(generally from 20° to 40°) and the lack of

plant roots and organic matter in colluvial

doi:10.2489/jswc.73.2.133 deposits means that they are susceptible to
splash erosion and scour by runoff, which
leads to large sediment releases. Therefore,
Sediment selective behaviors of colluvial colluvial deposits are the main source of
erodible sediment in a collapsing gully, and
deposit materials on steep slopes and thus, they control the degree of gully dam-
age (Jiang et al. 2014). The large amount of
under heavy rainfall conditions in sediment that can be released from colluvial
deposits can severely damage the area down-
southeastern China hill of a collapsing gully; these sediments can
cover farmlands; fill ponds and reservoirs; and
destroy houses, roads, and bridges. Therefore,
F. Jiang, Y. Huang, M.K. Wang, J. Lin, G. Zhao, H. Ge, and X. Ji the erosion of colluvial deposits requires
attention. Previous studies have examined
Abstract: Characterizing sediment selectivity during transport will improve understanding the characteristics of runoff and sediment

Copyright © 2018 Soil and Water Conservation Society. All rights reserved.
Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 73(2):133-142 www.swcs.org
of soil erosion processes, but few studies have focused on steep slopes and soil with loose, production on steep slopes and under con-
coarse material. This study examined colluvial deposits, which contain loose materials with ditions of heavy rainfall (or concentrated
large amounts of coarse particles. These soils were subjected to simulated rainfall in a 5 m2 flow). Liu et al. (2015) noted that there was
(5 m by 1 m) box at heavy rainfall intensities (1, 1.33, 1.67, 2, and 2.33 mm min–1) and on a negative linear correlation between runoff
five steep slopes (20°, 25°, 30°, 35°, and 40°). During the experiments, the particle size of time and colluvium slope, and Jiang et al.
the eroded material gradually coarsened, then stabilized and often showed short-term fluc- (2014) reported that runoff volume and sed-
tuations as the rainfall progressed. During interrill erosion processes, the sediment became iment yield increased with rainfall intensity,
enriched with finer particles because of the low runoff energy of interrill flow; the dominant but with a critical slope gradient of 58% and
transport mechanism was the suspension-saltation transport of sediment with a grain size finer >47%, respectively. Jiang et al. (2013) also
than 0.537 mm. However, the sediment was coarser after rill development than before, and indicated that the colluvial soil detachment
increased stream power meant that bed-load transport by rolling of the larger sediment grains rate increased with flow discharge and slope
(coarser than 0.957 mm) became an increasingly important mechanism; bed-load transport increasing, and that the effect of flow on soil
also increased with rainfall intensity, so the particle-size distribution for high-intensity rainfall detachment was greater than that of slope.
resembled that of the original soil. Finally, during rill erosion processes, rill bank collapse However, the unique processes and mecha-
occured and the original soil contained coarse, heavy particles that could more easily be nisms by which colluvial deposits are eroded
rolled on steep slopes. These factors could increase the relative importance of bed-load trans- have not been thoroughly investigated and
port. The results of this study have important implications for assessment and modeling of still require in-depth study.
erosion processes in disturbed soils with large amounts of coarse particles. Soil erosion occurs at the same time as
infiltration, runoff, and sediment produc-
Key words: colluvial soil—rolling—size selectivity—soil erosion—suspension-saltation tion; it also redistributes sediment particles.
Studying the particle-size distribution of
eroded sediment can help elucidate the pro-
A particular type of gully erosion charac- area of 1,220.05 km2, and 90% of them are cesses and mechanisms of soil erosion, as well
terized by a gully with a steep collapsing active and difficult to control (Zhong et al. as improve soil erosion models (Asadi et al.
wall, locally termed a benggang (or col- 2013).This particular type of collapsing gully 2007a, 2007b). Several studies have exam-
lapsing gully; figure 1a), is common in the generally consists of an upper catchment, a ined the characteristics of eroded sediment
red soil region of southern China (Jiang collapsing wall, a colluvial deposit, a scour particles, particularly changes in particle-size
et al. 2014; Lin et al. 2015). These gullies channel, a gully mouth, and an alluvial fan distribution, sorting characteristics, transport
develop quickly, and their walls fail suddenly. (figure 1) (Jiang et al. 2013, 2014). Colluvial mechanisms, and factors that affect the dis-
Erosion in these areas averages over 500 Mg deposits make up the packed material under- tribution of sediment particles. It is generally
ha–1 y–1, which is at least 50-fold greater than lying the collapsing wall, which collapses due
on gentler slopes or slopes with dense vegeta- to hydraulic pressure and gravity. Because Fangshi Jiang is a lecturer, Yanhe Huang is a
tion (Xu 1996; Zhong et al. 2013). According they develop via creep disturbance, colluvial professor, Ming Kuang Wang is a professor,
to a 2005 survey by the Monitoring Center deposits are porous and have a large frac- Jinshi Lin is an associate professor, Gan Zhao
of Soil and Water Conservation of China, tion of coarse particles, a poorly developed is a graduate student, Hongli Ge is an associate
more than 239,100 gullies are present in structure, low cohesion, low stability, and professor, and Xiang Ji is a lecturer, all in Fujian
the red soil region of southern China, high erodibility. After saturation with water, Provincial Key Laboratory of Soil Environmental
Health and Regulation, College of Resource and
which includes Jiangxi, Guangdong, Hunan, colluvial deposits disintegrate rapidly, and Environment, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry
Fujian, Hubei, Anhui, and Guangxi prov- their particle size composition makes them University, Fuzhou, China.
inces. These collapsing gullies have a total susceptible to transport. Steep slope gradients

JOURNAL OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION MARCH/APRIL 2018—VOL. 73, NO. 2 133
 Figure 1
(a) View of a typical gully landscape in the study area; the large gully dissecting the hill slope
is locally called a benggang (or collapsing gully). (b) Example of the collapsing wall and loose
colluvial deposits.
(a)
Alluvial Scour channel, Upper
fan at usually deep catchment
the gully and narrow
mouth
believed that the particle-size distribution
of dispersed sediment differs from that of
undispersed sediment particles (Meyer et
al. 1992)—eroded sediment tends to be
enriched in fine particles (Nie et al. 2013).
During various stages of erosion, sediment
particles differ in terms of particle-size distri-
bution, sorting characteristics, and transport
mechanisms. Raindrop impacts cause splash
erosion, which affects fine particles such as
clay first (Le Bissonnais 1996). The insuffi-
cient erosive and transport power of overland
flow also causes the selective transport of
fine particles (Parsons et al. 1991). As ero-
sion continues, the eroded material gradually
coarsens to approach a constant particle-size
range. Once rill flow surpasses the critical
shear stress, the original soil on the slope is
transported almost nonselectively (Eshel et
al. 2004), and the composition of the eroded
sediment resembles that of the original soil
(Slattery and Burt 1997; Malam Issa et al.
2006). However, conflicting reports of sedi-
ment sorting exist in the literature. Meyer et
al. (1992) reported that interrill runoff was
partially enriched in coarse particles, and that
eroded and transported sediment during this
stage was coarser than the original soil and
the sediment during the rill erosion stage.
Asadi et al. (2007b, 2011) also noted that the
particle-size fractions of eroded sediment
differed from the original soil, and that the
sediment particle size exhibited a bimodal
distribution during different transport
mechanisms including suspension, saltation,
and rolling. Shi et al. (2012) reported that
suspension-saltation was the most important
134 MARCH/APRIL 2018—VOL. 73, NO. 2
(b)
Collapsing wall Loose colluvial
where active deposits from upper
slides occur catchment and
collapsing wall
erosion mechanism during interrill erosion
processes, and that rolling transport could
increase with the slope gradient. Wang and
Shi (2015) found that soils with large sedi-
ment sizes were easily transported on steep
slopes due to the stronger effects of gravity
and inertia.
While numerous studies have examined
sediment size distribution, their results often
differ. Additionally, these results can be con-
troversial because of different experimental
conditions and materials, and few studies
have focused on steep slopes and soils com-
posed of loose, coarse material. Colluvial
deposits, which are a type of disturbed soil
containing loose material and large propor-
tions of coarse particles, can be easily eroded
by heavy rainfall on steep slopes. Erosion
of colluvial deposits can thus redistribute
materials in collapsing gullies and control
the degree of gully damage. Therefore,
understanding the sediment selectivity and
transport mechanisms of colluvial deposits
eroding from steep slopes is an important
component of characterizing the mecha-
nisms by which these deposits erode. Few
reports have examined the particle-size dis-
tribution of sediment eroded from colluvial
deposits. Thus, additional information on
sediment selectivity and transport mech-
anisms will help characterize the erosion
processes of colluvial deposits. This study
aimed to address these knowledge gaps by
(1) investigating the sediment particle-size
distribution of colluvial deposits for vary-
ing durations of rainfall, (2) analyzing the
relationship between sediment sorting and
transport mechanisms before and after rill
initiation on colluvial deposit slopes, and (3)
clarifying the size selectivity of eroded sed-
iment derived from disturbed soils with a
high coarse particle content on steep slopes.
Materials and Methods
Materials and Soil Analysis. The soils
tested in this study were collected in
Yangkeng Village (118°03´ E, 24°57´ N),
which is located in Longmen Town, Anxi
County, Fujian Province, southeastern
China. Yangkeng Village has a subtropi-
cal monsoonal climate and a mean annual
air temperature of 19°C. The mean annual
precipitation is 1,800 mm, which is con-
centrated during the typhoon season from
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Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 73(2):133-142 www.swcs.org
May to September. This monsoonal climate
makes erosion extremely seasonal.
The soils are typical colluvial soil from col-
lapsing gullies derived from granite bedrock.
To obtain soil with a texture representa-
tive of what is generally found in the field,
more than 10 t of soil was collected from
various layers of five large colluvial deposits
with different textures in Yangkeng Village.
After being air-dried, equal amounts of the
five soil samples from these deposits were
blended, and the mixture was gently crushed
and passed through a 10 mm sieve. The soil
pH and organic matter content were 5.17
and 1.65 g kg–1, respectively. The fractions
of gravel (>2 mm), sand (2 to 0.05 mm), silt
(0.05 to 0.002 mm), and clay (<0.002 mm)
in the original soil were 40.09%, 34.01%,
23.32%, and 2.58%, respectively. The
original soil had a low clay content and a
gravel:sand:silt:clay ratio of 1:0.85:0.58:0.06.
Thus, the original soil can be characterized
having large amounts of gravel, sand, and
silt, an extremely small clay fraction, no large
aggregate structures, significant porosity, and
a weak soil structure.
Experimental Facilities. In this study, a
down-sprinkle precipitation system and a
trial soil plot were used to rainfall simulation
experiments. The down-sprinkle precipi-
tation system with three types of nozzles
(with orifice diameters of 4.7, 6.3, and 10.4
mm) allowed for precise adjustment of rain-
fall intensities by varying the orifice size
and water pressure. The nozzles were set at
a height of 12 m to ensure that all raindrops
reached their terminal velocities. The uni-
formity coefficient of the rainfall was >85%.
The trial soil plot was placed in a steel tank
that was 5 m long, 1 m deep, and 1 m wide
JOURNAL OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
 Table 1
Simulated rainfall drop diameter, terminal velocity, and kinetic energy.

and could be tilted through a range of slope
angles from 0° to 40°.
Rainfall Simulation Experiments. Two
factors were varied during the experimental
investigation of colluvial deposits in Anxi
County: rainfall characteristics and slope gra-
dient. Based on field observations, the slopes
underlain by the colluvial deposits had gradi-
ents of 20° to 40°. Therefore, the slopes in
the experiment were set at gradients of 20°,
25°, 30°, 35°, and 40°. In Anxi County, soil
erosion is mainly caused by heavy rainfall or
storms (>1 mm min–1). Therefore, five rainfall
intensities were applied during the experi-
ment: 1, 1.33, 1.67, 2, and 2.33 mm min–1.
The raindrop characteristics associated with
the rainfall intensities are shown in table 1.
Rainfall intensity Median diameter Median terminal Rainfall kinetic
(mm min–1) (mm) velocity (m s–1) energy (W m–2)
1.00 2.10 4.34 0.16
1.33 2.35 5.02 0.28
1.67 2.53 5.47 0.42
2.00 2.96 6.41 0.69
2.33 3.52 8.58 1.16
of the rills was approximately rectangular.The The first fraction included the stage spanning
erosion conditions of the slope were photo- the four through eight minutes after rainfall
graphed at fixed time intervals using a digital event initiation, during which interrill ero-
camera. The flow velocity was determined sion was predominant (hereinafter called the
using potassium permanganate (KMnO4) four to eight minute erosion stage); the sec-
as a tracer, and the depth of rill flow was ond fraction included the late erosion stage,
measured using a millimeter-scale ruler. which spanned the 52 through 56 minutes
The water temperature was measured using after rainfall event initiation, by which time

All experiments were conducted in duplicate.
The bottom of the soil tank was filled
with 60 cm of sand, which was covered with
a layer of gauze to maintain water drainage
conditions similar to the soil under natural
conditions. Thus, water easily infiltrated the
soil during the experiments. Next, 30 cm of
the original soil was placed on top of the sand
and compacted in six 5 cm layers to achieve
a bulk density between 1.24 and 1.42 g cm–3,
similar to the soil under natural conditions.
The average density was 1.35 g cm–3, with a
standard deviation of 0.07. Before beginning
the rainfall experiments, 0.50 mm min–1 of
simulated rainfall was applied for 10 minutes,
after which the soil in the box was covered
with a plastic sheet for 18 hours to allow
the water to completely permeate the soil.
This plastic cover was used to maintain the
moisture of the original soils at close to nat-
ural soil conditions and to ensure that the
soil moisture remained the same following
each simulated rainfall event. Prior to the
rainfall experiments, the soil moisture con-
tent ranged from 25.22% to 28.55%, with an
average of 26.50% and a standard deviation of
0.89. Because surface characteristics, surface
angles, and sorting are difficult to simulate in
the laboratory, the slope surface was scraped
smooth to remove crusts and ensure a con-
sistent slope, and the upper layer of soil in
the boxes was changed after each simulation
to ensure soil consistency for each test.
Measurements. Once a rainfall simula-
tion began, the runoff production time was
recorded. The duration of each simulated
rainfall event was 60 minutes. After rill initia-
tion in the plot, the rill widths were frequently
measured with a millimeter-scale ruler at
numerous locations; the cross-sectional area
a thermometer, and the coefficient of vis-
cosity of the flow was determined based on
the water temperature. During the simulated
rainfall events, the runoff volume and amount
of sediment were recorded every four minutes.
The particle size distribution of the collected
samples was determined by sieving with
mesh sizes of 5, 2, and 1 mm. Samples that
passed through the 1 mm sieve were treated
with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to remove
organic matter and sodium hexametaphos-
phate ([NaPO3]6) for chemical dispersion
before being subjected to ultrasonic disper-
sion. Finally, the fully dispersed sediment
sample (that had passed through the 1 mm
sieve) was analyzed using a BT-9300ST laser
particle-size analyzer (Bettersize Instruments
Ltd., Liaoning, China).
Data Analysis. The fractions corresponding
to each particle size class were calculated based
on the sieving data and the laser particle-size
analysis results. The particles were divided into
six size classes based on the US classification
system: gravel (>2 mm), coarse sand (2 to 0.25
mm), fine sand (0.25 to 0.05 mm), coarse silt
(0.05 to 0.02 mm), fine silt (0.02 to 0.002 mm),
and clay (<0.002 mm).
The enrichment ratio (ER) is used to
describe the enrichment in sediment particle
size fractions that occurs during soil erosion
(Martinez-Mena et al. 2000). The ER is
given by the following equation:
percentage of particles in a given size class in eroded sediment
ER =
percentage of particles in a given size class in original soil
(1)
To understand the sediment sorting char-
acteristics of interrill and rill erosion, the
individual mass fractions for 10 size classes
during two erosion stages were analyzed.
Copyright © 2018 Soil and Water Conservation Society. All rights reserved.
Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 73(2):133-142 www.swcs.org
rills were relatively well developed (hereinaf-
ter called the 52 to 56 minute erosion stage).
The particle data were treated as follows: the
original un-eroded soil was subdivided into
I = 10 size classes, each having an equal mass
fraction. The fraction of each of I size classes
in the outflow sediment at different times
during each experiment was then obtained
by subdividing the equal classes obtained for
the original soils, as described by Asadi et al.
(2007a). This process is illustrated in figure 2
using the example of one experiment. Figure
2 shows that the ranges of the 10 equally
divided size classes of the original soil are
<0.006, 0.006 to 0.024, 0.024 to 0.093,
0.093 to 0.537, 0.537 to 0.957, 0.957 to
1.887, 1.887 to 2.840, 2.840 to 3.793, 3.793
to 4.763, and >4.763 mm. Using the same
size class boundaries obtained from subdi-
vision of the original soil into equal mass
classes, the fraction of eroded sediment was
determined for each size class.
The size distribution of the eroded mate-
rial was also expressed as the mean weighted
diameter (MWD), calculated using the fol-
lowing formula (Le Bissonnais 1996):
10
MWD = i Σ x × wi , (2)
=1 i
where xi is the mean diameter of the ith
size class, wi is the weight fraction of parti-
cles of the ith size class, and i represents the
10 size classes.
. The stream power (Ω, W m–2) represents
the runoff energy per unit area, some or all
of which is available to remove and transport
soil particles from the slope surface (Teixeira
and Misra 1997). The stream power was cal-
culated as follows:

JOURNAL OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION MARCH/APRIL 2018—VOL. 73, NO. 2 135
 Figure 2
(a) The size distribution of the original soil, with 10 classes of equal mass. (b) An example of the
mass fractions of each of the 10 size classes in sediment eroded during the experiment, with a
cles. Additionally, the soil was bombarded by
rainfall intensity of 1.67 mm min–1 and a slope of 40° at 52 to 56 minutes. The size classes are
obtained from (a).
raindrops, causing physical and chemical dis-
persion. This stage of erosion produced large
(a) 110 amounts of dispersed soil particles; of these,
100 the clay particles were the first fraction mobi-
lized by splash erosion (Le Bissonnais 1996).
90
This enrichment in clay particles resulted in
Cumulative mass (%)

80 a very high clay ER during the initial stage

70 of runoff production. As the rainfall event
60 progressed, the slope entered the interrill
50
erosion stage. During this stage, splattered
soil particles began to be transported by sheet
40 flow on the slope. In addition, there was pro-
30 gressive denudation of the soil on the slope
20 surface, and the streams selectively trans-
10 ported fine soil particles. Therefore, the fine
fraction of the eroded sediment was highest

Copyright © 2018 Soil and Water Conservation Society. All rights reserved.
0

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 73(2):133-142 www.swcs.org

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 during the initial stage. As the rainfall event
(b) 110 progressed, a surface seal was formed by the
100 impact of raindrops, thereby decreasing the
intensity of soil erosion and causing a shift
90
to a detachment-limiting regime (Assouline
Cumulative mass (%)

80 and Ben-Hur 2006; Somchai and Chaiyuth

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Particle size (mm)
Ω = (ρgSQ) ÷ W, (3) Results and Discussion
Changes in Sediment Particle-Size
where ρ represents the water density Distribution with Rainfall Duration. A sim-
(assumed to have a constant value of 1,000 ulated rainfall intensity of 1.67 mm min–1 is
kg m–3 at 25°C), g represents the gravitational typical of intense storms in the study area
acceleration (9.8 m s–2), S represents the sine that are characteristic of monsoon climate
of the slope gradient, Q represents the dis- conditions (Jiang et al. 2014). Therefore, the
charge rate (m3 s–1), and W represents the rill particle characteristics that resulted from a
width (m). simulated rainfall intensity of 1.67 mm min–1
Statistical Analyses. The differences for various slope gradients were selected for
between parameters in different experiments analysis (figure 3). During the initial stage of
were determined using a grouping Tukey test. runoff production, the ERs of the clay, fine
Regression analysis was used to characterize silt, coarse silt, fine sand, and coarse sand
the relationships between stream power and fractions were highest, while the ERs of the
the relative effect of contact (rolling) load. coarse sand and gravel fractions were lowest
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed (figure 3a, 3c, 3e, and 3g). This phenomenon
using the statistical program SPSS 18.0. Graphs occurred because splash erosion is dominant
were prepared using Excel 2007 (Microsoft during the initial stages of runoff, which
Corporation, Redmond,Washington). causes mobilization of the soil following
raindrop impact and expansion of clay parti-
2012). As the detachment of soil particles
became limited, the fine particle content of
the sediment decreased gradually (figure 3b,
3d, 3f, 3h, and 3j). Interrill erosion lasted 2 to
30 minutes depending on the slope gradient
and rainfall intensity. At a rainfall intensity of
1.67 mm min–1, the duration of the interrill
erosion was approximately 25 minutes for a
slope gradient of 20° (figure 3a and 3b) and
approximately 5 minutes for a slope gradient
of 40° (figure 3i and 3j). During this stage,
the runoff primarily transported fine particles,
and thus, the ERs of the clay, fine silt, coarse
silt, fine sand, and coarse sand all exceeded 1
(figure 3b, 3d, 3f, 3h, and 3j). This phenome-
non occurred because the transport capacity
of the interrill flow was insufficient; because
fine particles were selectively transported
during this stage, the runoff was enriched in
fine particles (Slattery and Burt 1997).
The experimental data also show that
at a rainfall intensity of 1.67 mm min–1,
the fraction of fine particles decreased for
various slope gradients as a rainfall event pro-
gressed, while the fraction of coarse particles
increased, particularly gravel and coarse sand.
Eventually, however, the particle-size frac-
tions stabilized (figure 3). This phenomenon
occurred because as the rainfall event contin-
ued, rills formed on the slope, and the kinetic
parameters of the runoff such as stream
power and stream shear stress increased; this
greater kinetic energy caused the runoff to
actively detach and erode large sediment par-

136 MARCH/APRIL 2018—VOL. 73, NO. 2 JOURNAL OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
 Figure 3
Temporal variations in particle size distribution and enrichment ratios (ER) of various fractions
of eroded sediment at a rainfall intensity of 1.67 mm min–1 and various slope gradients (20°,
ticles, increasing the coarse particle fraction
25°, 30°, 35°, and 40°). (a, c, e, g, and i) show changes in sediment particle size at slopes of
(Shi et al. 2012). In addition, much of the 20°, 25°, 30°, 35°, and 40°, respectively. (b, d, f, h, and j) show the ER of sediment at slopes of
energy from the raindrops was absorbed by 20°, 25°, 30°, 35°, and 40°, respectively.
the rill flow (Morgan et al. 1998), resulting
in a decreased effect of raindrops on the soil (a) 60 (b) 4
and a decrease in the number of fine particles 50
Rill
initiation Rill
3 initiation

particle (%)
eroded (Proffitt and Rose 1991). Therefore,

Sediment
40
the particle-size distribution of the eroded

ER
sediment tended to stabilize and approach 30 2
that of the original soil. For example, after 20
1
rill development at a rainfall intensity of 10
1.67 mm min–1 and a slope gradient of 40°, 0 0
the ERs of the gravel, coarse sand, fine sand, 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
coarse silt, fine silt, and clay in the eroded Rainfall duration (min) Rainfall duration (min)
sediment were 1.04, 0.86, 1.26, 1.08, 1.04, (c) 60 (d) 3
and 0.91, respectively. These ERs are similar 50 Rill Rill
to the original soil (in which the ERs of the
particle (%)

Copyright © 2018 Soil and Water Conservation Society. All rights reserved.
initiation initiation
Sediment

40 2

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 73(2):133-142 www.swcs.org

gravel, coarse sand, fine sand, coarse silt, fine

ER
silt, and clay were all 1). Slattery and Burt 30
(1997), Malam Issa et al. (2006), and Shi et 20 1
al. (2012) reported that the coarse sand per- 10
centage of eroded material increased and
0 0
then stabilized as time progressed in an aeo- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
lian soil, a sandy soil, and a clay loam soil, Rainfall duration (min) Rainfall duration (min)
respectively, which is consistent with the (e) 60 (f) 3
observations in this study. In particular, at Rill
50 initiation Rill
heavy rainfall intensities and for a steep slope
particle (%)

initiation
Sediment

gradient, the particle-size distribution of the 40 2

eroded material rapidly approached that of 30
ER
the original soil (within approximately five 20 1
minutes; figure 3j), and the erosion was char-
10
acterized by rill runoff that transported the
original soil nonselectively. However, Shi et 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
al. (2012) found that there was no significant
Rainfall duration (min) Rainfall duration (min)
change in clay content throughout the ero-
sion process, and that the clay ER was in the (g) 60 (h) 3
Rill Rill
range of 0.29 to 0.52, which is far lower than 50 initiation initiation
particle (%)

the values obtained in this study (0.91 to

Sediment

40 2
2.82). This difference is likely related to the
ER

30
textures of the original soils. Clay made up
30.8% of the original soil used by Shi et al. 20 1
(2012), and this clay fraction was in the form 10
of aggregates and thus not easily dispersed 0 0
by flow. In contrast, the clay content of the 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
original soil in our study was extremely low Rainfall duration (min) Rainfall duration (min)
(only 2.58%). These clay particles could not (i) 60
Rill
(j) 3
form aggregates; they were easily transported 50 initiation Rill
initiation
particle (%)

by raindrops and rapidly wetted by the flow.

Sediment

40 2
Thus, fine particles were the first to be trans- 30
ER

ported, and the clay ER increased. Asadi et

al. (2007b) also found that a soil with a high 20 1
sand content had a higher ER for fine par- 10
ticles than a soil with a low sand content. In 0 0
this study, rill flow transported the original 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
soil almost nonselectively, confirming that Rainfall duration (min) Rainfall duration (min)
colluvial deposits are highly susceptible to Legend
Gravel Coarse sand Fine sand Coarse silt Fine silt Clay
erosion. However, the sediment particle-size

JOURNAL OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION MARCH/APRIL 2018—VOL. 73, NO. 2 137
 distribution fluctuated during the rill erosion
stage (figure 3). This can be attributed to the
intermittent nature of both sediment inputs
(such as rill sidewall collapses) and the move-
ments involved. The results at other rainfall
intensities were similar.
Sediment Sorting. Figure 4 shows the per-
centage of each of the 10 particle sizes of
the eroded sediments at four to eight min-
utes after rainfall initiation (representing the
interrill erosion stage; figure 4a, 4c, 4e, 4g,
and 4i) and at 52 to 56 minutes after rain-
fall initiation (representing well developed
rills and erosion; figure 4b, 4d, 4f, 4h, and 4j).
The original soil had 10 equal particle size
fractions, so particle sizes with a percentage
>10% were preferentially transported (Asadi
et al. 2007a, 2007b).
Figure 4 indicates that during the four to
eight minute erosion stage and under various
conditions, the sediment had an approxi-
mately unimodal particle-size distribution
(figure 4a, 4c, 4e, 4g, and 4i). This phenom-
enon occurred because during the interrill
erosion stage, soil particles were mainly dis-
persed by the impact of raindrops. Sediment
particles were likely splashed into the air
before reaching areas of flow and being
transported off the slope (Kinnell 1990; Shi
et al. 2010). Therefore, there was enrichment
in fine particles during the initial stage of
rainfall. After sheet flow began, the effect of
raindrops decreased, and the rainfall intensity
and slope gradient controlled runoff volume
and velocity. Because sheet flow velocity was
slow (figure 5) and the coarse particles had
a high settling velocity, the sediment also
became enriched with finer particles early
in rainfall-driven erosion (Proffitt and Rose
1991). Figure 4 shows that during the 52 to
56 minute erosion stage and at rainfall inten-
sities of 1 and 1.33 mm min–1, the eroded
sediment still exhibited an approximately
unimodal distribution (figure 4b and 4d).
This occurred because at low rainfall inten-
sities (1 and 1.33 mm min–1), the rill flow
velocity on the slope was relatively slow (fig-
ure 5). Thus, the drag force due to rill flow
could not overcome settling of the coarser
particles. As a result, proportionally more fine
particles were entrained. In contrast, during
the 52 to 56 minute erosion stage and at
rainfall intensities of 1.67, 2, and 2.33 mm
min–1, the particle size distribution of the
eroded sediment began to approach that of
the original soil, exhibiting an approximately
uniform distribution (figure 4f, 4h, and 4j).
138 MARCH/APRIL 2018—VOL. 73, NO. 2
This occurred because at high rainfall inten-
sities (1.67, 2, and 2.33 mm min–1), the rill
flow velocity was greater during the 52 to 56
minute erosion stage (figure 5).Thus, it could
overcome settling of the coarse particles and
almost nonselectively transport the original
soil. Therefore, the flow type (sheet or rill)
and the settling velocities of the different
particle size classes were the major factors
controlling the particle-size distribution of
the eroded material.
Figure 4 also shows that during the four
to eight minute stage, the eroded sediment
exhibited a bimodal distribution (figure 4a,
4c, 4e, 4g, and 4i). The maximum particle
size largely ranged from 0.006 to 0.024 mm
and from 0.957 to 1.887 mm. One theory
of erosion processes predicts that no break-
down in soil structure should occur during
rainfall-driven erosion, so the particle size dis-
tribution at steady state will be the same as
for the original soil (Hairsine et al. 1999).This
theory suggests that the particle-size distribu-
tion of eroded sediment during the rill erosion
stage should resemble that of the original
soil for high slope gradients and high-inten-
sity rainfall (10% in both cases). However, as
shown in figure 4, the particle-size distribu-
tion of sediment during the 52 to 56 minute
stage (rill erosion) was uneven between size
classes, also exhibiting a bimodal distribution.
The particle size values ranged from 0.006
to 0.024 mm and from 0.957 to 1.887 mm.
This observation is consistent with previous
findings (Asadi et al. 2007b, 2011; Shi et al.
2012). Asadi et al. (2007b, 2011) concluded
that this phenomenon mainly occurs because
of differences in the kinetic energy of trans-
port for suspension, saltation, and rolling of
variously sized particles in runoff. These dif-
ferences in kinetic energy result in selective
transport of particles of different sizes. The
results of this study support a model with
selective transport of sediment resulting in a
bimodal particle size distribution.
The sediment size distribution for the
two sampling times was used to calculate
the MWD of the sediments (table 2). There
was a significant difference in the MWD at
different erosion stages. Because the eroded
sediment during the interrill erosion stage
consisted mainly of fine particles and the
coarse fraction increased after the develop-
ment of rills, the MWD of the sediment
particles during the rill erosion stage was
greater than that during the interrill erosion
stage. Shi et al. (2012) studied the MWD of
eroded sediment particles on a loess slope
and reported similar results. In this study, we
found that the MWD of sediment during
rill erosion at rainfall intensities of 1.67, 2,
and 2.33 mm min–1 for slope gradients >30°
was greater than that of the original soil
(1.96 mm; table 2).This phenomenon occurs
because of rill bank collapse at steep slopes
and high rainfall intensities (Shi et al. 2012).
Additionally, coarse, heavy particles in the
original soil were more easily rolled on steep
slopes because of gravity and inertia (Wang
and Shi 2015). This result reflects the highly
erodible nature of colluvial soil.
The results discussed above suggest that
the main factors that control the particle-size
distribution of sediment eroded from collu-
Copyright © 2018 Soil and Water Conservation Society. All rights reserved.
Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 73(2):133-142 www.swcs.org
vial deposits are the hydraulic flow type (sheet
or rill), the settling velocities of different size
classes, the selective transport of different size
classes, or a combination thereof. In addition,
rill bank collapse is an important factor that
could also affect the particle-size distribution
of sediment transported during rill erosion.
Sediment Transport Mechanisms.
Sediment transport can be divided into
suspension, saltation, and contact (rolling).
Each mechanism is broadly associated with
a particular sediment size range (Moss et al.
1979). Asadi et al. (2007b) demonstrated
that a bimodal sediment size distribution
resulted from two different transport mech-
anisms, rolling and suspension/saltation,
each predominantly affecting particle sizes
of different classes. The size classes with the
lowest sediment transport rates define the
boundary between suspension-saltation and
bed-load transport (Asadi et al. 2011; Shi et
al. 2012). Based on this hypothesis, figure 4
shows that during both the interrill and rill
erosion stages, the 0.537 to 0.957 mm size
class has the lowest sediment transport rates.
Thus, this size class represents the approxi-
mate boundary between suspension-saltation
and bed-load transport for colluvial soil.
However, the size class that represents the
transition from suspended load to bed load
is larger in this study than in previous stud-
ies. Loch and Donnollan (1983) found that
particles ranging from 0.125 to 0.250 mm
represented this transition. Asadi et al. (2011)
reported that in forest soil, this transition
involved particles larger than 0.375 mm, and
that in alluvial sand, it involved particles from
0.180 to 0.448 mm. Shi et al. (2012) found
that the corresponding size in loess soil
ranged from 0.054 to 0.152 mm. These dif-
JOURNAL OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
 Figure 4
Percentage of the 10 size classes in eroded sediment for two sampling times and different slopes (20°, 25°, 30°, 35°, and 40°) and rainfall intensities
(1, 1.33, 1.67, 2, and 2.33 mm min–1). (a, c, e, g, and i) show the percentage of the 10 size classes in eroded sediment for a sampling time of 4 to 8
minutes at rainfall intensities of 1, 1.33, 1.67, 2, and 2.33 mm min–1, respectively. (b, d, f, h, and j) show the percentage of the 10 size classes in erod-
ed sediment for a sampling time of 52 to 56 minutes at rainfall intensities of 1, 1.33, 1.67, 2, and 2.33 mm min–1, respectively.

(a) 50 (b) 50

sediment (%)
sediment (%)

40 40

Fraction in
Fraction in

30 Fraction in original soil 30 Fraction in original soil

20 20
10 10
0 0
0.006 0.024 0.093 0.537 0.957 1.887 2.840 3.793 4.763 0.006 0.024 0.093 0.537 0.957 1.887 2.840 3.793 4.763

Size class (mm) Size class (mm)

(c) 50 (d) 40

sediment (%)
sediment (%)

40

Fraction in
Fraction in

30
Fraction in original soil Fraction in original soil
30

Copyright © 2018 Soil and Water Conservation Society. All rights reserved.
20
20

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 73(2):133-142 www.swcs.org

10 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0
0.006 0.024 0.093 0.537 0.957 1.887 2.840 3.793 4.763 0.006 0.024 0.093 0.537 0.957 1.887 2.840 3.793 4.763

Size class (mm) Size class (mm)

(e) 40 (f) 30
sediment (%)
sediment (%)

Fraction in
Fraction in

30 Fraction in original soil

Fraction in original soil 20
20
10
10
0 0
0.006 0.024 0.093 0.537 0.957 1.887 2.840 3.793 4.763 0.006 0.024 0.093 0.537 0.957 1.887 2.840 3.793 4.763

Size class (mm) Size class (mm)

(g) 40 (h) 30
sediment (%)

sediment (%)
Fraction in

30
Fraction in

Fraction in original soil 20 Fraction in original soil

20
10
10
0 0
0.006 0.024 0.093 0.537 0.957 1.887 2.840 3.793 4.763 0.006 0.024 0.093 0.537 0.957 1.887 2.840 3.793 4.763
Size class (mm) Size class (mm)

(i) 30 (j) 30
sediment (%)

sediment (%)
Fraction in

Fraction in

20 Fraction in original soil

Fraction in original soil 20

10 10

0 0
0.006 0.024 0.093 0.537 0.957 1.887 2.840 3.793 4.763 0.006 0.024 0.093 0.537 0.957 1.887 2.840 3.793 4.763
Size class (mm) Size class (mm)

Legend
20° 25° 30° 35° 40°

JOURNAL OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION MARCH/APRIL 2018—VOL. 73, NO. 2 139
 Figure 5
Differences in flow velocity between interrill flow and rill flow at different rainfall intensities.
66.52%, 54.55%, 48.92%, and 42.44%, respec-
0.20 tively, and the corresponding fractions of bed
load increased to 18.69%, 33.48%, 45.45%,
51.08%, and 57.56%, respectively. This change
can be attributed to the increase in rill runoff
0.15 power with greater rainfall intensity: trans-
Flow velocity (m s–1)

port by bed load increased logarithmically

with the increase in stream power (figure 6).
Shi et al. (2012) found a strong relationship
0.10 between stream power and the relative effect
of sediment transport by contact (rolling) load.
These results suggest that suspension-saltation
is the main erosion mechanism during inter-
0.05 rill erosion processes. However, after rill
development and as stream power increases,
rolling gains importance as a transport
mechanism. This conclusion is consistent

0.00
Interrill Rill Interrill Rill Interrill Rill Interrill Rill Interrill Rill
1.00 1.33 1.67 2.00 2.33
Rainfall intensity (mm min–1)
ferences could be related to differences in soil tive importance of suspension–saltation and
and hydraulic characteristics. The soil tested bed-load transport at the two sampling times
in this study contained a greater number of based on the minimum in transport hypothesis.
coarse particles (with large gravel, sand, and During the four to eight minute erosion stage
silt fractions) and had a porous structure, and (interrill erosion), the mean particle fractions
the experimental conditions were heavy that were transported by suspension-saltation
rainfall intensity and steep slopes, resulting at rainfall intensities of 1, 1.33, 1.67, 2, and
in high flows. Thus, it makes sense that we 2.33 mm min–1 were 93.97%, 85.67%, 77.37%,
observed a larger size range in the transition 72.83%, and 57.29%, respectively; the particle
from suspended load to bed load. This large fractions transported as bed load were relatively
size range demonstrates the selective trans- low: 6.03%, 14.33%, 22.63%, 27.17%, and
port mechanisms unique to colluvial soil. 42.71%, respectively. After rill formation, bed
Based on the hypothesis that size class with load accounted for the majority of the trans-
minimum transport rate is an approximate ported material, and the load transported by
border between suspension–saltation and bed- suspension-saltation decreased. During the 52
load transport, the relative importance of each to 56 minute erosion stage, the fractions trans-
mechanism in sediment loss can be calculated ported by suspension-saltation at the rainfall
(Asadi et al. 2011). Table 3 presents the rela- intensities listed above decreased to 81.31%,
Copyright © 2018 Soil and Water Conservation Society. All rights reserved.
Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 73(2):133-142 www.swcs.org
with the results of Shi et al. (2012) and Wang
et al. (2015). Additionally, because soils with
loose, coarse material are easily erodible, this
study showed that during rill erosion pro-
cesses at high rainfall intensity (1.67, 2, and
2.33 mm min–1), rill banks easily collapsed
and coarse particles rolled more easily. Rill
bank collapses and the increased movement
of coarse and heavy particles on steep slopes
could enhance the relative contribution of
bed load as a transport mechanism in coarse
and disturbed soils.
Summary and Conclusions
Dynamic changes in the size distribution of
eroded sediment were measured in a dis-
turbed colluvial soil with a high fraction of
coarse particles. Specifically, this study exam-
ined the effects of rainfall-driven erosion
for heavy rainfall intensities and steep slope
gradients. As a rainfall event progressed, the
eroded sediment particles coarsened, after
which their size distribution stabilized. On
short timescales, the particle size distribution
of the eroded sediment fluctuated due to the
intermittent nature of both sediment inputs

Table 2
Mean weight diameter (MWD) of sediment particles at different erosion stages (mm).
1 mm min–1 1.33 mm min–1 1.67 mm min–1 2 mm min–1 2.33 mm min–1
Slope (°) 4 to 8 min 52 to 56 min 4 to 8 min 52 to 56 min 4 to 8 min 52 to 56 min 4 to 8 min 52 to 56 min 4 to 8 min 52 to 56 min
20 0.05b 0.15a 0.18b 1.13a 0.21b 1.51a 0.35b 1.68a 1.12a 1.64a
25 0.07b 0.61a 0.38b 1.39a 0.52b 1.90a 0.66b 1.85a 1.14b 2.09a
30 0.08b 0.78a 0.71b 1.88a 0.91b 2.22a 0.83b 2.09a 1.23b 2.30a
35 0.13b 1.35a 0.71b 1.51a 0.95b 2.19a 1.04b 2.28a 1.71a 2.40a
40 0.11b 0.89a 0.21b 1.86a 1.04b 2.35a 1.15b 2.37a 1.72a 2.41a
Note: For each rainfall intensity, significant differences between experiments (p < 0.05) are denoted by different letters in the same line.

140 MARCH/APRIL 2018—VOL. 73, NO. 2 JOURNAL OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
 Table 3
Relative importance (%) of transport by suspension-saltation versus bed load under different
slope gradient and rainfall intensity conditions.
and the movements involved. During interrill
Rainfall Slope Suspension-saltation Bed load
intensity gradient
erosion, transport via suspension-saltation of
(mm min–1) (°) 4 to 8 min 52 to 56 min 4 to 8 min 52 to 56 min sediment finer than 0.537 mm was the most
important erosion mechanism. However, after
0.00 20 99.05a 94.81a 0.95a 5.19a
the initiation of rill erosion, bed-load trans-
25 87.31a 74.89b 12.69b 25.11a
port by rolling of medium to large sediment
30 94.01a 75.78b 5.99b 24.22a
particles (coarser than 0.957 mm) became an
35 94.69a 68.90b 5.31b 31.10a
increasingly important transport mechanism,
40 94.79a 92.16a 5.21a 7.84a
and this was enhanced by increasing rain-
1.33 20 92.73a 65.20b 7.27b 34.80a
fall intensity. Additional important factors
25 89.42a 78.47b 10.58b 21.53a
were rill bank collapse and greater rolling of
30 77.70a 66.74b 22.30b 33.26a coarse particles in the colluvial soil (which
35 80.30a 63.63b 19.70b 36.37a had more inertia and were more strongly
40 88.18a 58.57b 11.82b 41.43a affected by gravity because of their weight).
1.67 20 86.88a 60.76b 13.12b 39.24a These factors could increase the relative
25 71.51a 58.29b 28.49b 41.71a importance of bed-load transport in rill ero-
30 71.30a 51.58b 28.70b 48.42a sion. The results of this study will help guide

Copyright © 2018 Soil and Water Conservation Society. All rights reserved.
35 75.41a 53.34b 24.59b 46.66a

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 73(2):133-142 www.swcs.org

further examination of the sorting character-
40 81.76a 48.80b 18.24b 51.20a istics and transport mechanisms of sediment
2.00 20 74.99a 49.82b 25.01b 50.18a eroded from disturbed soils with large coarse
25 69.11a 50.24b 30.89b 49.76a fractions on steep slopes. Colluvial soils are
30 67.97a 47.48b 32.03b 52.52a typically coarse and contain large amounts of
35 71.14a 47.87b 28.86b 52.13a gravel. Additional studies should explore the
40 80.96a 49.21b 19.04b 50.79a effect of gravel content on the particle-size
2.33 20 64.32a 55.32a 35.68a 44.68a distribution of sediment eroded from col-
25 59.98a 40.76b 40.02b 59.24a luvial soils, as well as sediment sorting and
30 53.99a 38.98b 46.01b 61.02a transport mechanisms.
35 54.52a 39.73b 45.48b 60.27a
40 53.65a 37.41b 46.35b 62.59a Acknowledgements
Note: For each variable, significant differences between experiments (p < 0.05) are denoted by We gratefully acknowledge the funding provided by the
different letters in the same line. National Key Technology Research and Development
Program of the Ministry of Science and Technology of
China (Grant 2014BAD15B0303), the Natural Science
Foundation of Fujian Province, China (Grant 2017J01459),
Figure 6 and the National Natural Science Foundation of China
Relationship between stream power and the relative effect of contact (rolling) load on (Grant 41571272). We also thank the following graduate
sediment transport. students from Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University,
Fuzhou, China—Xiaofang Xie, Peiyin Ke, Lichan Su, Biyun
80
Xie,Yating Zhuang, and Zhaofu Zhang—for their assistance
with sample analysis, and graduate students Peiji Chen and
Yan Zhang for their assistance with soil sampling.
Relative effect of contact

60
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