Original Paper
Landslides Mauricio Ehrlich I Douglas Pereira da Costa I Rafael Cerqueira Silva
DOI 10.1007/s10346-018-0964-6
Received: 23 August 2017
Accepted: 11 February 2018 Behavior of a colluvial slope located in Southeastern
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany,
part of Springer Nature 2018
Brazil
Abstract Colluvial deposits are commonly found throughout the
Serra do Mar escarpment in Brazil. This article discusses predispos-
ing geotechnical and geological factors related to the movement of a
colluvium deposit located at km 29 of the Brazilian Federal Highway
116, Rio de Janeiro/RJ (BR-116/RJ). During the highway construction
in mid-1976, an excavation of the toe of the slope was implemented,
exacerbating preexisting movement. In order to understand the
behavior of this deposit, field investigations, monitoring, and labo-
ratory tests, as well as theoretical analyses were carried out. A subsoil
survey in the area indicated the presence of a colluvium-filled paleo-
thalweg. The site is located in a region with a specific geomorphology
that favors significant sources of recharge to groundwater. The highly
foliated rock has persistent parallel fractures, with a dip favorable to
the groundwater flow in the direction of the slope. Statistical analyses
were performed and good correlations were observed for rainfall,
movements, groundwater table (GWT) levels, piezometer readings,
and the discharge from deep horizontal drains (DHDs). The instal-
lation of the DHDs led to a GWT draw-down of 15 m, as well as
reductions in movement and artesian pressure. The drains that
presented the best performance were those installed in the
colluvium-filled paleo-thalweg. Nevertheless, the present number
of DHDs installed is not sufficient to permanently lower the GWT
and stop the creep movement in the slope which was reactivated
during a period of intense rainfall. Stability analysis indicates that a
proper slope stability condition may be achieved by reducing the
GWT level.
Keywords Colluvium . Monitoring . Pluviometry . Groundwater
table . Creep movement . Deep horizontal drains
Introduction
Colluvial deposits of large dimensions, in precarious stability
conditions, are commonly found throughout the Serra do Mar
escarpment. This mountain range is located in Southeastern Bra-
zil, parallel to the coast, and runs from the state of Espírito Santo
to the border between the states of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa
Catarina (Fig. 1). One of the highest rainfall indexes observed in
Brazil occurs along this range of mountains, and a considerable
amount of mass movement is usually registered during the rainy
season, which takes place from October to March. Movement may
be detected soon after a major rainfall event.
This article presents the behavior of a colluvium deposit located
at km 29 of the Brazilian Federal Highway 116, Rio de Janeiro/RJ
(BR-116/RJ). In mid-1976, the excavation carried out for the high-
way construction exacerbated the creep movement that had natu-
rally occurred at the site, controlled by varying the level of the
groundwater table (GWT). The creep movement in the slope was
reactivated during a period of intense rainfall. Those movements
have led to deformations in the highway pavement. The factor of
safety in the colluvial slopes of such deposits are usually very close
to unity and a relatively small excavation at the base is enough to
start movement (Lacerda and Sandroni 1985).
Geotechnical profiles of the area were established, based on
rotary drilling and geophysical survey. The slope was monitored
with rain gauges, inclinometers, topographic surveys, piezometers,
and water level meters. Soil parameters were determined through
laboratory tests on undisturbed soil samples. Deep horizontal
drains (DHDs) were installed in the colluvium deposit, and the
discharge of those drains has been monitored. Theoretical analyses
were performed in order to determine the effect of rainfall, GWT,
and the drains on the stability of the slope.
Consistent with case studies found in the literature (Vargas Jr.
et al. 1986; Pedrosa et al. 1988; Gusmão Filho et al. 1993; Lacerda
1997, 1999, 2004; Freitas 2004; Ayalew et al. 2005; Chigira and
Yokoyama 2005; Eberhardt et al. 2005; Geertsema et al. 2006;
Gerscovich et al. 2006; Lee and Hencher 2009; Ehrlich et al. 2010;
Zhou et al. 2010; Yufei et al. 2012; Prokešová et al. 2013; Piccinini
et al. 2014; Zhou et al. 2014; Zhao et al. 2015; Song and Cui 2016;
Martins et al. 2016), regression analysis was used to understand the
relationship between accumulated rainfall, lateral movements,
GWT levels, piezometer readings, and discharge from the DHDs.
The results contribute to a better understanding of the mecha-
nisms of movement associated with colluvial soil deposits.
These analyses aim to verify the effect of accumulated rainfall
and the importance of drainage on the groundwater table and the
stability condition of colluvial deposits.
Aspects related to colluvial deposits
Lacerda (2004) proposed classification of colluvial deposits into
two categories: (a) de-structured colluvium, which is the result of
the deposition of disintegrated slide material, and (b) colluvium
resulting from a landslide in a residual soil mass, keeping the mass
practically intact after failure, as a coherent soil block. The collu-
vium corresponding to this second category appears to be a Btrue^
residual soil layer; however, large-strain soil resistance is mobi-
lized at the failure surface, which controls the stability of the slope.
Most of the colluvial case studies reported in the literature are
included in the first category.
Lacerda and Sandroni (1985) report that most colluvial soil
deposits are composed of a mixture of slipped soil and rock blocks
or fragments. Within these deposits, it is not unusual to find
cavities extending for some meters, resulting from the removal
(very possibly by piping) of fine-grained soil adjacent to such
larger rock blocks.
During the rainy season, in colluvial soil deposits, the level of
the GWT is frequently found very close to the ground surface.
Although, flow of groundwater parallel to the surface may be
detected, flow conditions in colluvial masses are usually more
complex. Field observations show that water flow in colluvial
masses is not homogeneous; heterogeneities are made evident by
the response of very closely positioned DHDs of equal geometry.
Such drains frequently provide significantly different water dis-
charges. Artesian pressures may also occur at the toe of these
slopes (Deere and Patton 1971).
Landslides
 Original Paper
Fig. 1 Location of the study site in Brazil
An underlying paleo-thalweg may control the movement of a
colluvium deposit which is usually sinuous, as observed in glaciers
and mudflows. The movement of a colluvial mass initiates as flow,
turns into a translational sliding mass with a flow zone and is
followed by a translational sliding mass with a clear slip surface, as
proposed by Lacerda (1966). This process does not occur uniform-
ly, tending to spread to the slope above. In plain view, the dis-
placements are normally similar to a viscous fluid with larger
displacements at the center of the mass. The typical movement
of a colluvial mass is usually a seasonal creep (Du et al. 2013; Leung
and Ng 2013; Yufei et al. 2012; Lu et al. 2013; Leung and Ng 2016).
Table 1 shows the main factors related to activation and reacti-
vation of movement in colluvial masses (Lacerda 2004). Very
often, the reactivation of a preexisting slip surface located at the
surface of contact between the colluvium and the residual soil is
observed. In some cases, the colluvium is directly in contact with
the bedrock below, which was previously denuded by the sliding of
the original surficial residual soil layer.
Characteristics of the area
The colluvial deposit under consideration is located near the
border of the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais. Figure 2
presents a general view of the location, and Fig. 3 shows the
topography around the site. In the area, convex-concave hills with
rounded or pointed tops are observed, with the presence of collu-
vium, alluvium and, subordinately, deposits of talus. There is a
prevalence of topographic amplitudes between 200 and 400 m and
medium gradients, with the presence of prominent residual forms
Landslides
and elevated gradients. The drainage density of the region is from
middle to high.
Figure 4 shows a geological map of the region. The deposit
occurs in an area of shear zone and granite-gneiss rocks, with
persistent parallel fractures that dip favorable to the groundwa-
ter flow in the direction of the slope. Figure 5 shows rock
fractures in a nearby area, with notable water flow through the
joints. Figure 6 illustrates the longitudinal profile, indicated in
Fig. 3. Besides direct rainfall infiltration in the colluvium, the
presence of upper terraces with watercourses and alluvial plains
Table 1 Factors related to activation and reactivation of movement in colluvium
(Lacerda 2004)
Human interference a. Increase of load at the top
b. Cutting at the toe
Natural causes c. Elevation of groundwater table
d. Impermeable dykes causing elevation
of the water table upslope
e. Artesian pressures under the colluvium
f. Recharge of an aquifer through permeable
fractures and weathered zones of sound rock
g. Local increase of load at mid-slope due to
colluvium accumulation (this may cause a slide
initiation in the residual soil under the
loose colluvium). Depending on the velocity
of load increase, the movement can initiate a
debris flow
h. Sudden loading from falling rocks
Fig. 2 General view of the area and the colluvium deposit under analysis
may lead to rainfall accumulation that may infiltrate through
permeable fractures in the rock below and reach the colluvium
deposit downslope.
Techniques and methods
Aiming to understand the behavior of the colluvium deposit under
consideration, field investigations, monitoring, and laboratory
tests, as well as theoretical analyses were undertaken. These stud-
ies included rotary drilling for definition of the subsoil profile and
a geophysical survey to obtain a more detailed lithology. Rainfall
monitoring was carried out at two pluviometric stations located
Fig. 3 Topography around the study site
near the site, and horizontal displacements were measured by
means of a surface measuring mark and two inclinometers. Water
level meters (WL) and Casagrande piezometers (CP) monitored
the GWT and pore pressure. Measurements of the discharge from
the DHPs were also performed. Characterization and direct shear
tests were performed on samples taken from the colluvial soil
deposit, in order to define soil properties. Stability analyses were
carried out assuming a rupture mechanism inferred from the
geological-geotechnical characteristics of the slope. Statistical
analyses were performed to understand the correlations among
the measured data.
Landslides
 Original Paper

Fig. 4 Geological map (CPRM 2000) indicating the shear zones observed in the region

Field investigation
In 2012, the geological-geotechnical profile was defined based on
rotary drilling. Twelve holes were drilled, totaling 314 m of drilling.
In 2016, a geophysical survey of the slope was performed, aimed at
a more detailed analysis of the lithology of the subsoil profile. This
technique was also applied and achieved good results in studies
presented by Ehrlich et al. (2010), Prokešová et al. (2013), and
Bièvre et al. (2016). In the present study, the 2D Electrical Multi-
polar Tomography methodology was used. The geo-electrical lines
had a 5-m spacing, with a dipole-dipole array.

Fig. 5 Rock fractures observed in a nearby area

Landslides
Fig. 6 Longitudinal profile showing the presence of upper terraces with watercourses and alluvial plains
Monitoring
Rainfall was monitored with rain gauges installed at km 23 and km
40 (Fig. 7) of highway BR-116/RJ, which began operating in the
beginning of 2014 and 2012, respectively. The readings were made
automatically with bucket size 0.2 mm, and the data was transmitted
via General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) technology. All data were
available from remote hosting platforms (www.teleaneel.com.br) in
graph and table form, with accumulated rainfall readings at intervals
of 15 min and 1, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h.
In order to monitor displacements, a surface measuring mark was
installed at the rocky outcrop of the colluvium, situated at the level of
the highway (Fig. 8). The readings of displacements were initiated at
the beginning of 2012. Although the equipment had a good level of
accuracy (± 2–10 mm ± 2–5 ppm), the measurements showed high
scatter. Despite the inherent limitations of the topographic survey
method used (electronic distance measurement EDM), it was impor-
tant to identify the general movement. In general, the readings were
performed weekly. Inclinometers were installed in 2013 to better
evaluate the movement, including its variation with depth. In order
to ensure a non-moving reference at their base, inclinometers I1 and
I2 had depths of 37.5 and 29.5 m, respectively. In general, the mea-
surements were performed monthly.
The groundwater table and piezometric levels were monitored
weekly by means of three water level meters and three Casagrande
piezometers. The following instruments were installed (2013), with
their respective depths: CP1 (19.0 m), CP2 (23.4 m), CP3 (16.0 m),
Fig. 7 Pluviometric station locations along the BR-116/RJ highway and rain gauges used for rainfall monitoring
WL1 (30.0 m), WL2 (23.4 m), and WL3 (27.0 m). In order to lower
the GWT and pore water pressure in the colluvium, DHDs were
installed in 2015, located both upstream and downstream of the
highway. Discharge from the DHDs was also monitored weekly.
The drains, with a diameter of 100 mm (Fig. 9), were installed with
a slightly upward inclination, extending up to 100 m. Figure 8
shows the location of the inclinometers (I1 and I2), the surface
measuring mark (R1), the water level meters, and the Casagrande
piezometers that were installed in the slope under consideration.
Laboratory tests
One undisturbed block sample was obtained, and characterization
and direct shear tests were performed. For the direct shear tests,
four specimens were tested under submerged conditions and nor-
mal stresses of 25, 50, 100, and 200 kPa and two were tested under
natural water content conditions and normal stresses of 25 and
100 kPa. The direct shear tests were performed on specimens with
a cross-section area of 36 cm2 and an initial height of 2.5 cm. The
shear displacement rate was 0.0439 mm/min.
Theoretical studies
Parametric analyses were performed using the limit equilibrium
method. The results were compared to the parameters determined
from the laboratory tests. The position of failure surface was
inferred from the inclinometer measurements and showed a rea-
sonable parallel to the average inclination of the slope surface. The
Landslides
 Original Paper

Fig. 8 Instrument locations in the slope (BR-116/RJ, km 29)

subsurface water flow and the GWT were also considered to be
parallel to the surface. Given that the length of the colluvium layer
(L) is greater than ten times its average thickness (h), the infinite
slope method was adopted. The factor of safety (FS) was calculated
using Eq. 1, shown in Fig. 10 (Skempton and Delory 1957). Where c′
is the effective cohesion intercept, γ is the unit weight of soil, m is a
dimensionless parameter that varies from 0 (groundwater table
coincident with the failure surface) to 1 (groundwater table at the
terrain surface), γw is the unit weight of water, and ϕ′ is the
effective friction angle.
Simple linear regressions between accumulated rainfall and
discharge from the DHDs, piezometric measurements, and GWT
readings were performed. The pluviometric data were obtained
from Pluviometric Station 1 (km 23), which is the one closest to the

Fig. 9 Location of the water level meters (WL1, WL2, and WL3), Casagrande piezometers (CP1, CP2, and CP3), and deep horizontal drains (DHD 1, DHD CF-A, and DHD CF-
B) in the cross section (rocky outcrop area)

Landslides
Fig. 10 Infinite slope stability analysis with flow parallel to the surface
slope. In order to ensure an unchanged drainage condition for the
subsoil, analyses were carried out for a period after which no
additional DHDs were installed in the area (after January of
2016). Analyses were carried out to identify correlations among
the measurements and the accumulated rainfall, represented by a
polynomial function of the first degree. Coefficients of determina-
tion, denoted r2, were calculated considering 3 to 360 days of
accumulated rainfall days. In this evaluation, the values of the
coefficients of determination r2 were compared, in order to verify
best-fit correlations. In statistics, r2 is a number that provides a
measure of how well-observed outcomes are replicated by the
assumed linear regression model (Devore 2011). These analyses
aim to identify the most relevant factors of influence on the slope
behavior.
Results
Field investigation
Figure 11 presents the geological-geotechnical profile representa-
tive of the colluvial deposit. The slope has an average inclination
angle of 19° and a length of 450 m. The colluvium deposit, located
Fig. 11 Geological-geotechnical profile of the rocky outcrop area with the schematic representation of the rock fractures
above a 5-m-thick residual soil layer, is composed of sandy soils
with boulders. Granite-gneiss with quartz veins parallel to the
foliation of the rock follows the residual soil layer. The rock has
persistent parallel fractures that are oxidized and dip in the direc-
tion of the slope, and therefore, unfavorable to its stability (30°
dip). The weathering process led to the formation of rock slabs
and rock fragments. This process is explained in detail by
Grotzinger and Jordan (2014).
Figure 12 shows the topography of the area and the location of
the cross sections (T1 to T4) and longitudinal sections (L1 and L2)
used in the geophysical survey. Note that cross section T3 includes
the rocky outcrop location. Figures 13 and 14 show the resistivity
profile determined at different sections by the geophysical survey.
These figures indicate a superficial layer of low resistivity (color
varying between blue and green), followed by layers of medium
resistivity (color varying between green and yellow) and high
resistivity (color varying between yellow and purple).
Monitoring
Rainfall monitoring was carried out at two pluviometric stations
located near the study site, km 23 (Pluviometric Station 1) and km
Landslides
 Original Paper
Fig. 12 Topographic map with the location of the geophysical survey sections (elevation in meters)
40 (Pluviometric Station 2) of BR-116/RJ highway. Twenty-four-
hour accumulated rainfall measured at different periods from the
rain gauges is shown in Fig. 15.
Figure 16 shows horizontal displacements in the slope mea-
sured by topographic survey at surface measuring mark R1, locat-
ed at the rocky outcrop (see Fig. 17) versus daily rainfall measured
at Pluviometric Station 2 (km 40). Figure 17 presents measure-
ments of lateral displacements measured by inclinometers I1 and
I2 (A-axis).
The location of the water level meters (WL1, WL2, and
WL3) and the Casagrande piezometers (CP1, CP2, and CP3)
is shown in Fig. 9. Figure 18 presents readings from those
instruments, as well as the rainfall data measured at
Pluviometric Station 1 (24-h accumulated rainfall). Figure 19
presents the water discharge from the DHDs located in the
rocky outcrop area (DHDs CF-A and CF-B) as well as DHD 1,
another important drain located downstream from the high-
way (see Fig. 9).
Landslides
Laboratory tests
The characterization tests were performed on the undeformed
block of soil taken from the colluvial soil deposit. Three samples
were used for each determination, and the average results were as
follows: non-plastic soil, natural water content (Wnat) equal to 11%,
percentage saturation (Snat) equal to 35%, void ratio (enat) equal to
0.83, specific gravity of the solids (GS) equal to 2.73, and natural
(γnat) and saturated unit weights (γsat) equal to 17 and 20 kN/m3,
respectively. The grain size distribution obtained was clay (2%),
silt (11%), fine sand (31%), medium sand (38%), coarse sand (12%),
and boulder (6%). The shear strength envelope of the direct shear
tests performed is shown in Fig. 20. The tests led to a null cohesive
intercept and effective friction angle equal to 29° and 35°, for
submerged and natural water content conditions, respectively.
Slope stability analyses
Because of the significant creep movement observed in the slope
under consideration, an FS equal to unity was assumed for back
Fig. 13 Resistivity profiles in different sections determined by geophysical survey (cross sections)
analysis. In this analysis, the infinite slope method (see Fig. 10) was
used, as defined in Eq. 2. No soil cohesion and water flow parallel
to the ground surface were considered.
 
γw  hw tanϕ′
FS ¼ 1−  ð2Þ
γnat  h1 þ γ sat  hw tanβ
where β is the average slope inclination, hw is the height of the
GWT above the failure surface, and h1 is the depth of the GWT
relative to the ground surface, equal to 19° and 13 and 6 m,
respectively (see Fig. 17). The hw and h1 values used in the back
analysis correspond to the maximum GWT measured over the
period monitored.
The analysis assumed the values determined in the laboratory
tests for the natural, γnat, and saturated, γsat, unit weights of the
soil, 17 and 20 kN/m3, respectively. The calculated effective friction
Fig. 14 Resistivity profiles in different sections determined by geophysical survey (longitudinal sections)
angle (ϕ′) mobilized along the rupture surface was equal to 28.2°,
which is close to the range of values obtained in the laboratory
direct shear tests, 29° to 35°. Figure 21 shows calculated values of FS
using Eq. 2 for different positions of the groundwater table, hw,
assuming the same previously defined conditions and ϕ′ equal to
28.2°.
Statistical analyses
Figure 22 presents the best-fit correlations between accumulated
rainfall measured at Pluviometric Station 1, GWT, and piezometric
readings. Figure 23 shows the curves of accumulated rainfall, the
GWT level, and piezometric readings over the analyzed period,
corresponding to those best-fit correlations.
Moreover, linear regressions for the DHD discharge and accu-
mulated rainfall measured at Pluviometric Station 1 were also done
(Fig. 24). Three different studies were carried out: (i) considering
all of the DHDs located in the area, (ii) only the CF-A and CF-B
DHDs, and (iii) only DHD 1.
Landslides
 Original Paper
Fig. 15 Twenty-four-hour accumulated rainfall measured at Pluviometric Stations 1 (km 23) and 2 (km 40)
Figure 25 presents values for DHD discharge and accumulated
rainfall measured at Pluviometric Station 1 (km 23) during the
period from Jan 2016 to Dec 2016. Note that during this period, no
additional DHDs were installed in the area. These curves corre-
spond to the best-fit correlations between the DHD discharge and
accumulated rainfall, for the following conditions: (a) considering
all of the DHDs (Fig. 25a), (b) CF-A and CF-B DHDs only (Fig. 25b),
and (c) only DHD 1 (Fig. 25c).
Analysis of the results
Field investigation
Figures 26, 27, and 28 show the interpretation of the lithology of
the subsoil based on the resistivity and rotary drilling profiles. The
layers with low, medium, and high resistivity represent the collu-
vial soil, the residual soil, and the bedrock, respectively. There are
blocks of rock immersed in the soil mass. Such blocks, when
Fig. 16 Horizontal displacements measured in the slope by topographic survey versus daily rainfall measured at Pluviometric Station 2
Landslides
located in the residual soil, may be associated with differential
weathering processes and the ones identified in the colluvial soil
come from upslope falls. The iso-resistivity curves also suggest the
presence of some discontinuities in the subsoil profile (traced
lines, Fig. 26).
The rotary drilling and the geophysical survey indicated the
presence of a colluvium-filled paleo-thalweg at the study site
(Figs. 27 and 28). The colluvium has an average inclination angle
of 19° and a length of 450 m. That formation may significantly
influence the groundwater flow and affect the direction of the
movements of the slope (Fig. 28), as well. The site is located in a
region with a specific geomorphology that favors significant
sources of recharge to groundwater. The presence of upper ter-
races with alluvium deposits and watercourses may be important
water recharge sources (Fig. 6). The rock has persistent parallel
fractures, with a dip favorable to the groundwater flow in the
direction of the slope (Fig. 5). The geological characteristics of
Fig. 17 Measurements and location of the inclinometers (I1 and I2) and the position of the surface measuring mark (R1) at the rocky outcrop section

the area indicate the presence of shear zones, which may contrib-
ute to the origin of those rock fractures (Fig. 4). A layer of soil
between the bedrock and the rocky outcrop above was observed
(Fig. 11). The significant dimensions and the shape of the rocky
outcrop immersed in the soil mass suggest that this profile results
from a process of differential weathering of the rock, possibly due
to groundwater flow through relief joints and the difference of
resistance to weathering of the rock in that location.
Monitoring
Lateral displacements measured with inclinometers indicate that
the failure surface is located at the interface of the colluvial soil

Fig. 18 Piezometric and water table levels plotted against 24-h accumulated rainfall measured at Pluviometric Station 1

Landslides
 Original Paper
Fig. 19 Discharge from the DHDs from Jan 2016 to Dec 2016
layer with the residual soil below (see Figs. 17 and 26). Section T3
(Fig. 26) from the geophysical survey includes readings from
inclinometer I2 and shows that lateral movements occur in the
top weaker soil layer (colluvium). The colluvium mass subject to
movement is approximately 19 m thick. The depth of the GWT
varies between 6 and 23 m from the ground surface. During the dry
season, the GWT is located below the failure surface and move-
ments significantly reduce. In the rainy season, however, the GTW
can reach a level 13 m above the failure surface. In this period,
significant lateral movements may occur in the area. The highway
platform moves together with the colluvial mass.
The topographic survey indicated accumulated horizontal dis-
placements from March 2012 around 55 mm in the North and West
directions, resulting in a final total displacement of 80 mm. Fig-
ure 29 presents measurements of lateral displacements measured
at a depth of 1 m from the surface by inclinometers I1 and I2 (A-
axis) versus 25-day accumulated rainfall measured at Pluviometric
Station 2 (km 40). The greatest lateral displacements were detected
by inclinometer (I2) located upslope. The rainfall and the lateral
displacements in the area were lower in 2015 and 2016 compared
with measurements in 2012 and 2014. Moreover, with the installa-
tion of DHDs in 2015, lower levels of the GWT were maintained for
a longer period, contributing to the reduction in lateral displace-
ments. Use of DHDs is an efficient procedure for the stabilization
Fig. 20 Direct shear test results and shear strength envelope
Landslides
of colluvium deposits and the only feasible solution in many
situations.
Analysis of the accumulated rainfall and lateral displacement
curves from inclinometer I1 indicates that the movement in the
slope significantly increases when the 25-day accumulated rainfall
exceeds 250 mm. Short periods of rainfall did not significantly
affect the observed movements. Similar observations were also
reported by Lacerda (1997) and Freitas (2004), related to two
different colluvial deposits both located in the city of Angra dos
Reis/RJ, Brazil. In those slopes, an increase in movement was
detected when the 25-day accumulated rainfall exceeded 200 and
250 mm, respectively.
The measurements of inclinometer I2 are more scattered with
more significant rebound movements, but, in general, the dis-
placement curves show analogous patterns. Zhou et al. (2010)
and Leung and Ng (2013, 2016) observed rebound movement in
slopes caused by the increase in suction due to the lowering of the
groundwater level.
The DHDs installed in the colluvium-filled paleo-thalweg, up-
slope from the level of the BR-116/RJ hwy (Fig. 9), played an
important role in the lowering of the GWT and in piezometric
readings in the area (CP2, WL2, and WL3; Fig. 18). Before the
installation of the DHDs in 2015, the piezometers located near
the highway indicated artesian pressures which varied with
Fig. 21 Calculated factor of safety values, FS, for different levels of the GWT, hw
Fig. 22 Best-fit correlations between accumulated rainfall measured at Pluviometric Station 1, GWT, and piezometric readings. a CP3 (180 days). b WL3 (150 days). c CP2
(70 days). d WL2 (180 days). e WL1 (120 days). f CP1 (180 days)
rainfall, but the water level meters positioned in the vicinity
presented a nearly constant GWT level. After the installation of
the DHDs, the piezometer and water level meter readings were
significantly reduced, both matching the same level, around 18 m.
Nevertheless, the GWT level and the piezometer readings contin-
ued to change, affected by rainfall. In an intense rainy period
(Dec 2015), the GWT returned to the level observed before the
installation of the DHDs. This behavior may be related to the
significant sources of recharge of groundwater observed in this
area (see Fig. 6).
The instruments WL2 and CP2 are located next to each other
(see Figs. 8 and 9). Measurements in the piezometer CP2 vary
significantly over time; in the periods from Dec/2014 to May/2015
and from Jun/2015 to Oct/2015, the readings were around 7 and
17 m from the ground surface, respectively. In the same periods,
the water level meter readings in WL2 were around 12 and 17 m
from the ground surface, respectively. Note that the second period
under analysis was most impacted by the installation of the DHDs
(Jan/2015 to Jun/2015). This indicates that upward flow of the
groundwater had occurred during the first period and an almost
non-flow condition was subsequently verified.
The water level meter, WL3, is located further upstream and
had indicated a nearly constant GWT until the installation of the
DHDs which led to a 15-m draw-down. Nevertheless, during a long
rainfall period (Dec 2015), the GWT nearly returned to the original
average levels observed before the installation of the drains. More-
over, the installation of the DHDs, did not lead to any significant
variations in the readings of the CP3 meter, situated next to the
WL3 meter. Additionally, the WL1 and CP1 meters, located, respec-
tively, at and below the level of the BR-116/RJ highway, show more
stable measurements compared to the readings of the instruments
located at other positions. The observed differences of behavior
may be associated to the heterogeneities of the subsoil profile of
the slope.
Furthermore, there was no measured effect on the slope related
to the installation of the DHDs located downslope of the rocky
outcrop and below the level of the BR-116/RJ hwy (Fig. 9). Those
DHDs presented high discharges, and their installation affected
Landslides
 Original Paper
Fig. 23 GWT and piezometric readings and accumulated rainfall measured at Pluviometric Station 1 (km 23) over the analyzed period, corresponding to the best-fit
correlations. a CP3 (180 days). b WL3 (150 days). c CP2 (70 days). d WL2 (180 days). e WL1 (120 days). f CP1 (180 days)
neither the discharge from the previously installed DHDs located
upslope nor the readings of the piezometers and water level me-
ters. The most effective DHDs for lowering the GWT level were
those installed in the colluvium-filled paleo-thalweg upslope.
Laboratory tests
The colluvial mass moves along a preexisting failure surface,
which at this site is constantly below the water table during the
rainy season. The colluvial deposit in study is composed by
sandy soil. Note that in this type of soil, there is no significant
decrease in shear strength with deformation and the post-peak
and residual parameters do not significantly differ. Laboratory
tests indicated a null cohesive intercept and friction angle
around 29° for the submerged condition (Fig. 20). These results
are consistent with those typically found in the literature for
this type of soil (Lacerda 2004). Due to large strains, residual
shear strength may be considered mobilized along this failure
surface. Laboratory tests in residual soils from granite-gneiss
with a predominance of sand and silt grain particles led to a
post-peak effective friction ranging from 26° to 30° and a null
cohesion intercept (Lacerda and Silveira 1992).
Landslides
Theoretical studies
The rise in the GWT level decreases the factor of safety, which may
reach values close to unity and lead to a significant increase in
movement in the slope. Stability analyses and field instrumenta-
tion indicate that reducing the GWT level may achieve a proper
stability condition for the slope. The stability conditions of the
colluvial deposit vary with seasonal rain. Rainfall infiltration af-
fects the groundwater flow, the GWT level, and movements in the
slope. The use of the infinite slope method was able to adequately
represent the slope stability conditions. Back analysis indicates
null cohesion and a friction angle equal to 28°. These values are
consistent with the laboratory tests performed and those reported
in the literature for similar residual soils from granite-gneiss with
a predominance of sand and silt grain particles.
Figure 21 clearly shows the effect of the GWT level on the
stability of the slope. The calculated FS of the slope would increase
to 1.56, if the level of the GWT could be lowered down to the level
of the failure surface (hw = 0), meaning no pore water pressure at
that surface. The effect of the GWT on the FS was also observed by
Chung et al. (2017). Note that deep horizontal drainage (DHD) is
typically used for lowering the GWT and is one of the procedures
Fig. 24 Best-fit correlations between accumulated rainfall measured at Pluviometric Station 1 and DHD discharge, considering a all of the DHDs (80 days), b CF-A and CF-
B DHDs (75 days), and c DHD 1 (145 days)

most often used for stabilization of colluvial slopes (Gedney and The results of the statistical analyses show a non-uniform
Weber Jr. 1978; Lacerda 2004; Barla et al. 2013; Lu et al. 2013; response from the installed instruments in relation to the accu-
Piccinini et al. 2014). mulated rainfall. Besides the difference in location of the

Fig. 25 Accumulated rainfall measured at the Pluviometric Station 1 and DHD discharge from Jan 2016 to Dec 2016 corresponding to a all the DHDs (80-day accumulated
rainfall), b CF-A and CF-B DHDs (75-day accumulated rainfall), and c DHD 1 (145-day accumulated rainfall)

Landslides
 Original Paper
Fig. 26 Subsoil profile based on geophysical survey (cross sections), including readings of inclinometer I2
instruments on the slope, this behavior may be related to colluvial
soil heterogeneity which may lead to a non-homogeneous re-
sponse for the groundwater flow. In general, there was good
correlation between the accumulated rainfall, the water level, and
the piezometer readings (Figs. 22 and 23). Depending on the
instrument under consideration, the best-fit correlations occurred
between 120 and 180 days of accumulated rainfall and the r2 values
averaged around 0.60.
Fig. 27 Subsoil profiles based on geophysical survey (longitudinal sections)
Landslides
In Fig. 24, taking into consideration all of the DHDs, the best-fit
correlation (r2 = 0.57) occurs for 80-day accumulated rainfall,
whereas for the CF-A and CF-B DHDs, the best-fit correlation
(r2 = 0.60) is calculated for 75-day accumulated rainfall, and, if
only DHD 1 is included in the analysis, the best-fit correlation
(r2 = 0.26) is observed for 145-day accumulated rainfall. The linear
regressions for the DHD discharge and accumulated rainfall may
corroborate the hypothesis that local and regional aquifers occur
Fig. 28 Topographic map of the area with delimitation of the colluvial deposit defined by the geophysical survey and indication of the direction of lateral displacements
(red arrows) measured by inclinometer I1 and I2 and by topographic readings at mark R1
in the area. The installation of DHD 1 has not significantly affected
the level of the GWT. Additionally, the low r2 value (r2 = 0.26) may
also indicate that the discharge of DHP 1 is less dependent on local
rainfall. Moreover, the discharge from the CF-A and CF-B DHDs
that intercept the local aquifer consistently show good correlation
with 75-day accumulated rainfall (r2 = 0.60). Lacerda (2004) pre-
sents a case study of a colluvium deposit located in the State of
Paraná, Brazil, that indicated a good correlation with 25-day ac-
cumulated rainfall.
The correlations between rainfall, GWT, piezometric readings,
discharge from the DHDs, and movements were good. The re-
sponse varies with the instrument type and its position. The
heterogeneity of the subsoil profile may be an important control-
ling factor of this behavior. The response to rainfall is not imme-
diate and depends on a significant amount of accumulated
rainfall. Significant periods of time were observed that may indi-
cate that the major source of the aquifer may be localized far from
of the colluvial slope under analysis. Another aspect to be consid-
ered on this delay may be the 19-m thickness of the colluvial soil
layer.
Conclusion
This paper presents a case study of a colluvial slope located in a
region with a specific geomorphology that favors significant
sources of recharge to groundwater. The analyses indicate the
significant impact of accumulated rainfall and the importance of
groundwater table drainage on the stability condition of colluvial
deposits. The correlations between rainfall, GWT, piezometric
readings, discharge of the DHDs, and movements were good. All
of them show that the response to rainfall is not immediate and
depends on a significant period of accumulated rainfall. This case
study also calls attention to the importance of a broader view of
the region in the investigation and analysis of a colluvium deposit.
The colluvial deposit under consideration has an average incli-
nation angle of 19° and a length of 450 m. The granite-gneiss rock
below the colluvium has persistent parallel fractures, with a dip
favorable to the groundwater flow in the direction of the slope.
The geological characteristics of the area indicate the presence of
shear zones, which may have contributed to the origin of those
rock fractures. Subsoil surveys indicate the presence of a
colluvium-filled paleo-thalweg at the study site. This formation
may significantly influence the groundwater flow and affect the
direction of the movements of the slope, as well.
Lateral displacements measured with inclinometers indicate
that the failure surface is located at the interface of the colluvial
soil layer with the residual soil below. The colluvium mass subject
to movement is approximately 19 m thick. The depth of the
groundwater table (GWT) varies between 6 and 23 m from the
ground surface. The movement of the colluvial mass has a season-
al creep, influenced by rainfall. During the dry season, the GWT is
Landslides
 Original Paper
Fig. 29 Horizontal displacements measured by inclinometers I1 and I2 versus 25-day accumulated rainfall measured at Pluviometric Station 2 (km 40)
located below the failure surface. In the rainy season, however, the
GTW can reach a level 13 m above the failure surface. In this
period, significant lateral movements may occur in the area. Anal-
ysis of the accumulated rainfall and lateral displacement with
inclinometers indicates that the movement in the slope signifi-
cantly increases when the 25-day accumulated rainfall exceeds
250 mm. Short periods of rainfall did not significantly affect the
observed movements.
Rainfall infiltration affects the groundwater flow, the GWT
level, and the movements in the slope. A rise in the GWT level
decreases the factor of safety, which may reach values close to
unity and lead to a significant increase in movement in the slope.
The use of the infinite slope method was able to adequately
represent the slope stability conditions. Due to the large strain,
the residual shear strength of the soil is mobilized at the interface
of the colluvial mass with the residual soil, i.e., the failure surface.
The colluvial deposit in this study is composed of sandy soil. Note
that in this type of soil, there is no significant decrease in shear
strength with deformation, and the post-peak and residual param-
eters do not significantly differ. Back analysis and laboratory tests
indicated a null cohesive intercept and friction angle of around
29°. These values are consistent with other case studies reported in
the literature.
After the installation of the deep horizontal drains (DHDs),
there was a 15-m draw-down of the GWT. Nevertheless, during
an intense rainfall period, a rise in the GWT occurred, leading to a
level similar to that observed before, and movements were
reactivated in the area. This behavior indicates that the number
of DHDs is still not sufficient to permanently lower the GWT and
stop the creep movements in the slope. The most effective DHDs
Landslides
for lowering the GWT level were those installed in the colluvium-
filled paleo-thalweg, upslope from the level of the BR-116/RJ hwy.
Use of DHDs is an efficient procedure for the stabilization of
colluvium deposits and the only feasible solution in many situa-
tions. In order to stop movements in the slope, installation of
additional DHDs in this paleo-thalweg area is planned.
Good correlation between the accumulated rainfall, the water
level, and the piezometer readings were observed. The best-fit
correlations occurred between 120 and 180 days of accumulated
rainfall. The response varied with the instrument type and its
position. The heterogeneity of the subsoil profile may be an
important controlling factor for this difference of behavior.
Analyses also indicated good correlation between drain dis-
charge and accumulated rainfall. In the case of the DHDs locat-
ed only in the paleo-thalweg, the best-fit correlation occurred
for a 75-day period of accumulated rainfall. Despite the high
amount of water discharge observed in the DHD installed below
the level of the BR-116/RJ highway, the piezometers and water
level meters located upslope were not affected by this drain. The
long periods of accumulated rainfall may indicate that the
major source of the aquifer may be located far from the collu-
vial slope under analysis. Another possible explanation for this
delay of response of the aquifer may be the 19-m thickness of
the colluvial soil layer. Results presented in the literature indi-
cate that this period of accumulated rainfall varies from one
colluvium deposit to another, depending on its characteristics.
Analysis of a colluvium deposit requires a broader view of the
controlling factors. Its behavior depends on rainfall and drain-
age basins in the region, in addition to its geological, geomor-
phology, and geotechnical characteristics. This case study calls
attention to the importance of a detailed investigation for un- Lacerda WA (2004) The behavior of colluvial slopes in a tropical environment, keynote
derstanding the behavior of colluvium deposits. lecture, landslides—advances in evaluation and stabilization. In: Proceedings of the
9th International Symposium on Landslides, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Taylor & Francis,
London, pp 1315–1342
Acknowledgments Lacerda WA, Sandroni SS (1985) Movement of colluvial masses. In: Proceedings of the
The authors would like to thank CRT (Rio-Teresópolis Conces- round table on geotechnical aspects of slopes. ABMS, Rio de Janeiro, pp 1–19 (in
sion) for the available data and permission for its use here. Portuguese)
Lacerda WA, Silveira GC (1992) Characteristics of shear strength and compressibility of
residual and colluvial soils of the Soberbo Slope, RJ. In: Proceedings of the I Brazilian
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