CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND METHOD OF RESEARCH

2.1. Theoretical Framework

2.1.1. Compound Word

Compound word is a combination of two or more morphemes or basic words that
changed the form and contains a new meaning. Compound word is words created by
combining two or more words together to create another word (Delahunty & Garvey,
2010, p.75). According to McCarthy, compound word is words formed by combining
roots and the much smaller category of phrasal words, that is items that have the internal
structure of phrases but function syntactically as words (Carstairs-Mccarthy, 2002, p.59).
Compound word can be quite similar to phrases because they are formed from the
same word combination. However, there are enough cases to show the distinction
between compounds and phrases. First, it can be seen from the difference in sound
corresponding to the difference in meaning. The stress pattern of the compound word is
usually different from the stress pattern in the phrase composed of the same words in the
same order. In the compounds, the main stress is on the first word, while in the phrases
the main stress is on the last word (Delahunty & Garvey, 2010, p.133). For example, the
expressions a black board with its literal meaning a board that is black, and a
blackboard meaning a board for writing on. In the first expression, the main stress is on
board, while in the second the main stress is on black. The words black board can be
classified as a phrase because it has the characteristic of phrase to be stressed on the last
word. On the other hand, the word blackboard is classified as a compound because of the
stresses on the first element.
The second criterion used to distinguish compound from phrases is semantic. A
compound tends to have a meaning that is more or less idiosyncratic or unpredictable
(Mccarthy, 2002, p.60). The meaning of the compound may differ to a greater or lesser
degree from that of the corresponding phrase. In many compounds, the order of the
constituent words is different from that in the corresponding phrase (Delahunty &
Garvey, 2010, p.133).
2.1.2 Syntatactic Classification of Compound Words
There are a number of ways of approaching the study and classification of
compound words, the most accessible of which is to classify them according to the part
of speech of the compound and then sub-classify them according to the parts of speech of
its constituents. The classification of compound words according to Delahunty & Garvey
based on the discussion in Bauer (1983) are classified into 5 kinds of compound words :
1. Compound nouns
a. Noun + noun: bath towel; boy-friend; death blow
b. Verb + noun: pickpocket; breakfast
c. Noun +verb: nosebleed; sunshine
d. Verb +verb: make-believe
e. Adjective + noun: deep structure; fast-food
f. Particle + noun: in-crowd; down-town
g. Adverb + noun: now generation
h. Verb + particle: cop-out; drop-out
i. Phrase compounds: son-in-law
2. Compound verbs
a. Noun + verb: sky-dive
b. Adjective + verb: fine-tune
c. Particle + verb: overbook
d. Adjective + noun: brown-bag
3. Compound adjectives
a. Noun + adjective: card-carrying; childproof
b. Verb + adjective: fail safe
c. Adjective + adjective: open-ended
d. Adverb + adjective: cross-modal
e. Particle + adjective: over-qualified
f. Verb + noun: roll-neck
g. Adjective + noun: red-brick; blue-collar
h. Particle + noun: in-depth
i. Verb + verb: go-go; make-believe
j. Adjective/Adverb + verb: high-rise;
k. Verb + particle: see-through; tow-away
4. Compound adverbs
a. uptightly
b. cross -modally
5. Neo-classical compounds
a. astro-naut
b. hydro-electric
c. mechano-phobe
2.1.3. Semantic Classification
An alternative approach is to classify compounds in terms of the semantic
relationship between the compound and its head. The head of a compound is the
constituent modified by the compound’s other constituents. In compounds, the head is
the element that serves to determine both the part of speech and the semantic kind
denoted by the compound as a whole (Lieber, 2015, p.47). In English, heads of
compounds are typically the rightmost constituent (excluding any derivational and
inflectional suffixes). For example, in traffic-cop the head is cop, which is modified by
traffic; in line-backer the head is backer, which is modified by line (Delahunty &
Garvey, 2010, p.135).
Delahunty and Garvey (2010) in their book distinguish at least three different
semantic relations between the head and modifier(s) of compounds, those are
endocentric compound, exocentric compound, and coordinative compound :
1. Endocentric Compound
Endocentric compound is a compound word that denotes a subtype of
whatever is denoted by the head. Armchair represents a type of chair; breath-test
represents a kind of test. The compound represents a subtype of whatever the head
represents. For instance, a traffic-cop is a kind of cop; a teapot is a kind of pot; a
fog-lamp is a kind of lamp; a blue-jay is a kind of jay. That is the head names the
type, and the compound names the subtype. These are called endocentric
compounds (Delahunty & Garvey, 2010, p.135)
2. Exocentric Compound
Exocentric compound is a compound word that denotes a subtype of a
category that is not mentioned within the compound; e.g., pickpocket represents a
kind of person, not a kind of pocket nor a kind of pick. The compound names a
subtype, but the type is not represented by either the head or the modifier in the
 compound. For example, dead-head, redhead, and pickpocket represent types of
people by denoting some distinguishing characteristics. There is typically another
word, not included in the compound, that represents the type of which the
compound represents the subtype. In the case of deadhead, redhead, and
pickpocket this other word is person, so a deadhead is a person who is an
enthusiastic fan of the band The Grateful Dead. These are called exocentric
compounds (Delahunty & Garvey, 2010, p.135).
3. Coordinative Compound
Coordinative compound is a compound in which both elements are heads, each
contributes equally to the meaning of the whole and neither is subordinate to the
other, for instance, bitter-sweet. Compounds like these can be paraphrased as both
X and Y, e.g., “bitter and sweet.” Other examples include teacher-researcher and
producer-director. These can be called coordinative compounds (Delahunty &
Garvey, 2010, p.135).
The researcher uses a theory from Delahunty and Garvey (2010), but the researcher
only focuses on two different semantic relations: endocentric and exocentric
compound. Coordinative compound is not included because it can be classified as an
endocentric or exocentric compound. This classification is proposed by Lieber (2015)
that divides attributive, coordinative, and subordinative compounds into endocentric or
exocentric varieties (Lieber, 2015, p.48). For example, in coordinative compounds like
parent-child or doctor-patient the heads refer to types of people, but the compound as a
whole denotes a relationship between its elements . Because the referent of the
compound as a whole is not the referent of the head, therefore, parent-child or doctor-
patient can be classified as an exocentric compound. The different types of compounds
by Lieber (2015) are summarized in Figure 2.1.

Compound

Attributive Subordinative
Coordinative
Figure 2. 1. Types of Compound based on Lieber (2015)

Exo Endo Exo

Endo Endo Exo
2.2. Method of Research

2.2.1. Data Sources and Data Analysis

2.2.1.1. Data sources
The data for this research was taken from National Geographic magazines.
The data for the research are compound words that were collected from the
magazines that the meanings have a relation to the themes of National Geographic
such as nature, culture, science, history, etc. The researcher selected several issues
of National Geographic magazines and conducted research on compound words
from the magazines. The selected magazines were from six issues of National
Geographic magazines published from January to June 2019. The researcher
selected all articles in each issue as the data source. The title of each magazine as
follows:
a. National Geographic magazine, January 2019 edition “The Future of Medicine”
b. National Geographic magazine, February 2019 edition “The Ultimate Climb”
c. National Geographic magazine, March 2019 edition “We Are Not Alone”
d. National Geographic magazine, April 2019 edition “Cities”
e. National Geographic magazine, May 2019 edition “Leonardo, A Renaissance
Man For the 21st Century”
f. National Geographic magazine, June 2019 edition “The Hidden Cost of Wildlife
Tourism”
The data was taken from sentences containing compound word in the title,
article body, caption, etc. Because in general magazines contain advertisements,
the researcher did not include compound words that appear in the advertisement
because it is not part of the research object.
2.2.1.2. Data analysis
The first step used in this study for collecting the data was by closely
reading the research object so that the researcher can focus on searching compound
words, paid attention to each sentence that contains compound words. After that,
the researcher collected the data and tried to identify the compound words
according to Delahunty and Garvey’s theory and also searched for its meanings in
the dictionary in order to know the class of word and its semantic relation whether
it’s exocentric or endocentric compounds. For this data analysis the researcher has
an example of how compound that have been found is processed :
Noun + noun sample :
Many a suitor puffs out his chest hoping to impress the ladies. But for hue,
girth, and sheer musicality, none beats the blimplike bosom on Fregata
magnificens, the magnificent frigatebird. During a courtship display, each male
seeks to outdo the others with one body part: a red pouch hanging from his throat.
When he inflates this gular sac, it balloons into a heartlike shape as tall as he is.
Then he clacks his beak, and it resonates in the sac like a drumbeat, a thrumming
love call (National Geographic, 2019, p.34)
The compound word frigatebird is a combination of two words; frigate
noun + bird noun. The word frigate means a warship with a mixed armament, a
sailing warship of a size and armament just below that of a ship of the line. While
bird means a warm-blooded egg-laying vertebrate animal distinguished by the
possession of feathers, wings, a beak, and typically by being able to fly.
The meaning of the term frigatebird from the context above is 18th century
frigate related because its wings and shape and also because it harasses other birds
until they regurgitate recently captured food, which the frigatebird snatches in
midair attack other birds just like a war ship. Because the word bird is the head of
its term and it is related to warship, the compound frigatebird is categorized as
endocentric compound.
 Bibliography

Bauer, Laurie. 1983. English Word-Formation. London, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Carstairs-Mccarthy, Andrew. 2002. An Introduction to English Morphology: Words and
Their Structure. Edinburgh: Edinburg University Press.
Delahunty, Gerald P., and James J. Garvey. 2010. The English Language : From Sound To
Sense. edited by M. Palmquist and D. Doran. Anderson, South Carolina: Parlor Press.
Geographic, National. 2019. “Is His Idea of Sex Appeal Inflated? Yes. Literally.” February,
34.
Lieber, Rochelle. 2015. Introducing Morphology. New York: University Press.