ENM4MR – Modern Robotics 1

4 Parallel Kinematic Manipulators: Position Analysis and Inverse

Kinematics
4.1 Introduction to Parallel Kinematic Manipulators
A Parallel Kinematic Manipulator (PKM) is a mechanism comprised of two or more closed loop
kinematic chains. The end effector is connected to the base by at least two independent kinematic
chains. There exist serial chains between the base and end effector. These serial chains are referred
to as limbs or legs. PKMs have excellent load bearing capabilities and are more accurate than serial
kinematic manipulators. PKMs can also exhibit high stiffness and rigidity. Some PKM architectures,
that have motors mounted on the base, can perform movements of the end effector with low inertia.
Some of the drawbacks of PKMs are the small and complex workspaces, difficult dynamic analysis and
modelling, and complicated calibration procedures.

PKMs have been used in flight simulators, mining machines, orientation devices, fine positioning
devices, walking machines, machining centres, motion generators, fast pick-and-place applications,
medical applications, entertainment, haptic devices, etc. PKMs can be dated back to the 1960’s when
Gough and Whitehall developed a hexapod for tyre testing applications. Later, Stewart developed a
hexapod for flight simulations.

The inverse kinematic analysis for PKMs is simple whilst the forward kinematic analysis is difficult.
Generally, numerical methods are employed to solve the forward kinematics. PKMs can be classified
as planar, spherical or spatial manipulators according to their motion characteristics. The position
analysis is made simpler when a PKM possesses fewer degrees of freedom and is symmetrical. A PKM
is classified as symmetrical when:
1. The number of limbs is equal to the number of degrees of freedom
2. The number and type of joints concerning all limbs are arranged identically
3. The location and number of actuated joints in all limbs are identical.
If the conditions above are not satisfied, the PKM is classified as asymmetrical.

For a symmetrical manipulator, the number of limbs, 𝑚𝑚, is equal to the number of degrees of freedom,
F, which is equal to the total number of loops, 𝐿𝐿 + 1 (this includes the external loop).
𝑚𝑚 = 𝐹𝐹 = 𝐿𝐿 + 1 (4.1)
Considering the degrees of freedom associated with all joints in a limb, this can be noted as
connectivity, 𝐶𝐶𝑘𝑘 .
𝑚𝑚 𝑗𝑗

� 𝐶𝐶𝑘𝑘 = � 𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 (4.2)

𝑘𝑘=1 𝑖𝑖=1

Where 𝑗𝑗 is the number of joints in the mechanism. When Equation 1.8 is substituted into Equation 4.2
and 𝐿𝐿 is eliminated by using Equation 4.1, Equation 4.3 is obtained.

� 𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 = 𝐹𝐹 + 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 (1.8)

𝑚𝑚

� 𝐶𝐶𝑘𝑘 = (𝜆𝜆 + 1)𝐹𝐹 − 𝜆𝜆 (4.3)

𝑘𝑘=1

The connectivity of each limb should not be larger than the motion parameter and less than the
degrees of freedom of the end effector.

𝜆𝜆 ≥ 𝐶𝐶𝑘𝑘 ≥ 𝐹𝐹 (4.4)

Equations 4.3 and 4.4 are useful when enumerating and classifying PKMs. The enumeration of PKMs
concerning the planar, spherical and spatial classification are discussed below.

4.1.1 Planar PKM Enumeration

For planar PKMs with 3 degrees of freedom and three limbs, 𝜆𝜆 = 3 and 𝑚𝑚 = 𝐹𝐹 = 3. Now, substituting
these values into Equation 4.3, we obtain the following equation:

𝐶𝐶1 + 𝐶𝐶2 + 𝐶𝐶3 = 4𝐹𝐹 − 3 = 9 (4.5)

Also, when substituting these values into Equation 4.4, the following is obtained:

3 ≥ 𝐶𝐶𝑘𝑘 ≥ 3 (4.6)
Equation 4.5 and 4.6 indicates that the connectivity of each limb should be 3. Simply, each limb should
possess 3 degrees of freedom concerning all the joints in the limb. If, each limb comprises of two links
and three joints, then each of the joints must be a one degree of freedom joint. If revolute or prismatic
joints are used, then seven possible limb arrangements are possible: RRR, RRP, RPR, PRR, RPP, PRP
and PPR. If it is required that each limb of the PKM be identical, then only seven 3-DOF PKMs are
possible.
4.1.2 Spherical PKM Enumeration
For spherical mechanisms, the motion parameter, 𝜆𝜆, is also equal to 3. The connectivity requirement
for spherical parallel manipulators is the same as that of planar parallel manipulators. For spherical
parallel manipulators, the only type of joint that can be used is the revolute joint. All the joint axes of
the revolute joints must intersect at a common point known as the spherical center. The only possible
limb structure is the RRR configuration. If a spherical joint is installed at the center of a spherical
parallel manipulator, it would have to be regarded as a passive joint since it cannot be actuated by
existing actuators. Three limbs would still be required for actuation. In this case, the number of limbs
would be four (including the limb with a spherical joint of zero length) but the PKM would only possess
3 degrees of freedom. Hence, the number of limbs is not equal to the degrees of freedom.

4.1.3 Spatial PKM Enumeration

For spatial mechanisms, the motion parameter, 𝜆𝜆, is equal to 6. Substituting 𝜆𝜆 = 6 in Equations 4.3
and 4.4, we obtain the following:

𝑚𝑚

� 𝐶𝐶𝑘𝑘 = 7𝐹𝐹 − 6 (4.7)

𝑘𝑘=1

And

6 ≥ 𝐶𝐶𝑘𝑘 ≥ 𝐹𝐹 (4.8)

When Equations 4.7 and 4.8 are solved simultaneously for positive integers of 𝐶𝐶𝑘𝑘 , 𝑘𝑘 = 1, 2, 3, …, the
spatial manipulator can be classified according to degrees of freedom and Connectivity Listing.

Example 4 – 1

For a spatial manipulator with 2 degrees of freedom, determine the following:

a) The number of loops

b) The sum of all joint freedoms
c) The connectivity listing

Solution

Question a)

Using Equation 4.1:

𝐹𝐹 = 𝐿𝐿 + 1
 ∴ 𝐿𝐿 = 𝐹𝐹 − 1 = 2 − 1 = 1

Question b)

Using Equation 1.8 and substituting 𝜆𝜆 = 6:

� 𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 = 𝐹𝐹 + 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆

� 𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 = 2 + (6 × 1) = 8

Question c)

Using Equation 4.1:

𝑚𝑚 = 𝐹𝐹 = 2

Since 𝑚𝑚 = 2, this indicates that there should be 2 limbs. Now, sum of the connectivity of all limbs
must equal the sum of all joint freedoms. The sum of all joint freedoms is 8. The connectivity listing is
therefore (4,4), (5,3) and (6,2). This means that 2 limbs with a connectivity of 4 in each limb is
permissible. Likewise, another kinematic structure of the limbs could have a connectivity of 5 for one
limb and 3 for the other. Finally, another kinematic structure of the limbs could have a connectivity of
6 for one limb and 2 for the other. In each case, when both numbers are added, the result is 8 (which
is the sum of all joint freedoms). The connectivity listing for this example also satisfies Equation 4.8
where 6 ≥ 𝐶𝐶𝑘𝑘 ≥ 2.

The number of links in each limb can be any number as long as the sum of all joint freedoms is equal
to the connectivity that is required. If all joints are 1 degree of freedom, then the maximum number
of links occurs. Generally, it is preferred to employ two major links that connects the end effector to
the base by three joints. An example of such is shown in Figure 4-1.

Moving Platform

Base

Figure 4-1: A limb configuration with 3 joints and 2 links

4.2 Vector Loops
The vector loop method is the development of a closed loop of vectors which usually includes the
base, end effector, bottom joint of a limb and upper joint of a limb. When the end effector and base
are connected by a limb made comprised of two links, then the inverse kinematic solution is
straightforward. However if the architecture possesses complicated leg structures, then the inverse
kinematics can be complicated. Usually, the inverse kinematic analysis is simple whilst the forward
kinematics is complicated for a parallel kinematic manipulator. Serial manipulators, on the other hand,
have complicated inverse kinematics and simple forward kinematics. Figure 4-2 shows an example of
a closed vector loop for a PKM. Figure 4-3 shows the methodology to formulate a closed vector loop.

Figure 4-2: An example of a closed vector loop

Assign
Assign
coordinate
coordinate
system to end
system to Base
effector

Assign vectors
Establish joint
and formulate a
coordinates
closed loop

Figure 4-3: Methodology to formulate a closed vector loop

Example 4 – 2

Figure 4-4 depicts a 3 DOF parallel manipulator constrained to the x-y plane and the end effector can
rotate about the z-axis. In this example, there is no rotation of the end effector therefore the rotation
matrix is simply an identity matrix. The following vectors are drawn:

• A vector from the global reference frame (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) to point 𝑃𝑃. Point 𝑃𝑃 is a reference point on the
end effector. This is vector 𝑃𝑃�⃗.

• A vector from point 𝑃𝑃 to the top of the actuator. This is vector 𝑏𝑏�⃗ which is specified with
reference to the end effector reference frame (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ).
• A vector from the global reference frame (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) to the bottom of the actuator. This is vector
𝑎𝑎⃗.
• A vector from the bottom of the actuator to the top of the actuator. This is vector 𝑠𝑠���⃗.
1

The only unknown is the vector 𝑠𝑠���⃗1 (length of the actuator) since vector 𝑎𝑎⃗ and 𝑏𝑏�⃗ are machine
parameters and vector 𝑃𝑃�⃗ is a known point in space. The calculation is seen in Figure 4-4. The concept
seen in this example describes the procedure to take to two different paths to the top of the actuator.

Figure 4-4: Vector loop analysis of a simple PKM

4.3 3RRR Planar PKM
For the 3RRR PKM seen in Figure 4-5, there are fixed pivot points at 𝑃𝑃, 𝑄𝑄 and 𝑅𝑅. These are also the
points that are actuated. The base of the manipulator is defined by points 𝑃𝑃, 𝑄𝑄 and 𝑅𝑅. There are three
moving pivots which are points 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐶𝐶. The end effector is defined by points 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐶𝐶. Only
revolute joints are employed for this PKM. There exists three limbs with each comprised of two links
and three revolute joints. There are 8 links in total which include the base and end effector. There are
nine revolute joints. The degrees of freedom is calculated as follows:

𝐹𝐹 = 𝜆𝜆(𝑛𝑛 − 𝑗𝑗 − 1) + � 𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 = 3(8 − 9 − 1) + 9 = 3

𝑖𝑖

The PKM possesses 3 degrees of freedom which is comprised of 2 translations and 1 rotation. Links
points 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃, 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 and 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 are considered as the input links since actuation occurs at points 𝑃𝑃, 𝑄𝑄 and 𝑅𝑅.

𝐹𝐹 𝑎𝑎3 𝜃𝜃3
𝑅𝑅

𝑏𝑏3

𝐶𝐶

ℎ
𝑦𝑦 ℎ
𝐷𝐷
𝑏𝑏2 𝐸𝐸
𝑏𝑏1 ℎ 𝐵𝐵
𝜙𝜙
𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2
𝜃𝜃1 𝐴𝐴 𝜃𝜃2
𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥 𝑄𝑄

Base

Figure 4-5: A 3RRR Planar PKM

4.3.1 Geometry of the Manipulator

Concerning to Figure 4-5, the origin of the fixed coordinate frame lies on point 𝑃𝑃. The 𝑥𝑥 axis of the
���� and the 𝑦𝑦 axis is perpendicular to ����
fixed coordinate frame points in the direction of 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃. The base
and the end effector are considered to be equilateral triangles such that 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑐𝑐 and
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = ℎ. Figure 4-6 depicts the joint angles associated with a typical limb of the 3RRR
manipulator.

𝐶𝐶

ℎ
𝐵𝐵
ℎ

𝜙𝜙
𝐴𝐴
𝑦𝑦
𝑏𝑏1
𝜓𝜓1

𝐷𝐷
𝑎𝑎1

𝑂𝑂 𝜃𝜃1
𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥
Base

Figure 4-6: The joint angles that are associated with a typical limb of a 3RRR PKM

The location of the corners of the end effector can be written in terms of the position of point 𝐴𝐴 and
the orientation angle 𝜙𝜙. Points 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐶𝐶 can be written as follows:

𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵 = 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 + ℎc𝜙𝜙

𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵 = 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 + ℎs𝜙𝜙 (4.9)

Where c = cosine and s = sine.

And
𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥𝐶𝐶 = 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 + ℎc �𝜙𝜙 + �
3
𝜋𝜋
𝑦𝑦𝐶𝐶 = 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 + ℎs �𝜙𝜙 + � (4.10)
3

Referring to Figure 4-6, a vector loop equation is developed as follows:

�����⃗ = �����⃗
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 �����⃗
�����⃗ + 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 + 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 (4.11)
Now, expressing the vector loop equation in terms of the fixed coordinate frame:
𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 = 𝑥𝑥𝑃𝑃 + 𝑎𝑎1 c𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑏𝑏1 c(𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜓𝜓1 )
𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 = 𝑦𝑦𝑃𝑃 + 𝑎𝑎1 s𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑏𝑏1 s(𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜓𝜓1 ) (4.12)

Point 𝑃𝑃 and point 𝑂𝑂 are coincident therefore 𝑥𝑥𝑃𝑃 = 𝑦𝑦𝑃𝑃 = 0. Since 𝜓𝜓1 is a passive joint angle, the
mathematical analysis would be simplified if it can be eliminated through mathematical manipulation.
Towards accomplishing this, the equations above are written in the following form:
𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 − 𝑎𝑎1 c𝜃𝜃1 = 𝑏𝑏1 c(𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜓𝜓1 )
𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 − 𝑎𝑎1 s𝜃𝜃1 = 𝑏𝑏1 s(𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜓𝜓1 ) (4.13)

Summing the squares of the above equations, the following equation is generated:
𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 2 + 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 2 − 2𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎1 c𝜃𝜃1 − 2𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎1 s𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑎𝑎1 2 − 𝑏𝑏1 2 = 0 (4.14)

Similarly, the following equations are obtained for limb 2 and 3:

𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 2 + 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 2 − 2𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥𝑄𝑄 − 2𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 𝑦𝑦𝑄𝑄 + 𝑥𝑥𝑄𝑄 2 + 𝑦𝑦𝑄𝑄 2 + ℎ2 + 𝑎𝑎2 2 − 𝑏𝑏2 2 + 2𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 ℎc𝜙𝜙 + 2𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 ℎs𝜙𝜙
− 2𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎2 c𝜃𝜃2 − 2𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎2 s𝜃𝜃2 − 2𝑎𝑎2 ℎc𝜙𝜙c𝜃𝜃2 − 2𝑥𝑥𝑄𝑄 ℎc𝜙𝜙 − 2𝑦𝑦𝑄𝑄 ℎs𝜙𝜙
+ 2𝑥𝑥𝑄𝑄 𝑎𝑎2 c𝜃𝜃2 + 2𝑦𝑦𝑄𝑄 𝑎𝑎2 s𝜃𝜃2 − 2𝑎𝑎2 ℎs𝜙𝜙s𝜃𝜃2 = 0 (4.15)

𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 2 + 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 2 − 2𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥𝑅𝑅 − 2𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 𝑦𝑦𝑅𝑅 + 𝑥𝑥𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑦𝑦𝑅𝑅 2 + ℎ2 + 𝑎𝑎3 2 − 𝑏𝑏3 2 + 2𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 ℎc �𝜙𝜙 + �
3
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
+ 2𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 ℎs �𝜙𝜙 + � − 2𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎3 c𝜃𝜃3 − 2𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎3 s𝜃𝜃3 − 2𝑎𝑎3 ℎc �𝜙𝜙 + � c𝜃𝜃3
3 3
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
− 2𝑥𝑥𝑅𝑅 ℎc �𝜙𝜙 + � − 2𝑦𝑦𝑅𝑅 ℎs �𝜙𝜙 + � + 2𝑥𝑥𝑅𝑅 𝑎𝑎3 c𝜃𝜃3 + 2𝑦𝑦𝑅𝑅 𝑎𝑎3 s𝜃𝜃3
3 3
𝜋𝜋
− 2𝑎𝑎3 ℎs �𝜙𝜙 + � s𝜃𝜃3 = 0 (4.16)
3

4.3.2 Inverse Kinematics

Concerning the inverse kinematic analysis, the position and orientation of the end effector is known,
and the joints angles and/or actuator lengths (for prismatic joints) are calculated. In this case, the
actuation angles 𝜃𝜃1 , 𝜃𝜃2 and 𝜃𝜃3 need to be calculated for a given 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 , 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 and 𝜙𝜙 value. Here, 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 and 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴
can be considered instead of the central point of the end effector since the equations are written in
terms of 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 , 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 and 𝜙𝜙. For limb 1, Equation 4.14 can be arranged as follows:

𝑒𝑒1 s𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑒𝑒2 c𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑒𝑒3 = 0 (4.17)

Where
𝑒𝑒1 = −2𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎1
𝑒𝑒2 = −2𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎1
𝑒𝑒3 = 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 2 + 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 2 + 𝑎𝑎1 2 − 𝑏𝑏1 2

By substituting the following trigonometric identities into Equation 4.17, Equation 4.18 is obtained.
2𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖
s𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 =
1 + 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 2
1 − 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 2
c𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 =
1 + 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 2
Where
𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖
𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 = tan � �
2

(𝑒𝑒3 − 𝑒𝑒2 )𝑡𝑡1 2 + 2𝑒𝑒1 𝑡𝑡1 + (𝑒𝑒3 + 𝑒𝑒2 ) = 0 (4.18)

Now, solving Equation 4.18 for 𝑡𝑡1 yields:

−𝑏𝑏 ± √𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝜃𝜃1 = 2 tan−1 � �
2𝑎𝑎

−𝑒𝑒1 ± �𝑒𝑒1 2 + 𝑒𝑒2 2 − 𝑒𝑒3 2

𝜃𝜃1 = 2 tan−1 � �
𝑒𝑒3 − 𝑒𝑒2 (4.19)

Two solutions for 𝜃𝜃1 exists for a given end effector position and orientation. When Equation 4.17 yields
a double root, the physical interpretation is that the links 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 and 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 are either fully stretched out or
in a folded-back configuration which is classified as a singularity condition. When Equation 4.17 yields
no real root, the end effector position and orientation is not reachable. The passive angle, 𝜓𝜓1 , can be
found through back substitution into Equation 4.12.

When the same procedure is applied to limb 2 and 3, there also exists two solutions for each limb.
Therefore, for any given position and orientation of the end effector, there exists a total of eight
possible manipulator postures.
4.4 3 RPS Spatial Manipulator
Figure 4-7 depicts a 3RPS PKM with identical limbs. Each limb is connected to the end effector by a
spherical joint at point 𝐵𝐵. Each limb is connected to the base by a revolute joint at point 𝐴𝐴. The two
links within each limb are connected by a prismatic joint. The prismatic joints are the inputs to the
manipulator which are usually in the form of a linear actuator. The PKM possesses 8 links, 3 spherical
joints, 3 revolute joints and 3 prismatic joints. The degrees of freedom is calculated as follows:

𝐹𝐹 = 𝜆𝜆(𝑛𝑛 − 𝑗𝑗 − 1) + � 𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 = 6(8 − 9 − 1) + (3 + 3 + 9) = 3 (4.20)

𝑖𝑖

𝐵𝐵2

𝑣𝑣
𝑤𝑤
𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑2
𝐛𝐛3 𝑃𝑃
𝐵𝐵3
𝐵𝐵1

𝐩𝐩
𝐪𝐪3 𝐴𝐴2
𝑑𝑑3 𝑑𝑑1 𝐽𝐽2

𝜙𝜙3 𝑧𝑧
𝐽𝐽3 𝑦𝑦
𝐚𝐚3
𝑂𝑂
𝐴𝐴3
𝑥𝑥

𝐽𝐽1
Fixed Base
𝐴𝐴1

Figure 4-7: A Spatial 3RPS PKM

4.4.1 Geometry of the Manipulator

Two coordinate systems are employed to perform the kinematics analysis. Coordinate system
𝐴𝐴(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) is placed on the fixed base and coordinate system 𝐵𝐵(𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣, 𝑤𝑤) is placed on the end effector.
Referring to Figure 4-7, points 𝐴𝐴1 , 𝐴𝐴2 and 𝐴𝐴3 lie on the 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 plane and points 𝐵𝐵1 , 𝐵𝐵2 and 𝐵𝐵3 lie on the
𝑢𝑢 − 𝑣𝑣 plane. As depicted in Figure 4-8, the origin (point 𝑂𝑂) of the fixed coordinate system lies on the
������1 . The origin (point 𝑃𝑃) of the
centroid of the triangular base. The 𝑥𝑥 axis points in the direction of 𝑂𝑂𝐴𝐴
moving coordinate system lies on the centroid of the triangular end effector. The 𝑢𝑢 axis points in the
direction of �����
𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵1 . Triangles ∆𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2 𝐴𝐴3 and ∆𝐵𝐵1 𝐵𝐵2 𝐵𝐵3 are equilateral triangles. |𝑂𝑂𝐴𝐴1 | = |𝑂𝑂𝐴𝐴2 | =
|𝑂𝑂𝐴𝐴3 | = 𝑔𝑔 and |𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵1 | = |𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵2 | = |𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵3 | = ℎ. It is important to note that the axis of each revolute joint,
�����𝚤𝚤 .
𝐽𝐽𝑖𝑖 , lies on the 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 plane and it is perpendicular to the vector 𝑂𝑂𝐴𝐴

𝐴𝐴2 𝐵𝐵2
𝐽𝐽2
Fixed Base End Effector
𝑦𝑦 ℎ 𝑣𝑣
𝑔𝑔
𝐽𝐽1
𝑥𝑥 𝑔𝑔 𝑢𝑢 ℎ
𝐴𝐴1 𝐵𝐵1
𝑂𝑂 𝑃𝑃

𝑔𝑔
ℎ

𝐽𝐽3
𝐴𝐴3 𝐵𝐵3

Figure 4-8: Top views of the base and end effector

The transformation of the end effector to the base can be accomplished by position vector 𝐩𝐩 =
����
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂, and a 3 × 3 rotation matrix 𝐴𝐴𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 . Let 𝐮𝐮, 𝐯𝐯 and 𝐰𝐰 be unit vectors that lie along the 𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣 and 𝑤𝑤 axes
respectively. The rotation matrix can then be expressed by the direction cosines of 𝐮𝐮, 𝐯𝐯 and 𝐰𝐰:
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥
𝐴𝐴 𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝑤𝑤𝑦𝑦 �
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 = � 𝑦𝑦 (4.21)
𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝑤𝑤𝑧𝑧

The elements of the rotation matrix 𝐴𝐴𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 must satisfy the following orthogonal conditions:
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 2 = 1 (4.22)
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 2 = 1 (4.23)
𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑤𝑤𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑤𝑤𝑧𝑧 2 = 1 (4.24)
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 = 0 (4.25)
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 𝑤𝑤𝑦𝑦 + 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 𝑤𝑤𝑧𝑧 = 0 (4.26)
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝑤𝑤𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝑤𝑤𝑧𝑧 = 0 (4.27)
Let 𝐚𝐚𝑖𝑖 and 𝐵𝐵𝐛𝐛𝑖𝑖 be position of points 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 and 𝐵𝐵𝑖𝑖 in coordinate systems 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 respectively. Now, the
coordinates of 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 and 𝐵𝐵𝑖𝑖 are given by the following equations:
𝐚𝐚1 = [𝑔𝑔, 0, 0]𝑇𝑇 (4.28)
𝑇𝑇
1
𝐚𝐚2 = �− 𝑔𝑔, √3 𝑔𝑔, 0� (4.29)
2 2
𝑇𝑇
1
𝐚𝐚3 = �− 𝑔𝑔, − √3 𝑔𝑔, 0� (4.30)
2 2
𝐵𝐵 (4.31)
𝐛𝐛1 = [ℎ, 0, 0]𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇
1 √3
𝐵𝐵
𝐛𝐛2 = �− ℎ, ℎ, 0� (4.32)
2 2
𝑇𝑇
1 √3
𝐵𝐵
𝐛𝐛3 = �− ℎ, − ℎ, 0� (4.33)
2 2

The position vector 𝐪𝐪𝑖𝑖 of 𝐵𝐵𝑖𝑖 is expressed by the following equation and is with respect to the fixed
coordinate system.
𝐪𝐪𝑖𝑖 = 𝐩𝐩 + 𝐴𝐴𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵𝐛𝐛𝑖𝑖 (4.34)

By substituting Equations (4.21) and (4.31) up to and including (4.33) into (4.34), yields:
𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 + ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥
𝐪𝐪1 = � 𝑦𝑦 + ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 �
𝑝𝑝 (4.35)
𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧 + ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧

⎡ 𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 − 1 ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + √3 ℎ𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 ⎤

⎢ 2 2 ⎥
⎢ 1 √3 ⎥
𝐪𝐪2 = ⎢𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 − ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 + ℎ𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 ⎥ (4.36)
⎢ 2 2 ⎥
⎢ 1 √3 ⎥
⎣ 𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧 − 2 ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 + 2 ℎ𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 ⎦

⎡ 𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 − 1 ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 − √3 ℎ𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 ⎤

⎢ 2 2 ⎥
⎢ 1 √3 ⎥
𝐪𝐪3 = ⎢𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 − ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 − ℎ𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 ⎥ (4.37)
⎢ 2 2 ⎥
⎢ 1 √3 ⎥
⎣ 𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧 − 2 ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 − 2 ℎ𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 ⎦

It is important to note that the revolute joints that are on the base impose constraints on the motion
of the limbs. The motion is constrained in one of the following three planes:
𝑞𝑞1𝑦𝑦 = 0 for 𝑖𝑖 = 1 (4.38)

𝑞𝑞2𝑦𝑦 = −√3𝑞𝑞2𝑥𝑥 for 𝑖𝑖 = 2 (4.39)

 𝑞𝑞3𝑦𝑦 = +√3𝑞𝑞3𝑥𝑥 for 𝑖𝑖 = 3 (4.40)

Now, substituting the y-component of 𝐪𝐪𝑖𝑖 from Equation (4.35) up to and including (4.37) into the
equations above, the following equations are obtained:
𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 + ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 0 (4.41)
1 √3 1 √3
𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 − ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 + ℎ𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = −√3 �𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 − ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + ℎ𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 � (4.42)
2 2 2 2
1 √3 1 √3
𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 − ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 − ℎ𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = √3 �𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 − ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 − ℎ𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 � (4.43)
2 2 2 2

Equation (4.42) and (4.43) can be further simplified. When the sum of Equation (4.42) and Equation
(4.43) is subtracted from 2 × Equation (4.41), the following is obtained:
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 (4.44)

Subtracting Equation (4.43) from Equation (4.42), the following equation is obtained:
1
𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 = ℎ�𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 − 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 � (4.45)
2

Equations (4.41), (4.44) and (4.45) impose three motion constraints on the end effector.
The length of a limb, 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 , is calculated by the following equation:
𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 2 = [𝐪𝐪𝑖𝑖 − 𝐚𝐚𝑖𝑖 ]𝑇𝑇 [𝐪𝐪𝑖𝑖 − 𝐚𝐚𝑖𝑖 ] for 𝑖𝑖 = 1, 2, 3 (4.46)

By substituting Equation (4.28) up to and including (4.30) and (4.35) up to and including (4.37) into
(4.46), yields:
𝑑𝑑1 2 = 𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧 2 + 2ℎ�𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 + 𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 � − 2𝑔𝑔𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑔𝑔ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑔𝑔2 + ℎ2 (4.47)

𝑑𝑑2 2 = 𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧 2 − ℎ�𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 + 𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 � + √3ℎ�𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 �
1 1
+ 𝑔𝑔�𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 − √3𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 � − 𝑔𝑔ℎ�𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 − √3𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 � + 𝑔𝑔ℎ�√3𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 � + 𝑔𝑔2
2 2
+ ℎ2 (4.48)

𝑑𝑑3 2 = 𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧 2 − ℎ�𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 + 𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 � − √3ℎ�𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 �
1 1
+ 𝑔𝑔�𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 + √3𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 � − 𝑔𝑔ℎ�𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + √3𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 � − 𝑔𝑔ℎ�√3𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 � + 𝑔𝑔2
2 2
+ ℎ2 (4.49)
Equations (4.47), (4.48) and (4.49) relate the limb lengths to the end effector position and orientation.
4.4.2 Inverse Kinematics
Here, the inverse kinematic analysis follows that the limb lengths (𝑑𝑑1 , 𝑑𝑑2 and 𝑑𝑑3 ) are solved based on
a given end effector position and orientation. The PKM possess 3 degrees of freedom and the position
and orientation of the end effector must be specified such that it satisfies the constraints imposed by
the revolute joints. Equation (4.44) is a constraint placed on the orientation of the end effector. The 𝑥𝑥
and 𝑦𝑦 components of 𝐩𝐩 are related to the orientation of the end effector through Equations (4.41)
𝐴𝐴
and (4.45). Only three of the 12 parameters from 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 and 𝐩𝐩 may be specified arbitrarily. The z-
component in 𝐩𝐩 needs to be specified as the z-component does not appear in any constraint
equations. Concerning the other two parameters, this can be chosen from position vector 𝐩𝐩 or from
the three unit vectors 𝐮𝐮, 𝐯𝐯 and 𝐰𝐰. Once the three parameters are chosen, the other parameters can
be obtained by using Equations (4.41), (4.44) and (4.45) and the orthogonal conditions. If the three
independent variables are chosen from vector 𝐩𝐩, then there are eight corresponding platform
orientations. If the roll and pitch angles are chosen as independent variables from the Euler roll-pitch-
yaw angles then two corresponding platform locations exist. Once the position vector and the rotation
matrix of the end effector are known, the limb lengths can be simply calculated using Equations (4.47),
(4.48) and (4.49).
4.5 General Stewart – Gough Platform
The Stewart-Gough platform seen in Figure 4-9 possesses six identical limbs. Each limb is comprised
of two spherical joints, a prismatic joint and two links. The two links are connected by the prismatic
joint. In each limb, one spherical joint is connected to the base (at points 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 where 𝑖𝑖 = 1, 2, … 6) and
one spherical joint is connected to the end effector (at points 𝐵𝐵𝑖𝑖 where 𝑖𝑖 = 1, 2, … 6). The PKM is
comprised of a total of 14 links, 6 prismatic joints and 12 spherical joints. The number of degrees of
freedom is calculated as follows:

𝐹𝐹 = 𝜆𝜆(𝑛𝑛 − 𝑗𝑗 − 1) + � 𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 = 6(14 − 18 − 1) + (6 + 3 × 12) = 12 (4.50)

𝑖𝑖

There exists 6 passive degrees of freedom therefore the end effector possesses 6 degrees of freedom.
Each SPS limb can be replaced by a SPU limb which would not compromise the degrees of freedom of
the mechanism. Due to each limb being attached to the end effector and base by spherical joints, no
bending moments or twisting torques will be transmitted to the limbs. The force that acts on each
limb acts along the longitudinal axis of the limb hence the limbs can be manufactured from hollow
cylindrical rods. This produces a light-weight, high-stiffness and high-speed manipulator.

𝐵𝐵3 𝐵𝐵2
𝑤𝑤
Moving Platform

𝑃𝑃 𝐛𝐛𝐢𝐢
𝑣𝑣 𝐵𝐵𝑖𝑖 Spherical Joint
𝐵𝐵4 𝑢𝑢

𝐵𝐵5
𝐵𝐵6
𝐝𝐝𝐢𝐢

𝐩𝐩

Prismatic Joint

𝑧𝑧

𝐴𝐴3 𝐴𝐴2
𝐚𝐚𝐢𝐢
𝐴𝐴4 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 Spherical Joint
𝑂𝑂
𝑦𝑦
𝑥𝑥

Fixed Base

𝐴𝐴5 𝐴𝐴6

Figure 4-9: A 6-DOF, 6SPS parallel kinematic manipulator

4.5.1 Geometry of the Manipulator
Two cartesian coordinate systems are used. Frame 𝐴𝐴(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) and frame 𝐵𝐵(𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣, 𝑤𝑤) are attached to the
base and end effector respectively. The transformation of the end effector relative to the fixed base
𝐴𝐴
can be described by position vector 𝐩𝐩 of the centroid 𝑃𝑃 and the rotation matrix 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 of the end
effector. Let 𝐮𝐮, 𝐯𝐯 and 𝐰𝐰 be unit vectors that lie along the 𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣 and 𝑤𝑤 axes respectively. The rotation
matrix can then be expressed by the direction cosines of 𝐮𝐮, 𝐯𝐯 and 𝐰𝐰:

𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥

𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 = �𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝑤𝑤𝑦𝑦 � (4.51)
𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝑤𝑤𝑧𝑧

The following orthogonal conditions must be satisfied:

𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 2 = 1 (4.52)

𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 2 = 1 (4.53)
𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑤𝑤𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑤𝑤𝑧𝑧 2 = 1 (4.54)
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 = 0 (4.55)
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 𝑤𝑤𝑦𝑦 + 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 𝑤𝑤𝑧𝑧 = 0 (4.56)
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝑤𝑤𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝑤𝑤𝑧𝑧 = 0 (4.57)

As depicted in Figure 4-9, let 𝐚𝐚𝑖𝑖 = [𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 , 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 , 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ]𝑇𝑇 and 𝐵𝐵𝐛𝐛𝑖𝑖 = [𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 , 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 , 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ]𝑇𝑇 be the position

vectors of points 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 and 𝐵𝐵𝑖𝑖 in frames 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 respectively. The vector loop equation for the 𝑖𝑖th limb
can be written as follows:

������
𝐴𝐴𝚤𝚤 𝐵𝐵𝚤𝚤 = 𝐩𝐩 + 𝐴𝐴𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵𝐛𝐛𝑖𝑖 − 𝐚𝐚𝑖𝑖 (4.58)

The length of the limb can be obtained by taking the dot product of vector ������
𝐴𝐴𝚤𝚤 𝐵𝐵𝚤𝚤 with itself.

𝑇𝑇
𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 2 = �𝐩𝐩 + 𝐴𝐴𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵𝐛𝐛𝑖𝑖 − 𝐚𝐚𝑖𝑖 � �𝐩𝐩 + 𝐴𝐴𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵𝐛𝐛𝑖𝑖 − 𝐚𝐚𝑖𝑖 � For 𝑖𝑖 = 1, 2, … 6
(4.59)

Where 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 is the length of the 𝑖𝑖th limb. Now expanding Equation (4.59) yields

𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 2 = 𝐩𝐩𝑇𝑇 𝐩𝐩 + [ 𝐵𝐵𝐛𝐛𝑖𝑖 ]𝑇𝑇 � 𝐵𝐵𝐛𝐛𝑖𝑖 � + 𝐚𝐚𝑖𝑖 𝑇𝑇 𝐚𝐚𝑖𝑖 + 2𝐩𝐩𝑇𝑇 � 𝐴𝐴𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵𝐛𝐛𝑖𝑖 � − 2𝐩𝐩𝑇𝑇 𝐚𝐚𝑖𝑖 − 2[ 𝐴𝐴𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵𝐛𝐛𝑖𝑖 ]𝑇𝑇 𝐚𝐚𝑖𝑖 (4.60)

This can be written for each of the six limbs where 𝑖𝑖 = 1, 2, … 6. It is important to note that 𝐚𝐚𝑖𝑖 and
𝐵𝐵
𝐛𝐛𝑖𝑖 are constant vectors since they are predefined machine parameters.
4.5.2 Inverse Kinematics
Concerning the inverse kinematics, the position and orientation of the end effector is known and the
limb lengths need to be determined. The solution is straightforward by taking the square root of
Equation (4.60).

𝑇𝑇 𝐵𝐵
𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 = ±�𝐩𝐩𝑇𝑇 𝐩𝐩 + 𝐵𝐵𝐛𝐛𝑖𝑖 𝐛𝐛𝑖𝑖 + 𝐚𝐚𝑖𝑖 𝑇𝑇 𝐚𝐚𝑖𝑖 + 2𝐩𝐩𝑇𝑇 𝐴𝐴𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵𝐛𝐛𝑖𝑖 − 2𝐩𝐩𝑇𝑇 𝐚𝐚𝑖𝑖 − 2[ 𝐴𝐴𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵𝐛𝐛𝑖𝑖 ]𝑇𝑇 𝐚𝐚𝑖𝑖 (4.61)

This can be written for each of the six limbs where 𝑖𝑖 = 1, 2, … 6. There are two possible solutions for
each limb corresponding to a given position and orientation of the end effector. Of course, the
negative limb length is physically not possible. When 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 results in a complex number, the location of
the end effector is not reachable.
4.6 Forward Kinematic Analysis
The forward kinematic analysis requires the position and orientation of the end effector to be
determined for given limb lengths or rotations. Although algebraic methods may be employed, the
equations are usually non-linear and complicated to solve algebraically. Numerical methods are
generally used to solve the forward kinematics for PKMs. One such method is the Newton Raphson
method. The process is shown in Figure 4-10.

Start

Set up equations with zero on one side of the equation

Estimate the solution (make an initial guess 𝑋𝑋0 )

Calculate 𝑓𝑓(𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛 )

Calculate 𝐽𝐽(𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛 )

Calculate 𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛+1 = 𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛 − 𝐽𝐽(𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛 )−1 𝑓𝑓(𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛 )

Update solution to 𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛+1

Is the absolute No
error acceptable?

Yes

End

Figure 4-10: The Newton Raphson Method

Example 4 – 3

Solve the following two equations using the Newton Raphson method. Perform 2 iterations.

*Note that the algebraic solution is (3; 9) or (-2; 4).

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 4.62
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + 6 4.63

Solution

Taking 𝑦𝑦 onto the right-hand side of the equations and rearranging:

𝑓𝑓1 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 = 0 4.64
𝑓𝑓2 = 𝑥𝑥 + 6 − 𝑦𝑦 = 0 4.65

Now, developing the Jacobian Matrix:

𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓1 𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓1
⎡ ⎤
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ⎥ 2𝑥𝑥 −1
𝐽𝐽 = ⎢⎢ =� �
𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓2 𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓2 ⎥ 1 −1
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ⎦
Initial guess is (2; 7). Remember that any values for x and y could be chosen. The closer the guess is
to the solution, the fewer the number of iterations.
Iteration 1:

4 −1
𝐽𝐽(𝑋𝑋0 ) = � �
1 −1
1 1
1 1 1 −1 1 −
𝑑𝑑 −𝑏𝑏 −1 1
𝐽𝐽(𝑋𝑋0 )−1 = � �= � �= � � = �3 3�
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 −𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎 (−4) − (−1) −1 4 −3 −1 4 1 4
−
3 3

𝑋𝑋1 = 𝑋𝑋0 − 𝐽𝐽(𝑋𝑋0 )−1 𝑓𝑓(𝑋𝑋0 )

1 1
−
2
⇒ 𝑋𝑋1 = � � − � 3 3� �−3�
7 1 4 1
−
3 3
1 1
− ⎞
2 ⎛
⇒ 𝑋𝑋1 = � � − ⎜(−3) �3� + (1) � 3�⎟
7 1 4
−
⎝ 3 3⎠
 1
−
2 −1
⇒ 𝑋𝑋1 = � � − �� � + � 3��
7 −1 4
−
3
4 4
− 2+
2
⇒ 𝑋𝑋1 = � � − � 3� = � 3� = �3.33�
7 7 7 9.33
− 7+
3 3

Iteration 2:
6.66 −1
𝐽𝐽(𝑋𝑋1 ) = � �
1 −1
1 −1 1 0.177 −0.177
𝐽𝐽(𝑋𝑋1 )−1 = � �=� �
(−6.66) − (−1) −1 6.66 0.177 −1.177

𝑋𝑋2 = 𝑋𝑋1 − 𝐽𝐽(𝑋𝑋1 )−1 𝑓𝑓(𝑋𝑋1 )

⇒ 𝑋𝑋2 = �
3.33� − �0.177 −0.177� �1.759� = �3.019�
9.33 0.177 −1.177 0 9.019

After 2 iterations the solution is very close to one of the algebraic solutions which is (3; 9). The second
iteration is closer to the numerical solution than after first iteration which indicates that the solution
is converging. Further iterations can be performed to obtain a solution closer to the algebraic solution
which depends on the error value between the current iteration and previous iteration. If a guess were
made close to the (-2; 4) algebraic solution, the numerical solution could have converged to this
solution depending on the initial guess. If no solution is found, the numerical solution diverges and a
better initial guess must me made.