Different communication theories

What does communication theory mean?

It is the branch of knowledge dealing with the principles and methods by which information is
conveyed.

Different communication theories:

· Actor-Network Theory (ANT)

· Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST)

· Agenda Setting Theory

· Cognitive Dissonance Theory

· Communication Accommodation Theory

· Confirmation Bias

· Constructivism

· Cultivation Theory

· Cultural Studies

· Dramatism

· Elaboration Likelihood Model

· Face Negotiation Theory

· Framing

· Genderlect

· Groupthink

· Hypodermic Needle Theory

· .Muted Group Theory

· The Narrative Paradigm

· Priming

· Proxemics

· Social Exchange Theory

 · Social Learning Theory

· Social Penetration Theory

· Spiral of Silence

· Standpoint Theory

· Symbolic Interactionism Theory

· Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)

· Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)

· Uncertainty Reduction Theory

· Uses and Gratifications Theory

Actor-Network Theory (ANT)

Actor-Network Theory suggests that human and non-human factors are equally influential in the
success of technological innovation and scientific knowledge-creation. The theory looks at how
networks are formed and how these networks contribute to these successes. It suggests that no
one person or thing is solely responsible for these advancements. Therefore, both an actor and a
network are responsible for achieving these outcomes.

Why is actor network theory important?

This can prove helpful in understanding how social effects are generated as a result of
associations between different actors in a network. Of central importance in this respect is that
Actor-Network Theory provides a lens through which to view the role of technology in shaping
social processes.
Who invented actor network theory?

Actor network theory (ANT), also known as enrolment theory or the sociology of translation,
emerged during the mid-1980s, primarily with the work of Bruno Latour, Michel Callon, and
John Law.

Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST)

Groups and organizations create rules and resources which are defined as structures. These
structures form social systems which develop a life of their own. The quality of the structure
affects decision making, and decisions also affect the structure.

Agenda Setting Theory

Agenda Setting Theory states that mass media organizations determine what the general
population considers newsworthy by deciding how much attention a news story receives. The
term salience transfer is commonly used and refers to the ability of the media to transfer their
agendas onto the public.

This theory refers to how the media’s news coverage determines which issues become the focus
of public attention.

First introduced in 1972 by college professors, Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw, they found
in surveying North Carolina voters during the 1968 U.S. presidential election that what people
thought were the most important issues were what the mass media reported as the most critical.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Cognitive Dissonance is the psychological conflict that results from holding two contradictory or
incompatible beliefs or attitudes. For example, one can like a person, but disapprove of their
habits. The theory suggests that a person looks for balance in their beliefs. Therefore, in order to
reduce dissonance, one will avoid hearing opposing viewpoints or change their beliefs to match

Why is cognitive dissonance theory important?

Cognitive dissonance can even influence how people feel about and view themselves, leading to
negative feelings of self-esteem and self-worth. Because people want to avoid this discomfort,
cognitive dissonance can have a wide range of effects. Dissonance can play a role in how people
act, think, and make decisions.their actions.

Communication Accommodation Theory

Communication Accommodation Theory describes when people accommodate or adjust their

communication styles to others. These changes in verbal and nonverbal styles are done through
two ways: divergence and convergence. Divergence is used to highlight group identity through
touting the differences of the group they identify with. Divergence is often used by groups with
strong ethnic or racial pride. Convergence is used more often by powerless individuals for social
approval and focuses on matching the communication styles of the person with whom they are
speaking to.

What are the four principles of communication accommodation theory?

They are categorized into four main components: the sociohistorical context, the communicators'
accommodative orientation, the immediate situation and evaluation and future intentions. These
components are essential to Communication accommodation Theory and affect the course and
outcome of intercultural conversations.

Examples of Communication Accommodation Theory

When a junior employee in an organization is talking to a higher level employee, both the people
tend to accommodate each other by realizing their differences in social status and rankings or
positions.

Confirmation Bias

Confirmation Bias is a theory which explains why people view the world selectively. It states
that people continue to view the world selectively by choosing information and media which
reinforces their beliefs.

What is confirmation bias example?

Confirmation biases impact how we gather information, but they also influence how we interpret
and recall information. For example, people who support or oppose a particular issue will not
only seek information to support it, they will also interpret news stories in a way that upholds
their existing ideas.

Why is confirmation bias a problem?

Even when people do get exposed to challenging information, confirmation bias can cause them
to reject it and, perversely, become even more certain that their own beliefs are correct.

Constructivism

People who are more cognitively complex will be more successful communicators because they
possess the ability to create customized and sophisticated messages that pursue multiple
communication goals.

Cultivation Theory

Cultivation Theory argues media shapes a persons sense of reality. Because many acquire
information through mediated sources rather than direct experience, their world view becomes
influenced by these sources. For example, Cultivation Theory suggests that people who would be
defined as heavy television viewers see the world as more violent that it actually is.

Cultural Studies

Cultural Studies theorists suggest that mass media represents ideologies of the dominant class in
a society. They believe that media is influenced by profit, since corporations run the media.
Cultural Studies theorists are curious about the effect of power on culture.

Why is cultural studies important?

It helps us to understand ourselves and those around us by exploring a wide range of institutions,
media, concepts and formations such as television, multiculturalism, and cultural heritage.
Cultural studies deals with culture as a part of everyday life.
Characteristics of Cultural Studies

Cultural studies aims to examine its subject matter in terms of cultural practices and their relation
to power. Its constant goal is to expose power relationships and examine how these relationships
influence and shape cultural practices.

Dramatism

Dramatism states that life is drama. Therefore, one can understand a speaker’s motive through
the dramatistic pentad of act, scene, agent, agency, and purpose. The greatest motive of rhetoric
is to purge guilt, and there can only be persuasion if the audience identifies with the speaker.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

The Elaboration Likelihood Model looks at how attitudes are formed and changed. It suggest
there are two routes of persuasion. The central route is where attitudes are changed through a
logical thought process. This route requires more attention, but is also allows for the major
change. The peripheral route uses surface characteristics, such as speaker’s credibility, to judge
the message. This route creates smaller shifts in attitud

Why is the elaboration likelihood model important?

The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) explains how persuasion message works in changing
the attitude of reader or viewer. It is very much important for corporations and advertisement
agencies, in designing their market strategies and understanding the attitudes of peoples.e.

Face Negotiation Theory

Face Negotiation Theory highlights conflict style differences between collectivist and
individualistic cultures. Collectivist cultures place value on the group and therefore adopt a
conflict style of avoiding or integrating to give others mutual face. Individualistic cultures place
value on the individual and in an attempt to protect self-face, they adopt a dominating conflict
style.

What are the four faces of face negotiation theory?

Specifically, the theoretical formulation of the four faces of face first introduced by Ting-Toomey
- face-restoration (self autonomy), face-saving (other autonomy), face-giving (other inclusion)
and face-assertion (self inclusion) are used to discuss how they affect mediators.

Who created face negotiation theory?

Stella Ting-Toomey, but conflicts are inevitable being in a relationship. The face negotiation
theory explains how cultural difference in people influence in managing conflicts. The theory
was formulated by Stella Ting-Toomey, professor of human communication at California State
University.

Framing

“Frames” are defined as the way in which we interpret media presented to us, and that these
frames function as a way to organize social meanings. Since the media decides what we view and
how we view it, they also influence the way in which we interpret information. In a sense, they
tell us what to think about, and how to think about it.

What is the concept of framing?

In social theory, framing is a schema of interpretation, a collection of anecdotes and stereotypes,

that individuals rely on to understand and respond to events. ... In other words, people build a
series of mental "filters" through biological and cultural influences.

Who came up with framing theory?

Erving Goffman

The theoretical body of framing started to be developed from the 1970s, initially by the hands of
cognitive psychology. The concept and theories of framing were recovered for the field of
sociology by Erving Goffman (1974), and it was this renewed sociological perspective which
was used in communication studies

Genderlect

Genderlect theory sees masculine and feminine communication styles as two different cultural
dialects — neither of which is more superior than the other. Genderlect states that these forms of
communication are simply different in their focus: masculine discourse is based on building
status and independence, while feminine conversation is used as a way to build rapport and
connection.

Who coined the term Genderlect?

1. a term coined by linguist Deborah Tannen to describe two different communication styles
which she termed 'male' and 'female' Genderlect is a controversial concept.

What is Genderlect in sociolinguistics?

In sociolinguistics, a speech variety or communication style particularly associated with one sex
(a kind of dialect). Such styles are shaped by cultural factors: Robin Lakoff, an American linguist
(b.1942) argues that they are a result of differences in male and female social roles.

Groupthink

Groupthink is when groups make faulty decisions because they fail to critically analyzing their
options and weigh alternatives. This typically occurs in highly cohesive groups who are more
concerned with maintaining group unity than finding the best option.

What is an example of a groupthink?

Two well-known examples of Groupthink in action are the Challenger Space Shuttle disaster and
the Bay of Pigs invasion. Engineers of the space shuttle knew about some faulty parts months
before takeoff, but they did not want negative press so they pushed ahead with the launch
anyway.

What are the 8 symptoms of groupthink?

Irving Janis described the eight symptoms of groupthink:

Invulnerability. Members of the group share an illusion of invulnerability that creates excessive
optimism and encourages taking abnormal risks.
Rationale. ...
Morality. ...
Stereotypes. ...
Pressure. ...
Self-censorship. ...
Illusion of Unanimity. ...
Mind Guards.

What causes groupthink?

There are several main causes of groupthink. These include group cohesiveness, overall group
isolation, group leadership, and decision-making stress. ... Another cause of groupthink is
isolation. Often in group situations, it is important that the decisions being made or the actions
being carried remain secret.

Why is groupthink bad?

Groupthink leads to bad decisions because it encourages members of the group to ignore possible
problems with the group's decisions and discount the opinions of outsiders. It influences
decisions most when there are no clear rules for decision making.

Hypodermic Needle Theory

The Hypodermic Needle Theory, also known as the ‘magic bullet’ theory, says the media has a
powerful and direct effect on audiences by ‘injecting’ them with messages. The Hypodermic
Needle Theory no longer carries the respect it once did since its accuracy was found to be
questionable.

What is the hypodermic needle theory in media?

The Hypodermic Needle Theory is a linear communication theory which suggests that media
messages are injected directly into the brains of a passive audience. It suggests that we're all the
same and we all respond to media messages in the same way.
Muted Group Theory

Muted group theory (MGT), created by Edwin Ardener and Shirley Ardener in 1975. It is a
communication theory that focuses on how marginalized groups are muted and excluded via the
use of language. Muted Group Theory states that because language is man-made women remain
reduced and excluded. Because words and norms have been created by men, women are
disadvantaged in public. As women become less muted and more vocal, the dominant position of
males in society will diminish.

The Narrative Paradigm

The Narrative Paradigm suggests that we as a people are storytelling animals. It states that
instead of using traditional logic, we are more open to judging the credibility of a speaker
through narrative logic, which analyzes if their stories are well put together (coherence) and
sound true (fidelity). Narrative logic allows those who are not educated in oratory and persuasion
to make judgments; therefore, allowing for a more democratic system.

What is the purpose of the narrative paradigm in relation to the rational world paradigm?

The Rational World Paradigm, rooted in the sciences, states that humans are essentially rational
beings and goes on to explain the reasoning behind this assumption; the Narrative Paradigm
presents the alternative humanistic view which takes a step further and states that humans are
essentially storytellers.

What does Fisher mean by narration?

Fisher's narration is a reference to the “theory of symbolic actions—words or deeds” (2), this
trend to have a significant meaning for those people who have lived through a similar experience
or interpret the story in a meaningful way.

Priming

Priming refers to the ability of the media to control the interpretation of new information by
feeding the public prior information. This prior context set frames of reference within the
audience members, which ultimately effects their judgments. For example, the media has primed
us as to what constitutes a credible person.

What is an example of priming?

Priming occurs whenever exposure to one thing can later alter behavior or thoughts. For
example, if a child sees a bag of candy next to a red bench, they might begin looking for or
thinking about candy the next time they see a bench. Several schools of thought in psychology
use the concept of priming.

What is priming used for?

Priming is known to improve cognitive and behavioral response times. In addition, it decreases
anxiety, stress, and depression and can even be a strong study aid. With all of these benefits, it's
no surprise that it's used in therapy to help people improve their lives.

Proxemics

Proxemic theory looks at how different cultures develop and define space. On an unconscious
level people internalize three types of space: 1) intimate space: our personal “bubble” for friends
and intimates relationships; 2) social and consultative spaces: the space for routine social
interactions with acquaintances and strangers; 3) public space: the space where impersonal and
anonymous interactions occur. Each culture creates their own distances for what they feel is
appropriate.

What is Proxemics and example?

Proxemics is the study of space and how we use it, and how it makes us feel more or less
comfortable. How close you stand next to someone, for example, depends on the relationship
you have with that person.

Why is Proxemics important?

According to Edward T. Hall, proxemics is very useful because it allows people to understand
how different communities organize their town and their homes. It influences the way people
define their territories.

What are the 4 zones of personal space?

Broadly, the four distinct zones are: Intimate (0-2 ft.), Personal (2-4 ft), Social (4-12 ft.) and
Public (more than 12 ft.). When strangers enter the wrong zone, we feel uncomfortable.

Social Exchange Theory

Social Exchange Theory posits an ‘economic’ exchange for in interpersonal relationships.

Meaning, the relationships is enhanced by satisfying each others self-interest. In this theory, self-
interest is not regarded as a bad thing, but rather as a concept that builds the relationship.

What is social exchange theory example?

For example, if you have a friend that always has to borrow money from you, then this would be
seen as a high cost. The benefits are things that you get out of the relationship such as fun,
friendship, companionship, and social support.

What are the basic concepts of social exchange theory?

The basic definition of social exchange theory is that people make decisions by consciously or
unconsciously measuring the costs and rewards of a relationship or action, ultimately seeking to
maximize their reward.

How is the social exchange theory used?

Social exchange theory is a concept based on the notion that a relationship between two people is
created through a process of cost-benefit analysis. ... While the theory can be used to measure
romantic relationships, it can also be applied to determine the balance within a friendship.

How does the social exchange theory view family?

In families, a social exchange perspective argues that family relationships become inter-
dependent, or interactional. In this respect, power becomes characteristic of the relationship dyad
and understanding family relationships includes assessing the power that is held among the
actors in those relationships.

What is social exchange theory in leadership?

Social exchange theory is essentially a cost-benefit analysis that evaluates the risks and rewards
of pursuing or continuing a relationship. Social exchange theory is used to explain people's
actions in a variety of settings and within a multitude of relationships. Related: How to Manage
Employees.

Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory argues that people learn from each other through observing, imitating,
and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social learning theory
explains how human behavior can be shaped by continuous reciprocal interaction between
cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences.

What is social learning theory and examples?

Social learning theory is a theory of learning process and social behavior which proposes that
new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others. ... In addition to the
observation of behavior, learning also occurs through the observation of rewards and
punishments, a process known as vicarious reinforcement.

What is the main idea of social learning theory?

Social learning theory proposes that individuals learn by observing the behaviors of others
(models). They then evaluate the effect of those behaviors by observing the positive and negative
consequences that follow.

What are the elements of social learning theory?

There are different parts to this theory. First, we learn by observing others. Second, our mental
state is important in the learning process. Third, learning doesn't mean there will be a change in
behavior.

What is a good example of social learning theory?

The YouTube influencer is a good case in point. If you like a particular influencer you may well
want to model your behavior after hers. If she enjoys a certain brand of shampoo, then you may
well imitate her by purchasing that brand.

Social Penetration Theory

Social Penetration Theory looks at how superficial relationships evolve to intimate relationships.
The theory states it is a gradual evolution due primarily to self-disclosure between parties. But,
while this self-disclosure can be effective in creating intimate relationships, it can also leave one
or more persons vulnerable.

What are the key components of social penetration theory?

Social penetration theory describes several layers including superficial layers, middle layers,
inner layers, and core personality. Superficial layers are made up of fairly shallow information
such as likes and dislikes in clothing and music. Middle layers include political views and social
attitudes.

Which is a stage of social penetration theory?

These stages of social penetration theory include orientation, exploratory affective exchange,
affective exchange, and stable exchange.

What is the most important aspect of social penetration theory?

Vital to social penetration is breadth, which is the number of topics discussed and depth, which is
the degree of intimacy that guides these interactions. Breadth encompasses the variety of topics
discussed. Another important aspect of SPT is the concept of self‐disclosure.

Spiral of Silence

Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, the German political scientist contributes the famous model called
“Spiral of Silence”. The Spiral of Silence theory states that people are less likely to express their
opinions if they are the minority. This is because they fear they will be isolated by the majority
and suffer social rejection.

Example:

In a company, the managing director decides to increase their working hour from 8 to 10 and
send e-mail to all employees. Majority of them accept this time changes and few employees are
not satisfied with his decision. But they cannot or ready to express their thought publicly.
Because

1. They may feel unsupported by the other employees.

2. “Fear of isolation” like transfer

3. “Fear of Rejection” By rejecting their personal opinion from the public will help to avoid
fight.

4. They may try to save their job by suppressing or avoid personal statement in public.

Standpoint Theory

Standpoint Theory claims that each person is seated in a different rank among the social
hierarchy. Because of this, each person views the social climate from a different vantage point,
which only provides a small look at the social whole. But the theory also claims that those who
are lower on the social ladder tend to have a greater understanding of the social whole, rather
than those higher up.

Why is standpoint theory important?

This body of work proposes that authority is rooted in individuals' knowledge (their
perspectives), and the power that such authority exerts. Standpoint theory's most important
concept is that an individual's own perspectives are shaped by his or her social and political
experiences.

When was the standpoint theory created?

1970s
First-wave standpoint theory

While the origins of standpoint theory lie in Marx's view of class oppression, feminist
philosophy popularized and developed standpoint theory in the 1970s and 1980s.

Symbolic Interactionism Theory

Symbolic Interaction Theory suggests that the concept of self is created by three principles: 1)
Meaning: that we act towards and things according to the meanings we apply to them. 2)
Language: that we negotiate meaning through symbols. 3) Thought: that thought modifies our
interpretations. Symbolic interactionism implies that without communication there would be no
self concept.

What are the three core principles of symbolic Interactionism?

There are three core principles in symbolic interaction perspective of Blumer: Meaning,
language (language provides means [symbols] for debating meaning) and thinking principle.
Symbolic interaction theory acknowledges the principle of meaning as the center of human
behavior.

What are the key concepts of symbolic Interactionism?

Symbolic interactionism is a perspective that views and studies group life and human behaviour
by emphasizing social action and social process. Human interaction continually reifies, redefines,
or reshapes how we understand the world around us, how structure impinges on our lives, and
how we socially construct meaning.

Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)

Theory of Planned Behavior is the same as Theory of Reasoned Action in that it says personal
attitudinal judgments and social-normative considerations influence a person’s intentions to
perform a behavior, but TPB adds a third element: perceived behavioral control. This element
being the perception of how easy or difficult it is to perform the behavior.

What is Theory of Planned Behavior example?

For example, a salesman wants to change our attitude about his product so we will actually buy
it. Attitudes, combined with perceived control and norms, actually predict our intentions. This is
the basis of the theory of planned behavior, which is used to predict deliberate and planned
behavior.

What is the theory of planned behavior used for?

The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) was developed by Icek Ajzen as an attempt to predict
human behavior (Ajzen, 1991). The TPB posits that attitude toward the behavior, subjective
norm, and perceived behavioral control influence behavioral intention.

What are the 4 types of behavior?

A study on human behavior has revealed that 90% of the population can be classified into four
basic personality types: Optimistic, Pessimistic, Trusting and Envious. However, the latter of the
four types, Envious, is the most common, with 30% compared to 20% for each of the other
groups.

Who came up with theory of planned behavior?

Ajzen (1985) proposed the theory of planned behavior (TPB) with the explicit goal of extending
the explanatory scope of the TRA.

Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)

Theory of Reasoned Action looks at how behaviors can be influenced by influencing a person’s
intentions. TRA states that two main factors tell a person whether or not to perform a behavior:
1) personal attitudinal judgments: the evaluation of the action; and, 2) social-normative
considerations: what one believes others think they should do.

What is the theory of reasoned action and planned behavior?

The Theory of Reasoned Action is used to explain and predict behavior based on attitudes, norms
and intentions.That's where the Theory of Planned Behavior introduces control beliefs, perceived
power which leads to perceived control, then intention to perform the behavior, after which then
the behavior occurs.

Who came up with the theory of reasoned action?

Martin Fishbein

The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA),1 first developed in the late 1960s by Martin Fishbein
and revised and expanded by Fishbein and Icek Azjen2 in the decades that followed, is a theory
that focuses on a person's intention to behave a certain way.

Uncertainty Reduction Theory

Uncertainty Reduction Theory states that when strangers meet, their primary goal is to reduce
levels of uncertainty. Uncertainty meaning, being unsure of how to behave (or how the other
person will behave), and unsure of what to think of the other person. For example, if they like the
person or do not like the person. According to this theory, they will use communication to reduce
this uncertainty.

Who invented the uncertainty reduction theory?

The uncertainty reduction theory, also known as initial interaction theory, developed in 1975 by
Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese, is a communication theory from the post-positivist
tradition.

Who applied uncertainty reduction theory to intercultural communication?

Gudykunst applied the uncertainty reduction theory to develop the concept of the "stranger" -
People in other groups that act in ways different from one's own culture. You just studied 33
terms!

Uses and Gratifications Theory

The Uses and Gratifications Theory assumes audiences actively seek out media to satisfy
individual needs. With this assumption, the Uses and Gratifications Theory looks to answer three
questions: what do people do with the media, what are their underlying motives for using said
media, and what are the pros and cons of this individual media use.

Examples of Uses and Gratification Theory

People choose from their own choices and moods. The needs of the particular person are met
through the media used. Some people might watch news for information, some for entertainment,
and some for self-reassurance. Some watch according to their moods.

Why is uses and gratification theory important?

Taken together, uses and gratifications theory stresses the power of the individual over the power
of the media. Individual differences mediate the relationship between media and their effects.
This results in media effects being driven as much by the media user as by the media content
itself.

Who introduced uses and gratification theory?

Elihu Katz first introduced the Uses and Gratification Approach, when he came up with the
notion that people use the media to their benefit. The perspective emerged in the early 1970's as
Katz and his two colleagues, Jay Blumler and Michael Gurevitch continued to expand the idea.