EXPERIMENT NO-1

Aim: To determine focal length of a given concave mirror:

Materials Required: A concave mirror, a measuring scale, a screen, a mirror holder.

THEORY

1. The nature of the image formed by a concave mirror, depends upon the position of the object in front
of it.
2. When a parallel beam of light coming from a distant object, such as tree or pole is incident on the
reflecting surface of a mirror, then after reflection, the rays converge at a point and this point is called
principal focus of the concave mirror as shown in the figure.
3. If a screen is placed at the point of focus, a sharp, real and inverted image of the distant object is
obtained.
4. The distance between the pole and principal focus of a spherical mirror is called focal length of the
mirror. It is equal to half the radius of curvature of the mirror.

Ray Diagram

Procedure

1. Select a distant object from the laboratory window (distance should be more than 50 ft).
2. Fix the concave mirror on the mirror stand placed on the table, facing the distant object.
3. Place the screen in front of the reflecting surface of the mirror. Move the screen back and forth until a
clear, sharp image of the distant object is obtained on the screen.
4. Measure the distance between the concave mirror and the screen with a metre scale. This distance is
the focal length of the given concave mirror. Record the focal length.
5. Repeat the above procedure twice and record the readings. Take three readings and calculate the
average focal length.

Observation Table

S.No Position of concave mirror (cm) Position of screen (cm) Focal length (cm)

3
Calculation
Mean value of focal length of concave mirror =

Result
The focal length of the given concave mirror = cm

Precautions

1. The distant object must be well illuminated to produce a well illuminated and distinct image.
2. Always place the concave mirror near an open window.
3. The polished surface of the concave mirror must face the distant object.
4. There should be no obstacle or hurdle in the path of rays of light from the distant object, incident on
the concave mirror.
5. The base of the stands of the concave mirror and screen should be parallel to the measuring scale.
6. The mirror holder along with the mirror should be kept perpendicular to the measuring scale for
precise measurements.

EXPERIMENT NO-2
Aim: To determine focal length of a given convex lens

MATERIALS REQUIRED: A convex lens, a measuring scale, a screen, a lens holder

THEORY

1. The rays coming from the distant object such as tree/sun/electric bulb or tall building travelling a
large distance, can be considered as a parallel beam of light.
2. These rays after refraction through the convex lens converge at a point called focus.
3. The separation between the lens and the screen placed at the focus gives the approximate focal length
of a convex lens.
4. The image obtained on the screen kept at principal focus is real, inverted and highly diminished i.e.
much smaller in size than the object.

RAY DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE

1. Select a distant object from the laboratory window (distance should be more than 50 ft).
2. Keep the lens in a holder facing a distant object say tree branches.
3. Place the screen on the other side of the lens
4. Move the screen back and forth until a clear, sharp image of the distant object is obtained on the screen.
5. Note down the position of the lens and the screen,
6. Measure the distance between the convex lens and the screen with a metre scale. This distance is the focal
length of the given convex lens. Record the focal length.
7. Add all the focal lengths found out and find the average value of the focal length of the convex lens.
Observation Table

S.No Position of convex lens (cm) Position of screen (cm) Focal length(cm)

Calculation
Mean value of focal length of convex lens =

Result
The focal length of the given convex lens = cm

Precautions

1. Convex lens should be placed vertically.

2. There should be no obstacle or hurdle in the path of rays of light from the distant object incident on
the common lens.
3. In order to get a well illuminated and distinct image, it must be ensured that the distanct object is well
illuminated.
4. The base of the stands of the convex lens and screen should be parallel to the measuring scale.

EXPERIMENT NO-3
AIM
To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles of
incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, angle of emergence and interpret
the result.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
A drawing board, 4-6 all pins, white sheet of paper, rectangular glass slab, a protractor, a scale, a
pencil and thumb pins.
THEORY

 Laws of Refraction:
(i) The incident ray, the normal ray and the refracted ray, all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant
quantity for the two given media. This law is also known as Snell’s law. sin i/ sin r
This constant value is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the
first
 During Refraction:
(i) Angle of incidence = Angle of emergence.
(ii) Incident ray and emergent ray are parallel.

RAY DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

1. Fix a white sheet on the soft drawing board using thumb pins.
2. Using a sharp pencil, draw the outline boundary of the glass slab, place it at the of the
white paper.
3. Let ABCD be the rectangular figure obtained by drawing.
4. Mark point E on AB and draw a perpendicular EN and label it as a normal ray.
5. Draw one angle of 30° with the help of protractor with EN. Fix pins at P and Q at 4-5
cm on the ray that is obtained by the angle.
6. Place the glass slab on the rectangular figure ABCD.
7. To fix R and S, see through the glass slab of side CD, such that when seen through the
glass slab, all the pins P, Q, R and S should lie in a straight line.
8. Draw a small circle around the pins P, Q, R and S and remove the pins.
9. Remove the glass slab.
10. Join points R and S such that it meets CD at point F. Draw a perpendicular N’M’ to
CD at point F.
11. Using a pencil, join the points E and F.
12. Measure the angles formed at AB and CD, i.e, the incident angle, refracted angle and
emergent angle.
13. The lateral displacement is obtained by extending the ray PQ in a dotted line which is
parallel ray to FRS.
14. Measure the lateral displacement.
15. Repeat the same procedure for angle 45° and 60°.
OBSERVATIONS TABLE
S.No Angle of incidence Angle of refraction Angle of emergence ∠i – ∠e

1.

2.

3.

4.

During performing this experiment, ∠i – ∠e may not be zero at times as shown above due to human error.

RESULT

1. The angle of incidence is nearly equal to the angle of emergence.

2. The angle of refraction is less than angle of incidence because light is travelling from rarer to denser
optical medium.
3. The lateral displacement increases with angles of incidences.
4. When the light ray travels from optically rarer medium (air) to optically denser medium (glass) the
light bends towards the normal.
PRECAUTIONS

1. The glass slab should be perfectly rectangular with all its faces smooth.
2. The drawing board should be soft so that pins can be easily fixed on it.
3. The angle of incidence should lie between 30° and 60°.
4. All pins base should lie in straight line.
5. While fixing the pins P and Q or the pins R and S, care should be taken to maintain a distance of about
5 cm between the two pins.
6. Draw thin lines using a sharp pencil.
7. Use a good quality protractor having clear markings.
8. Place the protractor correctly to measure the angles.
9. Perpendiculars should be drawn correctly.
SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The glass slab should not have any air-bubbles.

2. All measurement of angles using protractor should be done accurately.

EXPERIMENT NO-4
AIM
To trace the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
A drawing board, 4-6 all pins, white sheet of paper, a glass prism, a protractor, a scale, a pencil
and thumb pins.

THEORY
  A prism has a triangular base and three triangular lateral surfaces. These surfaces are
inclined to each other.
Refraction of light through a prism
 In the given figure, ABC represents the base of a glass prism. Let PE be the incident ray of
light on face AB of the prism. EF represents the bending of light when it enters the prism and
hence show the refraction of light.
 RS is the emergent ray at face AC of the prism.
The angle D shows the angle of deviation.
The ∠BAC of the prism is called the angle of the prism and it is denoted by ‘A’.

RAY DIAGRAM

• ∠A =angle of prism, ∠A + ∠D = ∠i + ∠e
PROCEDURE

1. Fix a white sheet on a drawing board using drawing pins.

2. Place a glass prism on it in such a way that it rests on its triangular base. Trace the outline of
the prism using a pencil.
3. Draw a thin line NEN normal (perpendicular) to face AB of the prism. Also draw a straight line
PE making an angle preferably between 30° and 60° as shown in figure.
4. Fix two pins at a distance of 5 cm from each other on the line PE as shown in the figure, later
mark these points of pins as P and Q.
5. Look at the images of the pins, fixed at P and Q, through the other face of the prism, i.e., AC.
6. Fix two more pins, at points R and S vertically such that the feet of pins at R and S appear to
be on the same straight line as the feet of the images of the pins P and Q when viewed
through the face AC of the prism.
7. Remove the pins and the glass prism.
8. Join and produce a line joining R and S, let this line meet the prism at point F.
9. Extend the direction of incident ray PQE till it meets the face AC. Also extend (backwards)
the emergent ray SRF so that these two lines meet at a point G.
10. Mark the angle of incidence ∠i, angle of refraction ∠r and the angle of emergence ∠e and ∠D
as shown in the figure.
11. Repeat the experiment for more angle of incidence preferably between 30° and 60°.

RESULT

1. The light ray, i.e., the incident ray first bends towards the normal when it gets refracted in the
prism and while leaving the prism it bends away from the normal.
2. The peculiar shape of the prism makes the emergent ray bend at an angle to the direction
of the incident ray. This angle is called the angle of deviation (∠D).
3. The angle of deviation first decreases with the increase in angle of incidence ∠i. It attains a
minimum value then increases with further increase in angle of incidence.
PRECAUTIONS

1. A sharp pencil should be used for drawing the boundary of the prism.
2. Use soft board and pointed pins.
3. The pins should be fixed at a distance of 5 cm or more.
4. The pins should be fixed vertically and immediately encircled after they are re moved.
5. While viewing the col-linearity of pins and images, the eye should be kept at a distance from
the pins so that all of them can be seen simultaneously. The col-linearity of all the four pins
can be confirmed by moving the head slightly to either side while viewing them. They all
appear to move together.
6. The angle of incidence should be between 30° and 60°.
7. Proper arrows should be drawn for the incident ray, refracted ray and emergent ray.

EXPERIMENT NO-5
AIM
To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I) passing
through it and determine its resistance. Also plot a graph between V and I.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Nichrome or manganin wire, ammeter, voltmeter, battery eliminator, rheostat, one-way plug key,
connecting wire and sand paper

THEORY
Ohm’s Law: If the physical conditions such as temperature, pressure, mechanical strain, etc.,
remain the same, the current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference (V) across the conductor. Mathematically,
I ∝V or V∝ I or V=IR or R=V/I
The proportionality constant R is called the resistance offered by the conductor to the flow of
electric current. If a graph is plotted between the current (I) flows through the conductor and the
applied potential difference (V) between its ends, it will be a straight line as shown.

The graph shows that the current through conductor increases linearly as the potential difference
across it increases. and connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Assembly Diagram
PROCEDURE

1. Keep the devices as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Note the least count of the ammeter and voltmeter.
3. Connect them with the connecting wires and keep the key open.
4. Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the positive terminal of the ammeter.
5. Check the +ve and -ve terminals of voltmeter before connecting it in the circuit.
6. Once the circuit is connected, insert the key and check the rheostat, adjust its slider and see
whether the ammeter and voltmeter readings are shown.
7. By using the slider of rheostat take three different readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
8. Record your observations in the observation table.

9. Calculate resistance of a given resistor by formula .

10. Plot a graph of voltmeter reading on X axis take V and current reading on Y axis take I.
11. Resistance increases with increase in temperature of pure metals.

OBSERVATIONS
1.Range of ammeter = ……..A
2. Least count of ammeter = ……..A
3. Range of voltmeter = ……..V
4. Least count of voltmeter = ……..V

Table for voltmeter and ammeter reading: WIRE-1

S:No Ammeter Reading I (A) Voltmeter Reading V (V) Resistance, R=V/I (Ohm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
RESULT

1. Straight line nature of the V-I graph shows that potential difference across the conductor is
directly proportional to the current flowing through it, i.e., V α I. This proves the Ohm’s law
graphically.
2. The resistance of nichrome (or manganin) wire obtained from the graph is equal (or
approximately equal) to the mean calculated value of R. It also verifies the Ohm’s law.
3. The resistance of the given wire =………..Ω

PRECAUTIONS

1. The ends of connecting wire should be neat and clean.

2. All connections should be kept tight.
3. Positive terminal of ammeter or voltmeter should be connected to positive terminal of the
battery or battery eliminator.
4. The ends of resistance wire must be connected across the terminals of voltmeter.
5. Never allow the current to flow in the resistance wire for a longer time to avoid heating effect
of current as R∝ T.
6. Range of voltmeter should be greater than the applied voltage.
7. A low resistance ranged rheostat must be used.
8. The area of cross-section of the connecting wire should be more because it offers negligible
resistance.

SOURCE OF ERROR

1. Reading error may be possible while observing the pointer of ammeter and voltmeter.
2. Thick connecting wires may not be available at the time of performing the experiment.
3. Area of cross-section of resistance wire may not be uniform across the length of wire.
4. There may be the use of. a high resistance rheostat.
5. Current may be allowed for a longer period of time.
6. The terminal screw of the instrument may not be tightened properly.