Energy 187 (2019) 115976

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Theoretical analysis of exergy destruction and exergy flow in direct

contact process between humid air and water/liquid desiccant
solution
Lun Zhang*, Xia Song, Xiaosong Zhang
School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Direct contact between humid air and water/liquid desiccant (LD) solution is common in air-conditioning
Received 24 April 2019 systems, where transfer (heat/mass) and conversion (evaporation/condensation) processes occur. This
Received in revised form work analyzes these processes using exergy theory and a two-film model. The exergy flow and exergy
15 August 2019
destruction of heat transfer and mass transfer can be expressed using a unified exergetic expression and
Accepted 18 August 2019
depicted by a psychrometric chart. Results show that the equivalent air film of the water/solution is a
Available online 21 August 2019
medium for exergy flow and is thus used to determine the exergy change of the water/solution. Direct
evaporative cooling and condensation dehumidification are two representative cases between humid air
Keywords:
Exergy
and water. In the former, the thermal exergy and humid exergy both flow from the humid air to water,
Air-conditioning where exergy destruction and conversion of the humid exergy into thermal exergy are inevitable. In the
Liquid desiccant latter, thermal and humid exergy flows are all reversed. Dehumidification and regeneration are two
Heat and mass transfer crucial and reversed processes between the humid air and solution. The concentration exergy of the
solution is involved in the thermal and humid exergy flows. The solution exports its concentration exergy
to complete the exergy flows during dehumidification, and it obtains the concentration exergy from
exergy flows during regeneration.
© 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction characteristics and influencing factors (inlet parameters, flow rates,

Water evaporation into humid air or vapor condensation into
water/liquid desiccant (LD) solution is an integral process in many
devices such as open or closed cooling towers [1,2], water spray
cooling [3], dehumidifiers and humidifiers [4], which are common
components of air-conditioning systems. In such a process, heat
transfer and mass transfer coexist, directly affecting one another
[4].
The mathematical models for heat and mass transfer processes
between humid air and water have been presented in Refs. [2,5,6].
The models usually include four equations (the continuity equation,
momentum equation, energy conservation equation, and the mass
conservation equation) and the developed heat and mass transfer
equations. Furthermore, Hawlader et al. [2] and Klimanek et al. [6]
numerically predicted the distributions of velocity, density, tem-
perature, and humidity ratio of humid air and water. The transfer
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zhanglun@seu.edu.cn (L. Zhang).
flow patterns) have also attracted much attention. Correlations for
the mass and heat transfer coefficients in a closed wet cooling
tower have been proposed [1]. Enayatollahi et al. [7] identified four
distinct flow regimes in the interaction between humid air and
water, where the transfer processes were characterized by empir-
ical correlations. Likewise, Chuck et al. [8] measured the thermal
conditions of humid air passing over the surface of water and
determined its mass transfer coefficient. Furthermore, mass
transfer plays an important role in the heat and mass transfer
characteristics between the water surface and airstream [9].
The surface vapor pressure of LD solution is lower than that of
pure water, so it is very effective in dehumidifying humid air [10].
The thermal properties of often-used solutions, such as lithium
bromide and lithium chlorides, were studied in Refs. [11,12].
Mathematical models for the coupled heat and mass transfer pro-
cesses between humid air and LD solution have been developed
[4,13,14], which were solved numerically or analytically and were
verified by experimental results. Performance indexes used to
evaluate these processes include the outlet air state, the moisture
removal rate, and the enthalpy or moisture effectiveness. Based on

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.115976
0360-5442/© 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
2 L. Zhang et al. / Energy 187 (2019) 115976

Fig. 1. Air-treatment processes in air-conditioning systems.

Fig. 3. Temperature difference and moisture difference between two air states.

these indexes, various studies have researched and optimized the

useful tool, as ignored problems in energy systems can be found
coupled heat and mass transfer processes regarding their influ-
and new techniques can be proposed to further improve the sys-
encing factors, such as solution type [15], flow path [4] (mainly
tems’ performances. For example, an exergy model for the air-
counter-flow, cross-flow, or parallel-flow), flow rate [16,17], and
conditioning system of a building was presented by Razmara
inlet states of the humid air and solution [17e19]. Besides focusing
et al. [29], and a model predictive control technique using the
on the performances of a single dehumidifier and regenerator, re-
exergy model was developed to reduce exergy destruction.
searchers have proposed and analyzed various LD dehumidification
Bejan et al. [25] defined the total exergy of humid air, which is
systems, such as the heat pump driven LD system [20], the LD
the sum of the thermomechanical exergy and chemical exergy,
system regenerated by solar energy [21], the two-stage LD system
enabling exergy analysis to be applied to air-water contact systems.
by the cascade utilization of low-temperature heat [22], and the
Muangnoi et al. [30] proposed the exergy distributions for water
optimum area distribution between the dehumidifier and regen-
and humid air and the exergy destruction of a cooling tower.
erator in the LD system [23].
Moreover, second law efficiency based on the exergy changes of
The studies discussed above are mainly based on the first law of
humid air and water in the tower was defined [31] to illustrate its
thermodynamics and the heat and mass transfer equations.
performance under various inlet parameters. Wang et al. [32]
Research from the perspective of the second law of thermody-
investigated schematically the exergy transfer process in a tower
namics, especially in the context of exergy, remains limited. Wepfer
and discussed the relationship between the exergy efficiency and
et al. [24] demonstrated the application of the second law to air-
thermal efficiency. The unmatched characteristic in the coupled
conditioning systems. Exergy or availability is an accurate metric
heat and mass transfer processes between humid air and water was
related to the quality of energy [25]. It can be used to evaluate the
presented using exergy analysis [33] and it was found that reducing
efficiency of energy systems and energy conversion processes.
the unmatched coefficient could result in the decrease of exergy
Qureshi et al. [26] presented a parametric work of air-conditioning
destruction.
processes by applying exergy analysis for measuring irreversible
Exergy analysis has also been conducted on LD dehumidification
losses (or entropy generation). Akpinar et al. [27] and Hepbasli et al.
systems. Ahmed et al. [34] investigated the exergy of a hybrid
[28] performed energy and exergy analyses for ground-source heat
system, incorporating a dehumidifier based on LD, then calculated
pump systems and gave exergy efficiency values for the systems.
the irreversible losses of the system and attempted to optimize the
They concluded that the exergetic evaluation method may be a
desiccant flow rate. An exergy analysis model, incorporating a
desiccant solution, was proposed by Xiong et al. [35] to facilitate the
performance evaluation of a two-stage LD dehumidification sys-
tem. Likewise, Su et al. [36] presented the exergy distribution in a
two-stage LD system driven by low-temperature heat and power.
Exergy of humid air, water and liquid desiccant were defined
carefully by Peng et al. [37] to obtain exergy evaluation indexes of
an LD evaporative cooling system.
Most work has focused on either the direct contact between
humid air and water or that between the humid air and solution,
but little work has deployed a useful exergetic strategy to associate
them. This work thus builds a unified model of the direct contact
between humid air and water/solution, analyzing the heat transfer
and mass transfer using exergetic theory. Then, the exergy
destruction and exergy flow in several typical cases are clearly
presented.

Fig. 2. Two-film model as part of a differential transfer process between humid air and
the equivalent air film of water/solution [37].
 L. Zhang et al. / Energy 187 (2019) 115976 3

Fig. 4. Definition of work and exergy.

Fig. 5. Thermal exergy destruction in heat transfer.

Fig. 6. Thermal exergy flow during heat transfer.

4 L. Zhang et al. / Energy 187 (2019) 115976

Pv ¼ Pe (2)

where subscripts e, w, v, and S denote the equivalent air film, water,

vapor, and solution, respectively, and Pe is the equivalent vapor
pressure of the state in equilibrium with the water/solution.
The equivalent humidity ratio of the water/solution is defined
as:

Pe
ue ¼ 0:622 (3)
B  Pe

where B is the standard atmospheric pressure.

Fig. 7. Mass transfer between two air states.
2. Model and basic definition
2.1. Transfer and conversion processes between humid air and
water/LD solution
In air-conditioning systems, many air-treatment processes
involve direct contact between humid air and water or LD solution.
Evaporative cooling in cooling towers, condensation dehumidifi-
cation, dehumidification, and regeneration in LD dehumidification
systems are the four main processes, as illustrated in Fig. 1.
When humid air flows over the water/LD solution surface, a
stagnant air film forms, which adheres to the surface [38]. A two-
film model theory can be used here [39], as shown in Fig. 2. The
following assumptions are made:
Owing to the temperature difference between the humid air and
water/solution, heat transfer occurs between them. The air film is
not capable of storing thermal energy. If Pv of the humid air is
higher than Pe, vapor in the humid air will be transferred to the air
film. Excessive vapor in the air film condenses into the water/so-
lution. Conversely, vapor in the air film will be transferred to the
humid air. Water evaporates into the air film, supplementing the
transferred vapor. Thus, mass transfer occurs between the humid
air and air film, and conversion (condensation or evaporation) oc-
curs between the air film and water/solution, as demonstrated in
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 shows a differential transfer process, after which, the
states of both the humid air and air film fluctuate infinitesimally
around the initial states. Any complete process consists of a series
of consecutive differential processes, and thus, the following
analysis mainly concerns about a differential process.
The heat transfer and mass transfer between the two air states
(the humid air and equivalent air film) are expressed in Eqs. (4) and
(5). The driving forces (difference in temperature and moisture) are
shown in the psychrometric chart in Fig. 3.
cp:a ma dTa ¼ aðTe  Ta ÞdA (4)

(a) The resistance of mass transfer is mainly located at the air
side;
(b) The properties of the water/solution side are uniformly
distributed;
(c) The properties of the air film are determined by the water/
solution side.
The air film remains in equilibrium with the water/solution and
is, therefore, regarded as the equivalent state of the water/solution.
Accordingly, the temperature and vapor pressure of the film are
given by Eqs. (1) and (2), respectively:
Te ¼ Tw orTe ¼ TS
ma dua ¼ am ðua  ue ÞdA (5)
2.2. Exergy definition
Exergy is defined as the available energy when any system de-
velops reversibly into the state that is in equilibrium with a given
reference state [40]. There are two key terms here: one is “revers-
ibly”, representing an ideal, optimal process; the other is “reference
state”, whose exergy is zero.
Fig. 4(a) shows an object with temperature, T, and a reference
object at temperature, T0. The infinitesimal sensible heat, dQ, is
(1)
defined as positive when sensible heat is released from the
considered object to the reference object and negative when heat

Table 1
Unified expression of heat transfer and mass transfer.

Heat transfer Mass transfer

Driving forces DT Du
Differential equations dQ ¼ mcp ,dT dD ¼ m,du
Transfer equations Q ¼ aA,DT D ¼ am A,Du
Derivation of exergy destruction dExd;h dExðT1 Þ dExðT2 Þ dExd;m dExðu1 Þ dExðu2 Þ
¼  ¼ 
dQ d
Q dQ

dD dD

dD 
Exergy destruction 1 1 u1 u2
dExd;h ¼ T0  dQ dExd;m ¼ 1:608Ra T0 ln  ln ,dD
T2 T1 1 þ 1:608u1 1 þ 1:608u2
Deduction - Appendix A

 !
Unified exergetic expression 1 1 1 1
dExd;h ¼ T0  dQ dExd;m ¼ T0  ,rdD
T2 T1 T2;dp T1;dp
 L. Zhang et al. / Energy 187 (2019) 115976 5

Fig. 8. Humid exergy flow during mass transfer.

flow is the other way round. When T is higher than T0, the
maximum produced work, can be expressed by Eq. (6). The object
supplies exergy. When T is lower than T0, the minimum absorbed
work can also be expressed by Eq. (6). The object obtains exergy.
Exergy is a positive value. For an object, the direction of exergy flow
is distinguished by supplied exergy and obtained exergy.


1 1
dW ¼ T0  ,dQ
T0 T
Accordingly, Fig. 4(b) shows the four possible situations con-
cerning exergy flow for an object. The two background colors in
Fig. 4(b) correspond, respectively, to those in Fig. 4(a). The exergy of
an object is directly related to the reference state, which is the
horizontal axis in Fig. 4(b).
The exergy of humid air itself, which consists of 1 kg of dry air
and u kg of vapor, at standard atmospheric pressure, is the sum of
thermal exergy and humid exergy [33], which is:
where Ra denotes the gas constant of air, u0 is the reference hu-
midity ratio, and cp.m is defined as:
cp:m ¼ cp:a þ u,cp:v (8)
cp.a is the specific heat of dry air and cp.v is the specific heat of vapor.
The reference temperature of thermal exergy, T0, is chosen as the
ambient temperature, and the reference humidity ratio of humid
(6) exergy, u0, is chosen as the saturated humidity ratio of T0 [41]. Since
the equivalent state of the water/solution is shown to be, in the
psychrometric chart, similar to that of the humid air, their exergy
can also be expressed by the above equation using the temperature
(Te) and the equivalent humidity ratio (ue) of the equivalent air film.
3. Exergy destruction during heat and mass transfer
3.1. Exergy destruction during heat transfer

ExðT; uÞ ¼ m,exðT; uÞ

  
T T 1 þ 1:608u0 u (7)
¼ cp:m mT0  1  ln þ mRa T0 ð1 þ 1:608uÞln þ 1:608u ln
T0 T0 1 þ 1:608u u0

Fig. 5(a) shows that dQ is transferred between object 1, with

temperature T1, and object 2 with temperature T2, a transferal
which is an irreversible process with exergy destruction. This
transferal assumes a possible corresponding reversible process
with a Carnot cycle and a reverse Carnot cycle, as illustrated in
Fig. 5(b). The reversible process can produce extra work (dW1þdW2)
compared with the irreversible process, which is exactly the exergy
destruction during heat transfer, as depicted in Eq. (9):


1 1
dExd;h ¼ dW1 þ dW2 ¼ T0  dQ (9)
T2 T1
In the process, as seen in Fig. 5(a), according to the exergy
definition, object 1 releases dQ, so it exports exergy. Object 2 ab-
sorbs dQ, so it obtains exergy. The exergy destruction is the differ-
ence between the supplied exergy and the obtained exergy as
shown by Eq. (10):


1 1
dExd;h ¼ dExðT1 Þ  dExðT2 Þ ¼ T0  dQ (10)
T2 T1
Fig. 9. Thermal and humid exergy destruction.
6 L. Zhang et al. / Energy 187 (2019) 115976
Fig. 10. Exergetic analysis of the transfer and conversion processes of evaporative
cooling.
Fig. 11. Exergetic analysis of the transfer and conversion processes of condensation
dehumidification.
Object 1 offers the exergy, part of which is absorbed by object 2,
and the rest is destroyed, as demonstrated in Fig. 6(a). Accordingly,
the exergy balance is demonstrated in Fig. 6(b). dEx(T1) is divided
into two parts, dExd,h and dEx(T2), expressed as a dotted line. dEx(T2)
should have been at the second quadrant, so it is moved to the right
with a solid line.
According to Eqs. (7) and (8), the exergy destruction during heat
transfer (thermal exergy destruction) between two air states, with
temperatures T1 and T2, respectively, can be calculated as in Eq. (11).
The result is the same as that shown in Eq. (10):
 L. Zhang et al. / Energy 187 (2019) 115976 7

Table 2
A case study of the condensation dehumidification process.

Parameter Value dExh dExm dExd,h dExd,m

Water T 15  C 1.333$(dQþrdD) - e -
(Supplied)
Equivalent air film T or Tdp 15  C 1.333$dQ (Medium) (Conversion) 1.240$dQ (Destroyed) 0.928$rdD (Destroyed)
u 10.65 g/kg 1.333$rdD (Medium)
Humid air T 32  C 0.093$dQ (Obtained) 0.405$rdD (Obtained)
u 20 g/kg
Tdp 24.91  C

Table 3
A case study of the regeneration process.

Parameter Value dExh dExm dExC dExd,h dExd,m

Humid air T 20  C 0.750$dQ (Supplied) 2.214$rdD (Supplied) e 0.689$dQ (Destroyed) 1.809$rdD (Destroyed)
u 8 g/kg
Tdp 10.89  C
Equivalent air film T 33  C 0.061$dQ (Medium) 0.405$rdD (Medium) e
u 20 g/kg
Tdp 24.91  C
Solution T 33  C (Conversion) e 0.344$rdD (Obtained) e e
X 34.84% 0.061$dQþ0.061$rdD (Obtained)

  the expression for humid exergy destruction consists of dew point

dExd;h dExðT1 Þ dExðT2 Þ 1 vexðT1 Þ vexðT2 Þ temperatures (T1,dp and T2,dp) and latent heat, rdD.
¼  ¼ 
dQ dQ dQ cp:m vT vT Accordingly, when a state with humidity ratio, u, transfers dD


1 1 with reference state, u0, its humid exergy can also be defined as
¼ T0  (11) expressed in Eq. (15), using its dew point temperature, Tdp, and
T2 T1
latent heat, rdD, similar to the thermal exergy shown in Fig. 4 and
Eq. (6). In Fig. 7, state 1 transfers dD to state 2, so humid exergy
destruction during this process can be calculated using the same
3.2. Exergy destruction during mass transfer method as that in Fig. 5.
State 1 releases rdD, but its dew point temperature is lower than
The mass transfer between two air states with different mois- T0, so it obtains exergy. State 2 absorbs rdD, so it exports exergy. The
ture contents is shown in Fig. 7. dD is transferred from the state 1 to exergy destruction is given by Eq. (16). Fig. 8 shows humid exergy
state 2. The exergy destruction during mass transfer (humid exergy flow and exergy balance. Part of the exergy supplied by state 2 flows
destruction) can be calculated by Eq. (12): to state 1 and the rest is destroyed.
!
dExd;m dExðu1 Þ dExðu2 Þ vexðu1 Þ vexðu2 Þ   1 1
¼  ¼  (12) dEx Tdp ¼ T0  r dD (15)
dD dD dD vu vu T0 Tdp
Substituting the exergy equation of humid air, Eq. (12) is
!
rewritten as [33]:     1 1
dExd;m ¼ dEx T2;dp  dEx T1;dp ¼ T0  ,r dD

 T2;dp T1;dp
dExd;m u1 u2
¼ 1:608Ra T0 ln  ln (13)
dD 1 þ 1:608u1 1 þ 1:608u2 (16)
In summary, thermal exergy destruction and humid exergy
destruction can be expressed in a unified way, as shown in Fig. 9.

3.3. Unified expression of thermal exergy destruction and humid

exergy destruction
Since thermal exergy is expressed using temperature but humid
exergy using the humidity ratio, it is difficult to compare the two. In
order to further illuminate the relationship between thermal and
humid exergy, humid exergy can be expressed in a unified way as
thermal exergy (the derivation process is in Appendix A). As shown
in Fig. 7, humid exergy destruction is thus written as:
!
1 1
dExd;m ¼ T0  ,rdD
T2;dp T1;dp
Table 1 clearly demonstrates the unified expression of heat and
mass transfer. The expression for thermal exergy destruction con-
sists of temperatures (T1 and T2) and transferred heat, dQ. However,
4. Exergy analysis for direct contact processes between
humid air and water/solution
4.1. Transfer and conversion processes between humid air and
water
The equivalent water state is located on the saturation curve, as
shown in Fig. 1. Given a specific water temperature, Tw, the corre-
sponding equivalent humidity ratio, ue, is exactly that of the satu-
rated air with temperature Tw. This paper considers the two cases
(14) between humid air and water, evaporative cooling and condensa-
tion dehumidification.
4.1.1. Evaporative cooling process
Direct evaporative cooling is common in air-conditioning
8 L. Zhang et al. / Energy 187 (2019) 115976
Fig. 12. Heat, mass and exergy flowing through the equivalent air film.
systems, where humid air is usually used to cool water, such as
occurs in a cooling tower. Owing to the temperature difference and
moisture difference, water releases heat and evaporates into humid
air. For an infinitesimal process, dQ is thus transferred from water to
humid air through the equivalent air film. Meanwhile, liquid dD first
evaporates into the air film and is then transferred to humid air,
with latent heat rdD.
The thermal and humid exergy of the humid air and water are
presented in Fig. 10(a). The equivalent water state is the saturated
humid air, consisting of both thermal exergy, dExh,e, and humid
exergy, dExm,e. However, water is completely liquid with thermal
exergy only [33]. Thermal exergy destruction and humid exergy
destruction, during the transfer process, are illustrated in Fig. 10(b).
Fig. 10(c) shows exergy flow in this process. During heat transfer,
humid air provides its thermal exergy, dExh,a, part of which is
absorbed by the equivalent air film and then flows to the water
(dExh,w,1). The rest is destroyed through thermal exergy destruction.
In mass transfer, humid air supplies its humid exergy, dExm,a, part of
which is destroyed through humid exergy destruction. The rest
flows to the equivalent air film and then is converted to thermal
exergy of the water (dExh,w,2). The air film is not capable of storing
exergy and is merely a medium for exergy flow. Fig. 10(d) and Eq.
(17) present the exergy balance during this process. The two terms
on the left in Eq. (17) are the total supplied exergy and the total
obtained exergy, respectively. The term on the right is the total
exergy destruction.
Fig. 13. Concentration exergy definition of the LD solution.
  
dExh;a þ dExm;a  dExh;w;1 þ dExh;w;2 ¼ dExd;h þ dExd;m
(17)
4.1.2. Condensation dehumidification process
During the condensation dehumidification process, humid air is
cooled and dehumidified. dQ is thus transferred from the humid air
to the equivalent air film, and finally to chilled water. Meanwhile,
gaseous dD in humid air is first transferred into the air film and then
condenses into chilled water, with latent heat rdD.
Fig. 11(a) presents the thermal and humid exergy destruction in
this process, and Fig. 11(b) displays its exergy flow. The water offers
two portions of thermal exergy, dExh,w,1 and dExh,w,2. dExh,w,1 flows
directly through the equivalent air film and part of it is absorbed by
the humid air, with the rest being destroyed. dExh,w,2 is first con-
verted into the humid exergy of the air film, then part of it flows to
the humid air, with the rest being destroyed. Again, the air film is
merely a medium for exergy flow. Fig. 11(c) and Eq. (18) demon-
strate the exergy balance in this process. The three terms in Eq. (18)
are the total exergy supplied by water, the total exergy absorbed by
humid air, and the total exergy destruction.
  
dExh;w;1 þ dExh;w;2  dExh;a þ dExm;a ¼ dExd;h þ dExd;m
(18)
4.1.3. Case study
The condensation dehumidification process at standard atmo-
spheric pressure is taken as an example. Table 2 gives detailed
values of relevant parameters. The exergy destruction occurs be-
tween the humid air and equivalent air film. Humid exergy of the
air film derives from the conversion process between water and its
air film.
4.2. Transfer and conversion processes between humid air and
liquid desiccant solution
4.2.1. Definition of exergy concentration of solution
As discussed above, the equivalent air film of water is only a
medium for heat transfer, mass transfer, and exergy flow, as shown
in Fig. 12, so the supplied exergy or the obtained exergy of the water
 L. Zhang et al. / Energy 187 (2019) 115976 9


dExw ¼ dExh;w;1 þ dExh;w;2 ¼ dExh;e;w þ dExm;e;w
    
1 vexðTw Þ vexðT0 Þ vex ue;w vexðu0 Þ
¼  þ 
cp:m vT vT vu vu (19)


1 1
¼ T0  ,ðdQ þ rdDÞ
T0 Tw
Likewise, the change in exergy of the solution can also be
expressed using the exergy flowing through its equivalent air film,
as shown in Eq. (20).

dExS ¼ dExh;e;S þ dExm;e;S

    
1 vexðTS Þ vexðT0 Þ vex ue;S vexðu0 Þ
¼  þ 
cp:m vT vT vu vu (20)

 !
1 1 1 1
¼ T0  ,dQ þ T0  ,rdD
T0 TS T0 TS;dp

The equivalent air film of pure water with temperature, Tw, is

located on the saturation curve, as shown in Fig. 13. The equivalent
air film of solution (TS ¼ Tw, concentration X) is also shown in Fig. 13.
The thermal exergies of the water and solution are identical. The
humid exergy difference between them results from concentration,
X. The excess part is thus the concentration exergy of the LD so-
lution, expressed by Eq. (21):
 
vex ue;S vex ue;w
dExC;S ¼ dExS  dExw ¼ 
vu vu
! (21)
1 1
¼ T0  ,rdD
TS TS;dp

The higher the concentration, the greater the concentration

exergy of the solution. Unlike pure water, the LD solution includes
not only the thermal exergy but also the concentration exergy.

4.2.2. Dehumidification process

Fig. 14. Exergetic analysis of the transfer and conversion processes of dehumidification
process.
(the exergy change of the water) can be expressed by the exergy
flowing through the air film. As shown in Figs. 10(c) and Fig. 11(b),
the exergy change of the water can be written as:
This work considers the two possibilities between humid air and
solution, dehumidification and regeneration, as shown in Fig. 1. The
LD solution with a lower temperature and humidity ratio is used to
cool and dehumidify humid air. dQ is transferred from humid air to
the solution through the equivalent air film. Meanwhile, gaseous dD
in humid air is first transferred into the air film and then condenses
into solution, with latent heat rdD. The solution concentration, X,
thus decreases, and so too does the concentration exergy of the
solution.
Fig. 14(a) shows the thermal, humid, and concentration exergy
of the solution and humid air. Transfer loss between the humid air
and equivalent state is demonstrated in Fig. 14(b). The solution
offers two parts of thermal exergy, dExh,S,1, with sensible heat, dQ,
and dExh,S,2 with latent heat, rdD, as demonstrated in Fig. 14(a) and
(c). dExh,S,1 flows through the equivalent air film and then part of it
is lost through thermal exergy destruction. The rest is obtained by
humid air. dExh,S,2 is first converted to the humid exergy of the air
film together with the concentration exergy, dExC,S, supplied by the
solution, as shown by Fig. 14(c) and 14(d) and Eq. (22). Part of dExm,e
flows to the humid air and the rest is destroyed. The equivalent air
film is also a medium for exergy flow. Fig. 14(d) and Eq. (23)
demonstrate the exergy balance in this process. The two terms on
the left in Eq. (23) are the total supplied exergy and total obtained
exergy, respectively, while the term on the right is the total exergy
destruction.
10
Fig. 15. Exergetic analysis of the transfer and conversion processes of regeneration
process.
dExC;S þ dExh;S;2 ¼ dExm;e
 
dExh;S;1 þ dExh;S;2 þ dExC;S  dExh;a þ dExm;a
 solution supplies its thermal exergy and concentration
¼ dExd;h þ dExd;m
4.2.3. Regeneration process
Humid air with a lower temperature and lower humidity ratio is
used to cool and concentrate the solution during the regeneration
process. dQ is thus transferred from the solution to humid air.
Meanwhile, liquid dD first evaporates into the equivalent state and
then is transferred to humid air, with latent heat, rdD. The solution
concentration, X, thus increases, and so too does the concentration
exergy of solution.
The transfer loss, in other words, the exergy destruction,
L. Zhang et al. / Energy 187 (2019) 115976
between humid air and the equivalent air film is demonstrated in
Fig. 15(a). The humid air offers its thermal exergy, dExh,a, and humid
exergy, dExm,a. Part of dExh,a is destroyed through thermal exergy
destruction, the remainder flowing to the solution through the
equivalent air film. Part of dExm,a is destroyed and the rest flows to
the equivalent air film. Then, dExm,e is divided into two parts: one
part becomes the concentration exergy of the solution and the
other part is converted into the thermal exergy of the solution, as
demonstrated in Fig. 15(b) and Eq. (24). Fig. 15(c) and Eq. (25)
demonstrate the exergy balance in this process. The three terms
in Eq. (25) are the total supplied exergy, the total obtained exergy,
and the total exergy destruction, respectively.
dExm;e ¼ dExC;S þ dExh;S;2 (24)
 
dExh;a þ dExm;a  dExh;S;1 þ dExh;S;2 þ dExC;S

¼ dExd;h þ dExd;m (25)
4.2.4. Case study
The regeneration process at standard atmospheric pressure is
taken as an example. Table 3 gives detailed values, which exactly
satisfy Eq. (24) and Eq. (25).
5. Conclusions
This work theoretically analyzes the direct contact process be-
tween humid air and water/LD solution using exergy theory. The
following is a summary of the conclusions:
(1) Exergy flow and exergy destruction of heat transfer and mass
transfer between two air states can be expressed in a unified
expression (as in Eqs. (10) and (16)), in which the heat
transfer and mass transfer are expressed by dry-bulb tem-
peratures and dew point temperatures, respectively.
(2) The equivalent air film of water or a solution is a medium not
only for the transfer of heat and mass but also for exergy and
is thus used to determine the supplied exergy or obtained
exergy of the water/solution. Accordingly, the concentration
exergy of the solution can be defined as the exergy difference
between the two equivalent air films.
(3) During direct evaporative cooling between humid air and
water, humid air provides its thermal exergy and humid
exergy, which flow through the equivalent air film, except for
the exergy destruction part. Then, the rest all become the
(22) thermal exergy of the water. In condensation dehumidifica-
tion, the preceding processes are reversed.
(4) In dehumidification between humid air and solution, the
(23)
exergy to complete the exergy flow from solution to water. In
the regeneration process, the humid exergy supplied by
humid air, except for the exergy destruction part, is divided
into two parts: one becomes the concentration exergy of the
solution and the other is converted into the thermal exergy
of the solution.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No. 51708104) and the Natural Science
Foundation of Jiangsu Province, China (Grant No. BK20160669).
 L. Zhang et al. / Energy 187 (2019) 115976 11

Nomenclature
Mv ,u
M
nv a
1:608,u
A Heat and mass transfer area (m2) Pv ¼ B¼ ,B ¼ ,B (A4)
n 1 þ Ma , u 1 þ 1:608,u
cp Specific heat (kJ/(kgK)) Mv
D Mass flux (kg/s) Humid exergy destruction during the mass transfer between
Ex Exergy (kW) two air states, as shown in Fig. A1, can be expressed in Eq. (A5):
ex Exergy per mass flow rate (kJ/kg)
Exh Thermal exergy (kW)

dExd;m u1 u2
Exm Humid exergy (kW) ¼ 1:608Ra T0 ln  ln (A5)
dD 1 þ 1:608u1 1 þ 1:608u2
Exd,h Thermal exergy destruction (kW)
Exd,m Humid exergy destruction (kW) u1 and u2 are the humidity ratios of the two air states; TB and TA
LD Liquid desiccant are the corresponding temperatures of u1 and u2, respectively,
m Mass flow rate (kg/s) along the relative humidity line, 4; and TC and TD are the corre-
M Molar mass (kg/mole) sponding dew point temperatures of u1 and u2, respectively. Ac-
n Number of moles (mole) cording to Eq. (A4), Eq. (A5) can be rewritten as:
P Pressure (Pa)


B Atmospheric pressure (Pa) dExd;m P
Q Heat (kW) ¼ 1:608Ra T0 ln 1 (A6)
dD P2
r Latent heat of vaporization (kJ/kg)
R General gas constant (kJ/(kgK)) The Clapeyron equation shows the relationship between any
Rv Gas constant of vapor (kJ/(kgK)) temperature and its saturated vapor pressure, as expressed in Eq.
Ra Gas constant of dry air (kJ/(kgK)) (A7):
T Temperature (ºC)
T0 Reference temperature (ºC) r
lnPs ¼  þ A0 (A7)
V Volume (m3) Rv T
W Work (kW)
where A0 and Rv are a constant and gas constant of vapor, respec-
X Concentration (%)
tively, r denotes the latent heat of vaporization, and Ps is the satu-
u Humidity ratio (g/kg)
rated vapor pressure.
u0 Reference humidity ratio (g/kg)
P1 and P2 can be thus expressed using the dew point tempera-
a Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)
ture, TC, and TD separately. The following equation can then be
am Mass transfer coefficient (kg/m2s)
obtained:
4 Relative humidity (%)
DT Temperature difference (ºC)

Du Moisture difference (g/kg) P1 r 1 1
ln ¼  (A8)
P2 Rv TD TC
For any iso-relative humidity, 4, according to Eq. (A9), Eq. (A7)
Subscripts can be rewritten as Eq. (A10):
a Air
dp Dew point
P ¼ fPs (A9)
e Equivalent air film
S Solution
s Saturation state r
ln P ¼  þ A0  ln f (A10)
v Vapor Rv T
w Water The temperatures at the same iso-relative humidity line, TB and
TA, can thus be used to express P1 and P2, respectively:

Appendix A

P1 r 1 1
ln ¼  (A11)
P2 Rv TA TB
Both the dry air and vapor in the humid air can be regarded as an
ideal gas, so Eq. (A1) and (A2) can be obtained: Eq. (A6) is rewritten as:

Pv V ¼ nv RT (A1)


dExd;m r 1 1 r 1 1
¼ 1:608Ra T0  ¼ 1:608Ra T0 
dD Rv TD TC Rv TA TB
BV ¼ nRT (A2)
(A12)
where V denotes the volume, R is the general gas constant, B is the
where Rv/Ra ¼ 1.608, according to the molar masses of dry air and
atmospheric pressure, and n is the total number of moles of dry air
vapor, and the ideal gas thermodynamics state equation; thus Eq.
and vapor.
(A12) can be rewritten as:
Eq. (A1) is divided by Eq. (A2), shown as Eq. (A3):



Pv nv dExd;m 1 1 1 1
¼ (A3) ¼ T0  ,r ¼ T0  ,r (A13)
B n dD TD TC TA TB
1 kg of dry air and u kg of vapor constitute the humid air, so The humid exergy destruction is expressed by dew point tem-
1 kmol of dry air corresponds to Ma/Mv$u kmol of vapor. peratures or temperatures when they are exactly located at the
Eq. (A3) can thus be rewritten as Eq. (A4): same iso-relative humidity line.
12 L. Zhang et al. / Energy 187 (2019) 115976
Conflict of interest statement
No conflicts of interest exist in the submission of this manu-
script, and it has neither been published before nor been submitted
to another journal for consideration. All authors listed have
approved the enclosed manuscript for publication. I hereby declare
that the work described in this manuscript was original research.
Fig. A.1 Mass transfer between two air states.
References
[1] Fac~ao J, Oliveira AC. Thermal behaviour of closed wet cooling towers for use
with chilled ceilings. Appl Therm Eng 2000;20:1225e36.
[2] Hawlader MNA, Liu BM. Numerical study of the thermalehydraulic perfor-
mance of evaporative natural draft cooling towers. Appl Therm Eng 2002;22:
41e59.
[3] Kachhwaha SS, Dhar PL, Kale SR. Experimental studies and numerical simu-
lation of evaporative cooling of air with a water spray - I. Horizontal parallel
flow. Int J Heat Mass Transf 1998;41:447e64.
[4] Liu X, Jiang Y, Xia J, Chang X. Analytical solutions of coupled heat and mass
transfer processes in liquid desiccant air dehumidifier/regenerator. Energy
Convers Manag 2007;48:2221e32.
[5] Wei X, Duan B, Zhang X, Zhao Y, Meng Yu, Zheng Y. Numerical simulation of
heat and mass transfer in air-water direct contact using computational fluid
dynamics. Procedia Eng 2017;205:2537e44.
[6] Klimanek A, Biatecki RA. Solution of heat and mass transfer in counterflow
wet-cooling tower fills. Int Commun Heat Mass Transf 2009;36:547e53.
[7] Enayatollahi R, Nates RJ, Anderson T. Characterising the heat and mass
transfer coefficients for a crossflow interaction of air and water. Int J Heat
Mass Transf 2017;111:94e104.
[8] Chuck W, Sparrow EM. Evaporative mass transfer in turbulent forced con-
vection duct flows. Int J Heat Mass Transf 1987;30:215e22.
[9] Gu LD, Min JC, Tang YC. Effects of mass transfer on heat and mass transfer
characteristics between water surface and airstream. Int J Heat Mass Transf
2018;122:1093e102.
[10] Mei L, Dai YJ. A technical review on use of liquid-desiccant dehumidification
for air-conditioning application. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2008;12:662e89.
[11] Conde MR. Properties of aqueous solutions of lithium and calcium chlorides:
formulations for use in air conditioning equipment design. Int J Therm Sci
2004;43:367e82.
[12] Chua HT, Toh HK, Malek A, Ng KC, Srinivasan K. Improved thermodynamic
property fields of LiBrr-H2O solution. Int J Refrig 2000;23:412e29.
[13] Liu XH, Jiang Y, Qu KY. Heat and mass transfer model of cross-flow liquid
desiccant air dehumidifier/regenerator. Energy Convers Manag 2007;48:
546e54.
[14] Dai YJ, Zhang HF. Numerical simulation and theoretical analysis of heat and
mass transfer in a cross flow liquid desiccant air dehumidifier packed with
honeycomb paper. Energy Convers Manag 2004;45:1343e56.
[15] Chung TW. Predictions of moisture removal efficiencies for packed-bed
dehumidification systems. Gas Sep Purif 1994;8:265e8.
[16] Sanjeev J, Sagun T, Rajat SD. Experimental performance of a liquid desiccant
dehumidification system under tropical climates. Energy Convers Manag
2011;52:2461e6.
[17] Liu XH, Zhang Y, Qu KY, Jiang Y. Experimental study on mass transfer per-
formances of cross flow dehumidifier using liquid desiccant. Energy Convers
Manag 2006;47:2682e92.
[18] Abdul-Wahab SA, Zurigat YH, Abu-Arabi MK. Predictions of moisture removal
rate and dehumidification effectiveness for structured liquid desiccant air
dehumidifier. Energy 2004;29:19e34.
[19] Ullah MR, Kettleborough CF, Gandhidasan P. Effectiveness of moisture
removal for an adiabatic counter flow packed tower absorber operating with
CaCl2-air contact system. J Sol Energy-T ASME 1988;110:98e101.
[20] Xie Y, Zhang T, Liu XH. Performance investigation of a counter-flow heat
pump driven liquid desiccant dehumidification system. Energy 2016;115:
446e57.
[21] Gomez-Castro FM, Schneider D, Paßler T, Eicker U. Review of indirect and
direct solar thermal regeneration for liquid desiccant systems. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2018;82:545e75.
[22] Su Bosheng, Han Wei, Sui Jun, Jin Hongguang. A two-stage liquid desiccant
dehumidification system by the cascade utilization of low-temperature heat
for industrial applications. Appl Energy 2017;207:643e53.
[23] Song Xia, Zhang Lun, Zhang Xiaosong. NTUm-based optimization of heat or
heat pump driven liquid desiccant dehumidification systems regenerated by
fresh air or return air. Energy 2018;158:269e80.
[24] Wepfer WJ, Gaggioli RA, Obert EF. Proper evaluation of available energy for
HVAC. ASHRAE Transact 1979;85:214e30.
[25] Bejan A. Advanced engineering thermodynamics. second ed. New York: John
Wiley & Sons; 1997. p. 217e35.
[26] Qureshi BA, Zubair SM. Application of exergy analysis to various psychro-
metric processes. Int J Energy Res 2003;27:1079e94.
[27] Akpinar EK, Hepbasli A. Comparative study on exergetic assessment of two
ground-source (geothermal) heat pump systems for residential applications.
Build Environ 2007;42. 2004e13.
[28] Hepbasli A, Akdemir O. Energy and exergy analysis of a ground source
(geothermal) heat pump system. Energy Convers Manag 2004;45:737e53.
[29] Razmara M, Maasoumy M, Shahbakhti M, RobinettIII RD. Optimal exergy
control of building HVAC system. Appl Energy 2015;156:555e65.
[30] Muangnoi T, Asvapoositkul W, Wongwises S. An exergy analysis on the per-
formance of a counterflow wet cooling tower. Appl Therm Eng 2007;27:
910e7.
[31] Muangnoi T, Asvapoositkul W, Wongwises S. Effects of inlet relative humidity
and inlet temperature on the performance of counterflow wet cooling tower
based on exergy analysis. Energy Convers Manag 2008;49:2795e800.
[32] Wang L, Li N. Exergy transfer and parametric study of counter flow wet
cooling towers. Appl Therm Eng 2011;31:954e60.
[33] Zhang L, Liu X, Jiang Y. Exergy analysis of parameter unmatched characteristic
in coupled heat and mass transfer between humid air and water. Int J Heat
Mass Transf 2015;84:327e38.
[34] Ahmed CSK, Gandhidasan P, Zubair SM, Al-Farayedhi AA. Exergy analysis of a
liquid-desiccant-based, hybrid air-conditioning system. Energy 1998;23:
51e9.
[35] Xiong ZQ, Dai YJ, Wang RZ. Development of a novel two-stage liquid desiccant
dehumidification system assisted by CaCl2 solution using exergy analysis
method. Appl Energy 2010;87:1495e504.
[36] Su Bosheng, Han Wei, Sui Jun, Jin Hongguang. Feasibility of a two-stage liquid
desiccant dehumidification system driven by low-temperature heat and po-
wer. Appl Therm Eng 2018;128:795e804.
[37] Peng D, Zhou J, Luo D. Exergy analysis of a liquid desiccant evaporative cooling
system. Int J Refrig 2017;82:495e508.
[38] Incropera FP, DeWitt DP, Bergman TL, Lavine AS. Fundamentals of heat and
mass transfer. sixth ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 2005.
[39] Kays WM, Crawford ME. Convective heat and mass transfer. second ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill; 1980.
[40] Bejan A. Advanced engineering thermodynamics. fourth ed. Newark: Wiley;
2016. p. 95e103.
[41] Ren CQ, Li NP, T bang GF. Principles of exergy analysis in HVAC and evaluation
of evaporative cooling schemes. Build Environ 2002;37:1045e55.