Central Concepts

CM0081 Automata and Formal Languages
The Central Concepts of Automata Theory
Andrés Sicard-Ramírez
Universidad EAFIT
Semester 2021-2
Preliminaries
Convention
The number assigned to chapters, examples, exercises, figures, sections,
and theorems on these slides correspond to the numbers assigned in the
textbook [Hopcroft, Motwani and Ullman 2007].
The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 2/38

Alphabets and Strings
Definition
An alphabet is a finite, non-empty set of symbols.

Definition
An alphabet is a finite, non-empty set of symbols.
Examples
Σ1 = {0, 1},
Σ2 = {𝑎, 𝑏, … , 𝑧},
Σ3 = { 𝑥 ∣ 𝑥 is a Unicode codepoint }.

Definition
A string (or word or event) is a finite sequence of symbols of an alphabet.

Definition
Definition
The empty string, denoted by 𝜀, is the string with zero occurrences of
symbols.
Remark
The empty string may be chosen from any alphabet.

Definition
Definition
The empty string, denoted by 𝜀, is the string with zero occurrences of
symbols.
Remark
The empty string may be chosen from any alphabet.
Conventions
Alphabets: Σ, Γ, …
Symbols: 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, …
Strings: 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, …

All Strings over an Alphabet
Definition
Let Σ be an alphabet. The set of all the strings over 𝚺 (including
the empty string), denoted Σ∗ , can be inductively defined by the follow-
ing clauses:
i) 𝜀 ∈ Σ∗ (basis step),
ii) 𝑥 ∈ Σ∗ , 𝑎 ∈ Σ ⇒ 𝑥𝑎 ∈ Σ∗ (inductive step).
Or, equivalently,
𝑥 ∈ Σ∗ 𝑎∈Σ
𝜀 ∈ Σ∗ 𝑥𝑎 ∈ Σ∗

Operations on Strings
Definition
Let Σ be an alphabet. The length of a string is recursively defined by
|−| ∶ Σ∗ → ℕ
|𝜀| = 0
|𝑥𝑎| = |𝑥| + 1

Definition
Let Σ be an alphabet. The concatenation of strings is recursively defined by
(−) · (−) ∶ Σ∗ × Σ∗ → Σ∗
𝑥·𝜀=𝑥
𝑥 · 𝑦𝑎 = (𝑥 · 𝑦)𝑎

Definition
(−) · (−) ∶ Σ∗ × Σ∗ → Σ∗
𝑥·𝜀=𝑥
𝑥 · 𝑦𝑎 = (𝑥 · 𝑦)𝑎
Note: 𝑥 · 𝜀 = 𝜀 · 𝑥 = 𝑥 (that implies an algebraic structure)

Definition
(−) · (−) ∶ Σ∗ × Σ∗ → Σ∗
𝑥·𝜀=𝑥
𝑥 · 𝑦𝑎 = (𝑥 · 𝑦)𝑎
Note: 𝑥 · 𝜀 = 𝜀 · 𝑥 = 𝑥 (that implies an algebraic structure)

Notation
We remove the dot in the concatenation.

Example
Let Σ be an alphabet and let 𝑥 and 𝑦 be strings over Σ. Prove that
|𝑥𝑦| = |𝑥| + |𝑦|.

Proof
By structural induction on 𝑦.
Basis step (𝑦 = 𝜀):
|𝑥𝜀| = |𝑥| (def. of concatenation)

= |𝑥| + |𝜀| (def. of length)
Induction step (𝑦 = 𝑤𝑎):
|𝑥(𝑤𝑎)| = |(𝑥𝑤)𝑎| (def. of concatenation)

= |𝑥𝑤| + 1 (def. of length)
= |𝑥| + |𝑤| + 1 (IH)
= |𝑥| + |𝑤𝑎| (def. of length)

Proof
By structural induction on 𝑦 (or by mathematical induction on |𝑦|).
Basis step (𝑦 = 𝜀) (or |𝑦| = 0, then 𝑦 = 𝜀):
|𝑥𝜀| = |𝑥| (def. of concatenation)

= |𝑥| + |𝜀| (def. of length)
Induction step (𝑦 = 𝑤𝑎) (or |𝑦| = 𝑛 + 1, then 𝑦 = 𝑤𝑎 where |𝑤| = 𝑛):
|𝑥(𝑤𝑎)| = |(𝑥𝑤)𝑎| (def. of concatenation)

= |𝑥𝑤| + 1 (def. of length)
= |𝑥| + |𝑤| + 1 (IH)
= |𝑥| + |𝑤𝑎| (def. of length)

Strings, length and concatenation in Haskell
data List a = Nil ∣ Cons a (List a)

data RList a = Lin ∣ Snoc (RList a) a


lengthR ∶∶ RList a → Int

lengthR Lin =0 -- Eq. 1
lengthR (Snoc xs x) = 1 + lengthR xs -- Eq. 2


lengthR ∶∶ RList a → Int

lengthR Lin =0 -- Eq. 1
lengthR (Snoc xs x) = 1 + lengthR xs -- Eq. 2
(+++) ∶∶ RList a → RList a → RList a

(+++) xs Lin = xs -- Eq. 1
(+++) xs (Snoc ys y) = Snoc (xs +++ ys) y -- Eq. 2

Example
Prove that lengthR (xs +++ ys) = lengthR xs + lengthR ys.

Example
Prove that lengthR (xs +++ ys) = lengthR xs + lengthR ys.
Proof by structural recursion on ys

Basis step (ys is Lin):
lengthR (xs +++ Lin)

= lengthR xs (Eq. 1 of (+++))
= lengthR xs +++ lengthR Lin (Eq. 1 of lengthR)

Proof by structural recursion on ys (continuation)

Induction step (ys is Snoc ys′ y′ ):
lengthR (xs +++ (Snoc ys′ y′ ))

= lengthR (Snoc (xs +++ ys′ ) y′ )) (Eq. 2 of (+++))
′
= 1 + lengthR (xs +++ ys ) (Eq. 2 of lengthR)
′
= 1 + (lengthR xs + lengthR ys ) (IH)
′
= lengthR xs + (1 + lengthR ys ) (arithmetic)
′
= lengthR xs + lengthR (Snoc ys y) (Eq. 2 of lengthR)

Operations on Strings and Alphabets
Definition
Let Σ be an alphabet, 𝑥 ∈ Σ∗ and 𝑛 ∈ ℕ. The power of strings 𝑥𝑛 , is
recursively defined by
(−)(−) ∶ Σ∗ × ℕ → Σ∗
𝑥0 = 𝜀
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 · 𝑥

Definition
The 𝐤-power of an alphabet Σ, denoted Σ𝑘 , is the set of strings of length 𝑘
over Σ.
Examples
Given Σ = {0, 1} then
Σ0 = {𝜀},
Σ1 = {0, 1},
Σ2 = {00, 01, 10, 11},
Σ3 = {000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111}.

Example
Let Σ be an alphabet. Then
Σ∗ = Σ0 ∪ Σ1 ∪ Σ2 ∪ ⋯

Languages
Definition
If Σ is an alphabet and 𝐿 ⊆ Σ∗ then 𝐿 is a language over Σ.

Languages
Definition
Examples
∅ and Σ∗ are languages over any alphabet

Languages
Definition
Examples
The set of string of 0’s and 1’s with equal number of each
{𝜀, 01, 10, 0011, 0110, 1001, 1100, … }

Languages
Definition
Examples
{𝜀, 01, 10, 0011, 0110, 1001, 1100, … }

{ 0 𝑛 1𝑛 ∣ 𝑛 ≥ 1 }

Languages
Definition
Examples
{𝜀, 01, 10, 0011, 0110, 1001, 1100, … }

{ 0 𝑛 1𝑛 ∣ 𝑛 ≥ 1 }
{𝜀} ≠ ∅

Languages
Definition
Examples
{𝜀, 01, 10, 0011, 0110, 1001, 1100, … }

{ 0 𝑛 1𝑛 ∣ 𝑛 ≥ 1 }
{𝜀} ≠ ∅
The set of binary numbers whose value is a prime

Languages
Definition
Examples
{𝜀, 01, 10, 0011, 0110, 1001, 1100, … }

{ 0 𝑛 1𝑛 ∣ 𝑛 ≥ 1 }
{𝜀} ≠ ∅
The set of legal C programs

Languages
Definition
Examples
{𝜀, 01, 10, 0011, 0110, 1001, 1100, … }

{ 0 𝑛 1𝑛 ∣ 𝑛 ≥ 1 }
{𝜀} ≠ ∅
The set of legal C programs
The set of legal English words

Problems
Definition
Let 𝐿 ⊆ Σ∗ be a language and let 𝑤 ∈ Σ∗ be string. To decide whether or
not 𝑤 ∈ 𝐿 is the decision problem on the language 𝐿.

Problems
Definition
Problem or decision problem?

Problems
Definition
It is a language or a problem?

Problems
Definition
Is the problem decidable or undecidable?

Problems
Definition
Is the problem decidable or undecidable?
Is the problem tractable or intractable?

References
Hopcroft, J. E., Motwani, R. and Ullman, J. D. (2007). Introduction to Auto-

mata theory, Languages, and Computation. 3rd ed. Pearson Education (cit.
on p. 2).

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Central Concepts

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CM0081 Automata and Formal Languages

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 2/38

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 3/38

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The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 10/38

Note: 𝑥 · 𝜀 = 𝜀 · 𝑥 = 𝑥 (that implies an algebraic structure)

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 11/38

Note: 𝑥 · 𝜀 = 𝜀 · 𝑥 = 𝑥 (that implies an algebraic structure)

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 12/38

|𝑥𝑦| = |𝑥| + |𝑦|.

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 13/38

|𝑥𝜀| = |𝑥| (def. of concatenation)

Induction step (𝑦 = 𝑤𝑎):

|𝑥(𝑤𝑎)| = |(𝑥𝑤)𝑎| (def. of concatenation)

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 14/38

|𝑥𝜀| = |𝑥| (def. of concatenation)

Induction step (𝑦 = 𝑤𝑎) (or |𝑦| = 𝑛 + 1, then 𝑦 = 𝑤𝑎 where |𝑤| = 𝑛):

|𝑥(𝑤𝑎)| = |(𝑥𝑤)𝑎| (def. of concatenation)

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 15/38

Strings, length and concatenation in Haskell

data List a = Nil ∣ Cons a (List a)

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 16/38

Strings, length and concatenation in Haskell

data List a = Nil ∣ Cons a (List a)

lengthR ∶∶ RList a → Int

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 17/38

Strings, length and concatenation in Haskell

data List a = Nil ∣ Cons a (List a)

lengthR ∶∶ RList a → Int

(+++) ∶∶ RList a → RList a → RList a

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 18/38

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 19/38

Proof by structural recursion on ys

lengthR (xs +++ Lin)

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 20/38

Proof by structural recursion on ys (continuation)

lengthR (xs +++ (Snoc ys′ y′ ))

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{𝜀, 01, 10, 0011, 0110, 1001, 1100, … }

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 27/38

{𝜀, 01, 10, 0011, 0110, 1001, 1100, … }

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 28/38

{𝜀, 01, 10, 0011, 0110, 1001, 1100, … }

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 29/38

{𝜀, 01, 10, 0011, 0110, 1001, 1100, … }

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 30/38

{𝜀, 01, 10, 0011, 0110, 1001, 1100, … }

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory 31/38

{𝜀, 01, 10, 0011, 0110, 1001, 1100, … }

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