Complex Functions

Complex Analysis

Main topics: Complex functions, complex differentiation and integration.

Revision
 Complex number:

 Complex conjugate:

 Modulus (absolute value):

 Polar form of :

Note that arg is not unique since

arg is said to be multi-valued.

 Euler's formula:
 So the polar form of a complex number can be expressed as

 de Moivre's theorem:

Complex functions

Standard form:

where ( , ) and ( , ) are real functions of real variables and .

Example: Express ( ) = in the form + where and are real functions.

This is a single-valued function. Many functions in ℂ are multi-valued.

Polynomial and rational functions

Polynomial of degree

Fundamental theorem of algebra: Every polynomial of degree ≥ 1 can be factorized as

Rational function

Exponential function
If = + , then

Using Euler's formula,

Notation:

We will also often write exp ( ∈ ℂ) as . (This is technically not correct.)

Properties: If , ∈ ℂ, then

Logarithm function
The complex log function is the inverse of the complex exp function, i.e. if ∈ ℂ ( ≠ 0),
then
Notation:

• log is multi-valued.
• log is defined for all ≠ 0.

Properties: If , ∈ ℂ, then

Examples:
& ⎯⎯
1) log(−3 − √3)

2) Obtain all solutions to = −2.

Calculating Powers

Calculating powers

There are three possibilities depending on the form of .

• If is an integer, then has only one value.

Example: 1 +

• If is (real) rational = ⎯ where , ∈ ℤ , then has exactly different values.

⎯⎯ ⁄
Example: −1 + √3
• If is (real) irrational or is not real, then has infinitely many solutions.

Example: Find all values of .

⎯⎯"#$
Exercise: Show that = ! , % ∈ ℤ.
More Complex Functions

Trigonometric and hyperbolic functions

Using Euler's formula,

We can extend these results to include non-real numbers as well, i.e.

The hyperbolic functions are defined as in the real case, i.e.

Properties:
Example: Find all solutions of sin = 5 in ℂ.
 Calculus of complex functions

Limits, continuity and derivatives

 Limits: Let = , + , .

 Continuity: Complex function is continuous at a point if

  Derivative: Complex function is differentiable at = if and only if

exists. The value of the above limit is the derivative ′ .

Cauchy-Riemann equations
We obtain necessary conditions for the differentiability of a complex function = + .
Suppose ′ exists, i.e.

exists. So the limit is the same irrespective of the path chosen.

(i) Let ∆ → 0 along a straight, horizontal path.

(ii) Let ∆ → 0 along a straight, vertical path.