Species populations are affected by a plethora of threats.

For the endangered orangutan

(Pongo), tiger (Panthera tigris), and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) it is mainly habitat
loss due to deforestation. Deforestation is the action of removing or clearing of a forest or a wide
area of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. The clearing of a forest can be for
farming, ranching, or urban use. The land can also be used for oil palm cultivation. In fact, the
extract of the oil palm fruit is the world’s most consumed vegetable oil and accounts for almost
60 percent of oil trades (Carter et al., 2007). One species greatly affected by deforestation
because of oil palm cultivation is the orangutan and as a result, it is listed as endangered.
Orangutans are found only in the rain forests of the Southeast Asian islands of Borneo and
Sumatra. The orangutan’s natural habitat consists of lowland terrain. Coincidently and
unfortunately, that orangutan competes with the production of palm oil for that lowland terrain
(Nantha et al., 2009). Because of logging, infrastructure and plantation development, Sumatra’s
forests area was reduced by 61 percent between 1985 and 1997 (UNEP, 2007). Many of the
converted areas used to be habitats for orangutans. Those areas included the eastern lowlands of
Sabah and the plains of Central Kalimantan. The total rate of habitat loss for orangutans in
Borneo is an estimated 3,122 km2 per year between 1990 and 2004 (Meijaard and Wich 2007).
The Asian elephant is also an endangered species and is one of the first class protected species in
China (Liu et al., 2016). Historically, Asian elephants were widely distributed from the
Northernmost part of China to the Yellow River Basin about three thousand years ago and now
its distribution has retreated southward at a rate of 0.5o latitude per century due to deforestation
activity and potentially climate change (Lui et al., 2016). As of 2016, it was estimated that fewer
than 250 Asian elephants remained in China, occupying fragmented habitats of Yunnan Province
(Lui et al., 2016). Tigers have also been greatly affected by deforestation. The trajectory of
habitat loss and fragmentation has increased in Sumatra due to vast oil palm and acacia
plantations which have replaced some of the richest lowland rainforests on the planet (Holmes
2002). Tigers now occupy only seven percent of their historical range and in the past decade the
area occupied by tigers has declined by 41 percent (Dinerstein et al., 2007).

Management goals for all three species would be to protect their habitats by halting or at
least limiting deforestation to allow species populations to recover. Currently, there are some
management plans in place. For example, the program REDD+ or Programme on Reducing
Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation allows developing countries to earn
carbon credits and receive payment by retaining forests. REDD+ is a program designed by
Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It creates
a monetary value for the carbon stored in forests by offering incentives for developing countries
to decrease emissions from forested lands and invest in low-carbon paths to sustainable
development. In return, developing countries would receive results-based payments for results-
based actions.

There are many things that need to be taken into consideration in the decision-making
process for the management goals and plans including political views. Are the countries in which
the endangered species inhabit doing enough to protect the species and the forests? They should
make their laws and policies stricter. They should also hold those accountable who break those
laws. If people were punished for breaking the law, then it would deter others from illegally
clearcutting the forests. I do believe the palm oil companies should be heavily fined and even
jailed. I do not believe the workers should be punished. Often times, the workers are low-income
individuals who need to make money to support and feed their families. If the workers are jailed,
it would also affect their families and the palm oil companies will just have them replaced. I
believe if palm oil companies are punished accordingly, it will set the example and hopefully
deter other companies from breaking the laws. Perspectives of different stakeholders involved
need to be taken into consideration in the decision-making process as well. The stakeholders are
the governments of the countries involved (Sumatra, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and India),
conservationist groups and organizations, the International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN), REDD++, locals, farmers, logging companies, oil palm companies, law enforcement,
and consumers. Having different points of views can make it difficult to come up with an
effective plan. The countries involved perhaps do wish to conserve part of their forests and
protect the endangered species, but they also want to keep cultivating palm oil since it produces
revenue and much profit for their economies. Conservationist groups and organizations care for
the welfare of the endangered species and the forests and care about biodiversity. The IUCN is
also concerned about the status of the endangered species. Locals and farmers need to make a
living. Therefore, their point of view is to keep cultivating palm oil by any means necessary.
Palm oil companies and logging companies are only concerned about their profits and do not
care about the forests or the species that depend on those forests. I believe the most important
stakeholder is we, the consumers. The reason why logging companies are cutting down so many
trees for cultivation is because palm oil is valuable. It is a product that is high in demand because
we are willing to pay for it.

I find the issue of deforestation to be very important and deserving of attention because
of many reasons. The first reason is that the rainforests are homes to many different species.
Forests provide shelter and food to so much life on our planet. Habitat loss will be the cause of
extinction of these species. The second reason is that forests are carbon sinks. When trees are cut
down, they release carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses, which further contribute to our
carbon footprint. According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) forest loss and damage is the
cause of about 10 percent of global warming. Another reason is loss of biodiversity because of
deforestation. It is crucial that we pay attention to this issue and that we place management plans
into action as soon as possible. There are already some plans set in place to help protect our
forests and limit deforestation. The REDD+ program allows developing countries to gain carbon
credits and receive payment by retaining forests. Sumatra comprises an area of 65 000 km2 that is
both the site of Indonesia's first planned RED initiative, and the stronghold of 92% of remaining
Sumatran orangutans (Gaveau et al., 2009). In 2014, Sumatra officially joined the REDD+
program. This means that regencies, towns, and villages will receive funding to support REDD+
projects and initiatives. According to the REDD+ program, if deforestation is stopped and
damaged forests are restored, they can provide about a third of the carbon reduction needed. At
first, I thought this is a great idea and initiative. It makes sense to reward others to get them to
stop doing something. In this case, to get people to stop or limit deforestation, they will be
compensated with money. However, an area of certainty with this program is how do we make
sure that those receiving the funds are using it for that purpose? How can we make certain that
governments will commit to conservation and use funds properly? Who will oversee that the
funds are being used appropriately for the means of halting deforestation? There is a lot of doubt
with this program regarding corruption and proper allocation of funds. Southeast Asia’s
biodiversity and carbon-rich lowland forests does not have the support among political elites
when faced with the absence of payments for conservation, and with near-term opportunities to
engage in high-revenue extractive industries, such as plantations and logging (Curran et al 2004,
Fitzherbert et al 2008, Venter et al 2009). I believe that there needs to be a team with the
stakeholders in this situation. The team would include the president of the nation, the CEOs of
the palm oil company, economists, law enforcement, forest managers, wildlife biologists, and the
local communities. The team should meet monthly to discuss concerns, issues, and opinions. It is
imperative that all the important stakeholders share their points of views and work together to
find solutions that benefit all parties. This team should also make sure there is proper authority in
place to oversee the funds received.

Also, cultivation of palm oil is a main reason of deforestation. Palm oil is one of the most
lucrative cash crops of recent times (Nantha et al., 2009). Countries are making huge profits off
palm oil, which contributes to their overall economy. Will payments from UN-REDD+ be as
much as the profits they are making from the palm oil? The answer is probably not. Why would
they settle for a lower amount of money when they make much more from the palm oil? UN-
REDD+ may not halt deforestation if the compensation to conserve unprotected forests is less
than the estimated earnings per ha from agricultural commodities (Humphreys 2008, Karsenty
2008). This would be a very good solution if there was a way to determine that the funds are
being allocated to programs and initiatives to help stop deforestation. It would also be a good
solution because many people around the world depend on the forests for food, shelter, and other
resources. Providing them with the funds necessary to help protect their forests would be
beneficial to the locals and the forests themselves. However, I only see this possible if there is
someone or a group of people who oversee the funds for these programs and initiatives. The
people in charge of this should be an environmental economist and an environmental planner. An
environmental economist would be ideal for this position because they attempt to reduce the
environmental impacts of economic activity and develop sustainable economic policies. It is
important that people with a background in environmental science oversee many of these plans.
They can efficiently oversee where the funds are being allocated while keeping both wildlife and
the economy thriving. A possible solution to this issue of competition between payments from
UN-REDD+ and the profits from the palm oil is to make the crop valueless or at least lower its
value. The implications of lowering the value of the palm oil could save forests because
companies would no longer cut down trees to cultivate palm oil since there would be less or even
no monetary reward for the crop. Another implication of making palm oil valueless would mean
habitat restoration for the orangutan, Asian elephant, tiger, and many more species and therefore
allow their populations to recover. Another current management plan is having guards to enforce
forest protection in protected areas (PA) like in Sumatra. These PAs also restrict human access
through law enforcement. Having guards protect the forest may be an effective strategy. Palm oil
companies and logging companies may be more reluctant to cut down trees if there are guards
protecting the forests. However, as mentioned before, corruption is a major challenge in many of
these plans. In exchange for letting them cut down trees, those companies could bribe the guards
and pay them. Another challenge would be to figure out how many guards would be sufficient
and where to locate them. How many guards would be enough to successfully protect an area of
a forest and which areas would need most protection?

Implications of effective management plans means protection of species. Another reason

why deforestation is an important issue is because the loss of habitat can make wildlife
susceptible to other threats. When deforestation occurs, forest habitat is fragmented, isolating
sub-populations from one another. Fragmentation also leads to greater access for hunting and
wildlife trade (Clayton et al., 1997). This further contributes to the decline of populations. There
may be a few possible solutions that can be effective. One suggestion has been to use non-
forested lands such as Imperata cylindrica grasslands to replace forests for cultivating oil palm.
Imperata is an invasive species of grass in the Asian tropics that occupies lands that have been
deforested or affected by fires (Nantha et al., 2009). According to Garrity et al., (1997) these
grasslands have an extent of about 86,000 km2 in Indonesia, with 21,252 and 21,940 km2 of
these grasslands are in Sumatra and Kalimantan. Although the Imperata lands are low in
phosphorous and nitrogen, they are suitable in terms of topography and climate for oil palm
(Santosa et al., 1997). There are some challenges to using this type of grassland. How much of
these grasses are available and how suitable are they for oil palm cultivation? Also, will they be
effective in stopping deforestation? I believe using non-forested lands can be an alternative to
palm oil cultivation. If these grasslands prove to be suitable for palm oil, then it would mean
forests would be at a lower risk of deforestation. However, what would happen when humans
have depleted these grasslands? An area to study for future research would be other non-forested
lands such as other grasslands that could be potential candidates for cultivating oil palm. In a
perfect world, we would use Imperata to a certain limit without depleting it and then move to the
next suitable non-forested land while the Imperata recovers. It would be following a cycle
similar to shifting cultivation which is a form of agriculture in which an area of ground is cleared
of vegetation and cultivated for a few years and then abandoned for a new area until its fertility
has been naturally restored. If we can use non-forested land for palm oil cultivation without
completely exploiting the land, I believe this could be an effective strategy.

Another possible solution might be the use of ecological corridors or wildlife corridors.
An ecological corridor is a geographical spaced that is managed long-term to maintain or restore
effective ecological activity. These corridors can allow animals to roam safely across damaged
habitats. To help the Asian elephant population in China, it is crucial to establish an ecological
corridor within the Nangunhe Nature Reserve to expand their activity range (Lui et al., 2016).
At present, the Nangunhe Asian elephant population is active only in the southern part of the
reserve, as it cannot reach suitable habitats in the northern part due to low habitat sustainability.
Establishing an ecological corridor would allow Asian elephants to migrate between the southern
and northern parts of the reserve. These corridors would increase the activity range of the
elephant population, thus possibly provide access to resources for the population to recover (Lui
et al., 2016). I think this would be effective because it would expand habitats for animals and
allow them to travel safety to other suitable habitats. I believe proper and sustainable forest
management is critical to help stop deforestation. Instead of palm oil companies clear cutting an
immense area of the forest, they could minimize the area itself. Clear cutting eliminates a vast
number of trees in a single area leaving many species without habitat and exposed. By
decreasing the clear-cut area, many other trees would be saved and serve the orangutans. Long-
term conservation of tigers and other large wildlife species in Asia will depend on careful land-
use planning and zoning of large conservation landscapes to include areas for human use, core
habitat, wildlife corridors, and buffer zones (Dinerstein et al. 1999). Conservationists in India
and Nepal in both the public and the private sector are working to restore, reconnect, and manage
wildlife corridors to link 12 important wildlife reserves and national parks that harbor wild tigers
across the 49,000-square-kilometer landscape (Wikramanayake et al. 2004). The purpose of this
project is to manage tigers as a single metapopulation. This way, dispersal between core refuges
can help in maintaining genetic, demographic, and ecological integrity. One challenge might be
the protection of corridors. Many PAs are still threatened by logging companies and poachers.
How can we ensure that these corridors will not be entered by palm oil companies? This is where
law enforcement will probably be a good solution. Having guards or law enforcement in these
smaller corridors rather than an entire forest may be more effective.

One powerful tool that I think can help with the issue of deforestation is education. I
think it is very important to teach others about the threats that deforestation imposes on wildlife
and ourselves. Educating others and advocating to protect our forests can ultimately help reach
our goal. The goal is to help species by protecting their habitats by halting or at least limiting
deforestation to allow their populations to recover. Once people comprehend the importance of
saving the forests and protecting endangered species, they will be more inclined to help and get
involved. Getting involved could mean protesting the usage of palm oil, joining organizations
that help protect forests, donating to organizations, or even just educating others. This can be
achieved by teaching kids in school the importance of conservation. They need to be exposed at
a young age about environmental issues just like they are taught how to cook in a cooking class.
However, trying to convince people no to buy palm oil products can be very difficult because
sometimes people are not willing to change their ways. If they are told not to buy products that
contain palm oil, they might agree until they realize how many of their everyday items contain
palm oil. Some people might view it as an inconvenience and will decided to buy products with
palm oil anyway. I think the best strategy is to lessen the value of the palm oil. Hypothetically, if
the value of palm oil were to decrease then palm oil companies will no longer seek to cut down
vast amounts of trees for cultivation. Therefore, this will leave habitats restored, allowing
populations of species to recover. Although, I do also believe that a combination of all the
possible solutions mentioned before would be the strongest approach to help stop deforestation.

To better understand the effects of deforestation on species, I could conduct my own

study. The question I would have to answer is, “How does deforestation affect the population of
orangutans?” I would hypothesize that population density of orangutans would be much less in
larger areas of deforestation. For my methods, I would have to investigate the population
densities of a clear-cut area and a same sized fragmented area in the forest. I would select a
forest in Sumatra where orangutans can be found. I would speak with the palm oil company and
politely ask if they could clear cut a small area of the forest for my study. If they agree, I will
conduct nest surveys along transects. Orangutan nest density corresponds to the time orangutans
spend in an area regardless of whether it is disturbed or undisturbed (Rao and van Schaik, 1997).
Nest surveys will be conducted in both larger and smaller clear-cut areas. The results will then be
compared to determine if population density correlates to the size of the clear-cut area. This
study will provide information on how deforestation affects population densities of orangutans.
If the results indicate that population densities are less in larger areas of deforestation, then
proper management of forests can be set into place to protect the orangutans and their natural
habitats. Stricter laws and policies could also be used to help protect this species and the forests.
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