empty
set
that aren't in A, so it must be that all elements in the empty set are in A.
So the answer to the posed question is a resounding yes.
The empty set is a subset of every set, including the empty set itself .

Order
 In sets it does not matter what order the elements are in.
Example: {1,2,3,4} is the same set as {3,1,4,2}
When we say order in sets we mean the size of the set.
Another (better) name for this is cardinality.
A finite set has finite order (or cardinality). An infinite set has infinite order
(or cardinality).
For finite sets the order (or cardinality) is the number of elements.
Example: {10, 20, 30, 40} has an order of 4.
For infinite sets, all we can say is that the order is infinite. Oddly enough,
we can say with sets that some infinities are larger than others, but this is
a
more advanced topic in sets.

Prime and Composite Numbers

A Prime Number is: a whole number that cannot be made by multiplying

other whole numbers.
Example: 5 is a prime number.
We cannot multiply other whole numbers like 2, 3 or 4 together to make 5
Example: 6 can be made by 2×3 so is NOT a prime number, it is
a composite number
1 is not Prime and also not Composite.

Dividing Into Eqaul Groups

It is all about trying to divide the number into equal groups
Some whole numbers can be divided up exactly, and some can't!
Example: 6
6 can be divided exactly by 2, or by 3: 6 = 2 × 3
Example: 7
But 7 cannot be divided up exactly.
· When a number can be divided up exactly it is a Composite Number
· When a number cannot be divided up exactly it is a Prime Number
So 6 is Composite, but 7 is Prime

Not Into Fractions

We are only dealing with whole numbers here! We are not going to cut
things into halves or quarters.

Not Into Groups of 1

We could have divided 7 into seven 1s (or one 7) like this: 7 = 1 x 7
But we could do that for any whole number!
Example: is 7 a Prime Number or Composite Number?
We cannot divide 7 exactly by 2 (we get 2 lots of 3, with one left over)
We cannot divide 7 exactly by 3 (we get 3 lots of 2, with one left over)
We cannot divide 7 exactly by 4, or 5, or 6.
We can only divide 7 into one group of 7 (or seven groups of 1): 7 = 1 x 7
So 7 is a Prime Number
It is a Composite Number when it can be divided exactly
by a whole number other than itself.
Example: is 6 a Prime Number or Composite Number?
6 can be divided exactly by 2, or by 3, as well as by 1 or 6:
6=1×6
6=2×3
So 6 is a Composite Number
Example: 12 can be divided exactly by 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12:
1 × 12 = 12
2 × 6 = 12
3 × 4 = 12
So 12 is a Composite Number
Any whole number greater than 1 is either Prime or Composite

Factors
We can also define a Prime Number using factors.
When the only two factors of a number are 1 and the number,
then it is a Prime Number
It means the same as our previous definition, just stated using factors.
And remember this is only about Whole Numbers (1, 2, 3, ... etc), not
fractions or negative numbers.
Examples:
3=1×3
(the only factors are 1 and Prime
3)
   
6 = 1 × 6   or   6 = 2 × 3
Composite
(the factors are 1,2,3 and 6)
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

The Basic Idea

The Basic Idea is that any integer above 1 is either a Prime Number, or
can be made by multiplying Prime Numbers together. Like this:
Prime: 2,3,5,7,11,13,17,etc…
Composite: 4,6,8,9,10,12,14,15,16,etc…
So they are either prime, or primes multiplied together.

What does it mean?

"Any integer greater than 1" means the numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ... etc.
A Prime Number is a number that cannot be exactly divided by any other
number (except 1 or itself).
By multiplying prime numbers we can create any other whole number.
Example: 42
Can we make 42 by multiplying only prime numbers? Let's see:
2 × 3 × 7 = 42
Yes, 2, 3 and 7 are prime numbers, and when multiplied together they
make 42.
Any of the numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ... etc are either prime numbers, or can
be
made by multiplying prime numbers together.
Example: 22
22 can be made by multiplying the prime numbers 2 and 11 together.
2 × 11 = 22
No other combination of prime numbers will work.

Repeated Numbers
Example: 12 is made by multiplying the prime
numbers 2, 2 and 3 together.
12 = 2 × 2 × 3
That is OK. In fact we can write it like this:
12 = 22 × 3
It is still a unique combination (2, 2 and 3)
(Note: 4 × 3 does not work, as 4 is not a prime number)

Whole Numbers and Integers

Whole Numbers
Whole Numbers are simply the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... (and so on)
Examples: 0, 7,212 and 1023 are all whole numbers
(But numbers like ½, 1.1 and −5 are not whole numbers.)
 Counting Numbers
Counting Numbers are Whole Numbers, but without the zero. Because
you can't "count" zero.
So they are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... (and so on).

Natural Numbers
"Natural Numbers" can mean either "Counting Numbers" {1, 2, 3, ...}, or
"Whole Numbers" {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}, depending on the subject.

Integers
Integers are like whole numbers, but they also include negative
numbers ... but still no fractions allowed!
So, integers can be negative {−1, −2,−3, −4, ... }, positive {1, 2, 3, 4, ... },
or
zero {0}
We can put that all together like this:
Integers = { ..., −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... }
Examples: −16, −3, 0, 1 and 198 are all integers.
(But numbers like ½, 1.1 and 3.5 are not integers)

 Integers = { ..., −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... }

 Negative Integers = { ..., −4, −3, −2, −1 }
 Positive Integers = { 1, 2, 3, 4, ... }
 Non-Negative Integers = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... } (includes zero)

NAME NUMBERS EXAMPLES

Whole Numbers ｛0,1,2,3,4,…｝ 0,27,398,2345,
Counting Numbers ｛1,2,3,4,…｝ 1,18,27,2061
Integers ｛...-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,…｝ -15,0,25,1103

Rational Numbers

A Rational Number can be made by dividing two integers.

(An integer is a number with no fractional part.)
Example:
1.5 is a rational number because 1.5 = 3/2   (3 and 2 are both integers)
3
1.5  ratio
2
Rational

Most numbers we use in everyday life are Rational Numbers.

Here are some more examples:
NUMBER AS A FRACTION RATIONAL?
5 5/1 Yes
1.75 7/4 Yes
.001 1/1000 Yes
 -0.1 -1/10 Yes
0.111… 1/9 Yes
√2 ? No

  The square root of 2 cannot be written as a simple fraction! And there are
many more such numbers, and because they are not rational they are
called Irrational.
Another famous irrational number is Pi (π):
?
  3.14159... 
?
Irrational

Formal Definition of Rational Number

A rational number is a number that can be in the form p/q
where p and q are integers and q is not equal to zero.
p
So, a rational number can be: q
Examples:
p q p/q =
1 1 1/1 1
1 2 1/2 0.5
55 100 55/100 0.55
1 1000 1/1000 0.001
253 10 253/10 25.3
7 0 7/0 “q” can’t be
zero
Just remember: q can't be zero

Using Rational Numbers

How to add, subtract, multiply and divide rational numbers

Multiplication
To multiply two rational numbers multiply the tops and bottoms
a c ac
 
Separately: b d bd
1 2 1 2 2 1
    or 0.2
Example: 2 5 2  5 10 5

Division
To divide two rational numbers, first flip the second number over (make it
a
 a / b a d ad
  
reciprocal) and then do a multiply like above: c / d b c bc
1 1 1 6 1 6 6
     3
Example: 2 6 2 1 2 1 2

Addition and Subtraction

We will cover Addition and Subtraction in one go, as they are the same
method.
Before we add or subtract, the rational numbers should have the same
bottom number (called a Common Denominator).
The easiest way to do this is to
Multiply both parts of each number by the bottom part of the other: