Journal of Hydrology (2008) 358, 206– 220

available at www.sciencedirect.com

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Runoff generation processes in a small Mediterranean

research catchment (Vallcebre, Eastern Pyrenees)
a,* b
J. Latron , F. Gallart

a
Soil Science Unit, University of Girona, Campus de Montilivi, 17071 Girona, Spain
b
Institute of Earth Sciences ‘‘Jaume Almera’’, CSIC, Solé i Sabaris s/n, 08028 Barcelona, Spain

Received 8 January 2008; accepted 5 June 2008

KEYWORDS Summary This paper analyses the runoff generation processes in a small Mediterranean
Runoff processes; catchment (Can Vila catchment, 0.56 km2), using limited continuous data on water table
Storm-runoff; and soil water potential dynamics along with rainfall and runoff data collected over 6
Water table; years. At daily scale, strong non-linearity between rainfall and runoff volume and the
Soil water potential; effect of the water table position on how rainfall and runoff volume relate were seen.
Hydrological behaviour; The higher the water table, the greater the runoff for a given rainfall. The relationship
Mediterranean climate between runoff and depth of water table was not straightforward: water table variations
sometimes did not correlate with runoff changes, suggesting somewhat intricate hydrolog-
ical behaviour. Soil water potential data alongside runoff and water table data showed the
relatively frequent development of a perched saturation layer in the profile monitored.
Examination of soil water potential and water table dynamics during a collection of rep-
resentative floods helped to identify three types of characteristic hydrological behaviour
during the year. Hydrographs corresponding to type 1 events (dry conditions), type 2
events (wetting-up transition) and type 3 events (wet conditions) had different character-
istics: each was associated with different dominant runoff generation processes. Under
dry conditions, runoff was generated essentially as infiltration excess runoff in low perme-
able areas, whereas saturation excess runoff dominated during wetting-up and wet condi-
tions. During wetting-up transition, saturated areas resulted from the development of
scattered perched water tables, whereas in wet conditions they were linked to the rise
of the shallow water table.
ª 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Introduction

Accurate understanding of the hydrological functioning of a

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 972418844; fax: +34 972418399. catchment is not possible if only rainfall (input) and dis-
E-mail address: jerome.latron@udg.edu (J. Latron). charge (output) data are available, as many different

0022-1694/$ - see front matter ª 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.06.014
Runoff generation processes in a small Mediterranean research catchment (Vallcebre, Eastern Pyrenees)
processes or process combinations may lead to similar hydro-
graphs (Hewlett, 1982; Beven, 1991; Ambroise, 1999). In-
deed, rainfall and discharge do not generally provide
sufficient information for a single determination of hydrolog-
ical response through solution of the model inverse problem
(Wheater et al., 1991). Therefore, the identification of run-
off generation processes requires further observations or
investigations within the catchment to characterize domi-
nant water flow pathways. In recent decades, hydrological
investigations at the hillslope and small catchment scales
(see reviews in Kirkby, 1978; Anderson and Burt, 1990;
Ambroise, 1999; Bull and Kirkby, 2002) have led to significant
improvements in the understanding of runoff generation pro-
cesses. Using essentially hydrometric (e.g. Pilgrim et al.,
1978; Wilcox et al., 1997; Srinivasan et al., 2002; Peters
et al., 2003) and/or hydrochemical (e.g. Pilgrim and Huff,
1978; Sklash et al., 1986; Tanaka et al., 1988; McDonnell,
1990; McGlynn et al., 2002; Wenninger et al., 2004) ap-
proaches, in combination with modelling to test hypotheses
(e.g. Piñol et al., 1997; Wigmosta and Burges, 1997; Freer
et al., 2004), researchers have acquired a more accurate
scheme of water flow pathways from hillslopes to streams.
Nevertheless, the characterization of dominant runoff
processes is not an easy task, especially when such pro-
cesses occur below the soil surface. In consequence, even
if surface runoff processes have often been well identified,
as infiltration or saturation excess overland flow, processes
occurring below the surface are still not properly under-
stood (Beven, 1989). Below the surface, possible (simulta-
neous) occurrence of macropore flow, groundwater ridging
near the stream, pressure wave effect or the formation of
perched aquifers above less permeable layers may increase
significantly the complexity of storm-runoff generation pro-
cesses within a catchment.
Following a purely hydrometric approach, one way to ob-
tain more precise information about runoff generation pro-
cesses is to obtain continuous information on the evolution
of both saturated and unsaturated stores within the soil and
to relate this information to the catchment scale runoff re-
sponse observed at the outlet.
Saturated store dynamics is most often handled by the
monitoring of water table position at single locations within
the catchment. More than 60 years ago, innovative research
by Hursh and Brater (1941) and Hursh and Fletcher (1942)
already used water table information to investigate non-
Hortonian runoff generation processes. Even if active pro-
cesses within the soil were poorly known, water table data
were being seen as relevant in small research catchments
(see Verry, 2003 for a historical perspective). Water table
observations in relation with catchment scale response en-
abled Cappus (1960) to demonstrate the role played by con-
tributing saturated areas and Betson et al. (1968) to identify
the existence of subsurface flow within the soil profile. Dun-
ne and Black (1970a,b) also used water table information to
define the concept of saturation excess overland flow. How-
ever, the systematic use of water table information to
improve the perceptual model (Beven, 1989) of the hydro-
logical functioning of a catchment only emerged in the early
1980’s, following Harr’s (1977) results on subsurface flow on
steep forested slopes and other studies (e.g. Sklash and
Farvolden, 1979; O’Brien, 1982) that claimed that the water
table might make a large contribution to storm-runoff. After
207
more specific studies (Gillham, 1984; Abdul and Gillham,
1984, 1989; Nowakowski and Gillham, 1988), designed to
define transfer mechanisms between the water table and
the stream and to define the role of the capillary fringe,
continuous water table data were progressively incorpo-
rated into studies of catchment scale storm-runoff pro-
cesses (e.g. Bonell et al., 1984; Burch et al., 1987; Hill,
1990; Price, 1997; Myrabø, 1997; Tanaka and Ono, 1998;
Biron et al., 1999; Peters et al., 2003). In all these studies,
water table information helped to refine authors’ percep-
tual model of catchment behaviour and to identify possible
factors (distance from the stream, macroporosity of the
soil, vegetation cover, etc.) that might affect water table
dynamics during storms.
Above the saturated store, hydrologists have often used
tensiometers to characterize the hydrological state of the
unsaturated layer. With these they obtain frequent observa-
tions or continuous records of soil water potential at the
plot scale, within a catchment. Weyman (1973), Harr
(1977), Tanaka et al. (1988) or, more recently, Tanaka
and Ono (1998) and Dykes and Thornes (2000) used repeated
manual readings of soil water potential during storms to
investigate runoff generation processes in humid catch-
ments. Anderson and Burt (1977, 1978) were among the first
to develop a continuous recording system for measuring soil
water potential in order to investigate variable source areas
of runoff generation. Later, McDonnell (1990) combined
continuous soil water potential data with storm rainfall,
stream-flow and hillslope discharge to infer the nature of
sub-surface flow processes in the steep humid Maimai catch-
ment in New Zealand. In the same catchment, tensiometric
observations were subsequently used to refine the percep-
tual model of hillslope flowpaths (see McGlynn et al., 2002
for a review) and to reduce uncertainty in model application
(Freer et al., 2004). In NE Scotland, Wheater et al. (1991,
1993) used three-dimensional automatic tensiometer arrays
to identify storm-runoff response at the plot scale as a basis
for the definition of catchment scale runoff generation pro-
cesses. More recently, Heppell et al. (2000) used continuous
tensiometers to assess the hydrological flowpaths on a clay
hillslope.
However, the vast majority of the above-mentioned
studies concerned temperate or humid climates, where
water table and soil water potential variations generally
correlate closely throughout the year with discharge varia-
tions at the outlet of the catchment. Nevertheless, as
stressed by Bonell and Balek (1993), there are fundamental
differences in water table and soil water potential dynamics
between humid and less humid or dry regions. In conse-
quence, in drier climate or in regions with more marked cli-
matic seasonality, where the rainfall–runoff relationship is
more complex and variable (Beven, 2002), findings from hu-
mid regions may only be appropriate for short wet periods.
Under Mediterranean climate, which is the general context
of this study, only a few studies have used water table or
soil water potential information to update a perceptual
model of catchment hydrology. Nevertheless, Gaillard et
al. (1995) combined water table and soil water potential
with soil water content information to investigate runoff
generation processes in one of the Real Collobrier sub-
catchments, in the south of France. With this approach
these authors showed the development of a perched water
208
table, prone to surface runoff generation, in scattered loca-
tions within the catchment. In the neighbouring Mauret
catchment, Grésillon et al. (1997) compared a hydrometric
approach based on soil water potential data with geochem-
ical and statistical methods to gather information on runoff
generation processes. Later, Grésillon and Taha (1998) used
water table and soil water potential data along a hillslope in
the same catchment to demonstrate the development of
temporal saturated areas close to the stream and to inves-
tigate their effect on storm-runoff generation. Using the
same data, Taha et al. (1997) finally developed a numerical
model that simulates the formation of a perched water ta-
ble at the base of the permeable upper layer. More re-
cently, Lana-Renault et al. (2007) analysed simultaneous
stream-flow response and water table dynamics during rep-
resentative floods to examine runoff generation processes
in the Arnás catchment, in the Central Pyrenees.
At the Vallcebre Mediterranean research catchment
where this study was conducted, few results on the run-
off–water table relationship were available before this
study. Some aspects of water table dynamics during wet-
ting-up transition’s runoff events had been observed (Latron
et al., 2000), and the water table position had been used to
evaluate subsurface contribution to total flow (Gallart et
al., 2002, 2007; Latron et al., 2005), but little was known
on water table and soil water potential dynamics and on
their relationship with catchment scale runoff.
The objective of this paper is, therefore, to investigate
runoff generation processes in the Mediterranean Can Vila
catchment, using limited continuous data on water table
and soil water potential dynamics, and to relate these data
to recent findings obtained on the variability of the catch-
ment hydrological response (Latron et al., 2008) and on
the seasonal dynamics of runoff-contributing areas (Latron
and Gallart, 2007). The analysis concentrates first on water
table, soil water potential, rainfall and runoff relationships
at a daily scale to define some general characteristics of the
response of the catchment. Subsequently, relationships are
investigated at the event scale, using a sample of 25 repre-
sentative ‘‘simple floods’’ to improve the perceptual model
of the catchment’s hydrological functioning.
Study area
The Can Vila catchment is located close to Vallcebre village,
130 km northeast of Barcelona, on the southern margin of
the Pyrenees. It is one of the research catchments in the
Vallcebre research area at the headwaters of the Llobregat
River. The catchment (Fig. 1) has an area of 0.56 km2 and is
oriented in an SW–NE direction. Elevations range from 1458
to 1115 m a.s.l. at the outlet; slopes are moderate, with a
mean value of 25.6%.
The catchment is underlain by red clayey smectite-rich
mudrocks. The soils that have developed over this lithology
are predominantly of silt-loam texture. As topsoils are rich
in organic matter and well structured, they have high infil-
tration capacities, although hydraulic conductivity de-
creases rapidly with depth (Josa and Roda, 1994; Rubio
et al., 2008).
Before and during the 19th century, hillslopes were
deforested and terraces, typically 10–20 m wide, were built
J. Latron, F. Gallart
for agricultural use over more than 70% of the catchment.
They were then steadily abandoned, along with their associ-
ated drainage ditches, during the second half of the 20th
century.
As a consequence of terracing, soil thickness varies a
great deal, ranging from less than 50 cm in the inner part
of the terraces to more than 2 or 3 m in their outer part.
Elsewhere, soil thickness is generally less than 50 cm, espe-
cially in the small areas of badlands topography with little
or no soil cover that have developed on steep slopes along
one section of the stream channel (Fig. 1).
Following land abandonment, spontaneous forestation by
Pinus sylvestris has occurred (Poyatos et al., 2003) and for-
est now covers 34% of the catchment (Fig. 1). The remain-
der of the catchment is largely covered by pasture, with
smaller areas of Mediterranean scrub on slopes with thinner
soils.
Climate is humid Mediterranean, with a marked water
deficit in summer. Mean annual temperature at 1440 m
a.s.l. is 7.3 C and long term (1987–2006) mean annual pre-
cipitation is 891 ± 201 mm, with a mean of 90 rainy days per
year. Snowfalls account for less than 5% in volume over the
period. The rainiest seasons are autumn and spring with
mean rainfall amounts above 100 mm in October, November
and May and winter is the season with least precipitation.
The spatial variability of rainfall within the catchment is
limited, except during summer convective storms (with
intensities of up to 80 mm h 1 in 20 min), which may pro-
vide significant precipitation input. Mean annual reference
evapotranspiration, calculated by the Penman-Monteith
FAO method (Smith et al., 1992) is close to 700 mm (Gallart
et al., 2002).
The combined dynamic of rainfall and evapotranspiration
favours the succession of wet and dry or very dry periods (in
terms of catchment water reserve) during the year, as
shown in Fig. 2. Dry and very dry periods occur in winter
and summer, respectively, whereas wet periods correspond
to late spring and late autumn. The shift from wet to dry
conditions is generally steady as a result of precipitation de-
crease and/or evapotranspiration increase. The transition
from dry to wet conditions is quicker during wetting-up peri-
ods (early spring and autumn), which last from 15 to 30 days
on average.
Over the period 1995–2002, mean annual runoff in the
Can Vila catchment was 386 ± 255 mm, representing 43%
of rainfall. Stream-flow shows marked seasonality and often
dries in summer for several weeks.
A more complete overview of hydrological findings in the
Vallcebre research area can be found in Gallart et al. (1997,
2002, 2005), Latron et al. (2008) and Latron and Gallart
(2007).
Data and methods
Data collection
Rainfall in the Can Vila catchment is measured by means of
three tipping-bucket rain gauges (Fig. 1), located 1 m above
the ground and connected to data-loggers. Rain gauges,
which record 0.2 mm precipitation increments at a tempo-
ral resolution of 1 s, were calibrated for a wide range of
Runoff generation processes in a small Mediterranean research catchment (Vallcebre, Eastern Pyrenees)
Figure 1 Map of the Can Vila catchment, showing locations of the main instruments.
Figure 2 Mean monthly rainfall and reference evapotranspi-
ration in the study area. The Mediterranean characteristics of
rainfall and evapotranspiration distributions during the year
cause the succession of dry and wet periods (for catchment
water reserves) separated by wetting-up phases.
rainfall intensities by means of a dynamic calibration meth-
od, as in Calder and Kidd (1978). One meteorological station
(Fig. 1) located in the upper part of the catchment records
air temperature and relative humidity, global and net radi-
ation, soil temperature and wind direction and speed at 2 m
height.
Stream-flow is measured at the Can Vila gauging station
by means of a 90 V-notch weir where water level is re-
corded with a water pressure sensor connected to a data-
logger. Mean water level values (measured every 10 s) were
recorded every 20 min during low flow periods (i.e. no sig-
nificant water level change) and every 2 min during floods.
Water level conversion to discharge values was obtained
by use of the established stage discharge rating curve cali-
brated by manual discharge measurements.
Depth to water table is recorded every 20 min in and
close to the Can Vila catchment in three piezometers (Fig.
1) by means of water pressure sensors connected to data-
logger. Calibration of the pressure sensors was obtained
by taking manual measurements of water table depth di-
rectly in the piezometers, at the time data were collected.
209
Pz1 (200 cm deep) and Pz2 (287 cm) piezometer holes were
augered down to the bedrock to insert 55 mm-diameter PVC
tubes; Pz3 (422 cm) is an abandoned well. Given their loca-
tion in downslope areas, all three piezometers may be con-
sidered representative of the general aquifer dynamics in
the area. During the study period, the temporal evolution
of the water table was generally similar between sites,
and the linear relationships between the depths to water ta-
ble measured in the three piezometers were highly signifi-
cant (p < 0.001), with a slope value close to 1. Data used
in this study were solely from Pz1, which had the longest
data records.
Soil water potential is recorded every 20 min with a set
of three automatic ceramic cup soil tensiometers inserted
20, 40 and 60 cm deep. Tensiometers were located in the
central part of a small terrace, in the upper part of the
catchment (Fig. 1).
Soil water content is measured using the Time Domain
Reflectometry (TDR) method at two locations in the Can Vila
catchment (Fig. 1). The TDR profiles consisted of sets of
four vertical 20 cm-long probes permanently installed in
the ground at 0–20, 20–40, 40–60 and 60–80 cm depth.
These were read every week with a Tektronix 250-C cable
tester. TDR readings were converted into soil water con-
tents using a composite approach (Roth et al., 1990).
Computation and data analysis
This study is based on daily values obtained over a 6-year
period and on event scale values from 25 selected events.
Selected events were chosen from among those for which
rainfall and water table data were available at the three
sites (see Fig. 1), in order to take spatial variability into ac-
count, and for which tensiometer data were available at all
depths during the event. Selected events also corresponded
to ‘‘simple floods’’ that occurred during the time period un-
der consideration and were characterized by one single ma-
jor hydrograph peak with a clear recession limb in response
to one uninterrupted rainfall event. The need for a selection
of more ‘‘simple floods’’ was justified by the fact that, dur-
ing more complex rainfall–runoff events, with several suc-
cessive runoff peaks, dominant storm-runoff generation
processes are likely to vary from peak to peak and so make
the identification of dominant flowpaths difficult.
210
Areal rainfall was determined using Thiessen polygons
from the three gauges to account for the spatial variability
in some summer rainfall events. From rainfall raw data, dai-
ly and storm rainfall depths were obtained by adding up the
rainfall depth for the appropriate time period. Finally, rain-
fall intensity (mean and maximum in 20 min) was calculated
to characterise the selected rainfall event.
Daily runoff was the sum of runoff during the day. At the
event scale, storm-runoff depth and coefficient were de-
rived for each selected rainfall–runoff event, using the
classic ‘‘constant slope’’ hydrograph separation method of
Hewlett and Hibbert (1967) with a modified slope value of
1.83 l s 1 km 2 day 1. For all runoff events included, pre-
ceding baseflow (corresponding to discharge value at the
start of the rainfall event) and peakflow were also deter-
mined. Finally, the response time, defined as the time inter-
val between the centre of the rainfall event (half of the
event rainfall depth) and the peakflow, was calculated for
all 25 selected rainfall–runoff events.
Depth to water table and soil water potential values
were used directly as daily average in the first part of the
analysis. Subsequently, original 20-min data were used to
characterize water table and soil water potential dynamics
during selected events.
The significance of statistical tests was set at p < 0.05.
Results
Rainfall, runoff, water table and soil water
potential relationships at daily scale
Rainfall–runoff relationship
Fig. 3 shows, for days with rainfall (P > 2.0 mm), the rela-
tionship observed in the Can Vila catchment between daily
rainfall and runoff depths in function of the position of
Figure 3 Relationship between daily runoff and rainfall for
various water table depths (only days with more than 2 mm of
rainfall were included). Dotted lines show power fits for each
position of the water table, but the relationship was significant
(p < 0.05) only when the water table was above 50 cm.
J. Latron, F. Gallart
the water table. Considering all cases, the most relevant
characteristic of this relationship is its high scattering; for
example, days with around 10 mm rainfall generated daily
runoff depths ranging between 0.01 and 10 mm (i.e. three
orders of magnitude). On the other hand, similar daily run-
off values of around 1 mm were observed during days with
1–50 mm of rainfall. A power fit of daily runoff on daily
rainfall explained only 16% of variance and was not statisti-
cally significant. Clearly, and even if a general increase of
daily runoff with daily rainfall is appreciable in Fig. 3, there
was no significant general relationship between daily totals
of rainfall and runoff in the Can Vila catchment. If a differ-
entiation is made, depending on the position of the water
table (below 150 cm, between 150 and 50 cm and above
50 cm deep), the rainfall–runoff relationship increased
moderately when the water table was below 50 cm deep
(22% and 28% of the variance explained), but more notably
for days with a water table above 50 cm. Under these con-
ditions a significant relationship (57% of the variance ex-
plained) was found, which illustrates the relevant
influence of the shallow water table position in the way run-
off relates to rainfall. Finally, even if the rainfall–runoff
relationship was only significant for days with shallow water
table, the nature of the rainfall–runoff relationship in each
condition was relatively identical (similar power fit expo-
nents between 0.7 and 0.8), with the relationship only shift-
ing toward higher runoff values when there were wetter
(higher water table) conditions.
Water table–runoff relationship
The relationship observed in the Can Vila catchment be-
tween the depth to water table and the runoff occurring
the same day is shown in Fig. 4. The general relationship
is classically exponential, with lowest runoff values (around
0.1 mm day 1) usually occurring when water table was
Figure 4 Relationship between daily runoff and the depth to
water table. Dotted line shows an example of a sequence (16
successive days) of simultaneous rise of the water table and
runoff decrease observed during a wetting-up period.
Runoff generation processes in a small Mediterranean research catchment (Vallcebre, Eastern Pyrenees)
between 150 and 200 cm below the surface, and highest
runoff values (higher than 10 mm day 1) when saturation
conditions were observed. Over the 6-year study period,
surface saturation or near-saturation conditions (i.e. water
table 20 cm below the surface or less) were only observed
for 4% of the time at piezometer Pz1. Similarly, as for Pz2
and Pz3 sites, such conditions were never observed for a dai-
ly runoff lower than 0.5 mm day 1 (5.8 l s 1 km 2). Some
scattering around the general trend is apparent, especially
during days with more than 2 mm of rainfall. During rainy
days, actual runoff was sometimes much higher than the va-
lue suggested by the general relationship. Day-to-day runoff
increases in response to rainfall were generally associated
with the water table rising and, conversely, a decrease in
daily runoff was accompanied by a fall in the water table.
This general dynamic between runoff and water table
changes was however sometimes interrupted for periods
of several successive days, when a decrease in daily runoff
was associated with a steady rise in the water table. An
example of this particular dynamic, which occurred occa-
sionally throughout the year, is shown in Fig. 4 for a period
of 16 consecutive days. In this period, following a large rain-
fall event (P = 83.0 mm) that occurred in the wetting-up
period, runoff decreased from 5.8 to 0.2 mm day 1 (67.1–
2.3 l s 1 km 2), whereas the water table rose steadily from
177 to 123 cm.
To investigate further the combined changes in runoff
and water table depth, day-to-day variations in both daily
runoff and water table position were studied. Results shown
in Fig. 5 shows that, during the study period, an increase in
daily runoff was most often (i.e. for 90% of the days with
increasing runoff) associated with a rise in the water table.
Under these conditions, for a similar water table rise, the
associated increase in runoff was higher when the water ta-
ble was already close to the surface than when it was dee-
per. Conversely, similar increase in runoff resulted from
smaller rises in the water table when this was shallow than
when it was at a deeper level. An increase in day-to-day
Figure 5 Relationship between day-to-day changes in daily
runoff and depth to water table.
211
runoff was associated with a fall in the water table for
10% of the time; however, under these conditions, de-
creases in the water table were very limited, generally less
than 2 cm.
A decrease in daily runoff was mostly (83% of the days
with decreasing runoff) associated with a fall in the water
table. Larger day-to-day decreases in runoff and water table
position were observed under high water table conditions
(water table over 50 cm deep), but the general relationship
between runoff and water table variations was similar under
all conditions (i.e. similar runoff decrease for similar fall of
the water table). In contrast with this general pattern, some
decreases in day-to-day runoff were occasionally (17% of
the time) associated with a rise of the water table. This par-
ticular dynamic, which may lead to a simultaneous water ta-
ble rise of 50 cm and runoff decrease of 1 mm day 1, was
most often observed when the water table was between
50 and 150 cm deep.
Analysis of the water table–runoff relationship (Figs. 4
and 5) shows ultimately that even if day-to-day variations
in runoff were generally associated with similar changes in
the water table, singular behaviour (i.e. runoff decrease
during water table rise) was sometimes observed. This unu-
sual behaviour suggests that, under these conditions, runoff
dynamics may be related to factors other than the evolution
of the water table position.
Soil water potential–runoff relationship
To look for other possible factors influencing runoff dynam-
ics, the general relationship between daily runoff and mean
daily soil water potential at 20, 40 and 60 cm depth was
investigated, using data from the tensiometric profile lo-
cated in a terraced area (Fig. 1). Results given in Fig. 6
shows that the relationship between soil water potential
and daily runoff differed little from one depth to the other.
The runoff threshold above which soil saturation could be
observed was around 0.3 mm day 1 (3.5 l s 1 km 2) at all
depths. Below this threshold, soil water potential varied
Figure 6 Relationship between daily runoff and soil water
potential measured at 20, 40 and 60 cm depth.
212
widely, but was always far from saturation. Above
0.3 mm day 1, soil water potential ranged frequently be-
tween 100 and +50 cm, soils being more often saturated
for higher values of daily runoff (>2.0 mm day 1 or 23.1 l
s 1 km 2). Above 0.3 mm day 1, saturation could neverthe-
less be reached along the whole range of daily runoff values.
Positive soil water potentials were, for example, observed
at 20 and 60 cm depth during days with no more than
0.4 mm of runoff (4.6 l s 1 km 2). Over the period, satura-
tion or near-saturation conditions (soil water potential high-
er than 10 cm) were more frequently observed at 20 and
60 cm depth (9.4% and 11.9% of the time) than at 40 cm
(6.5%).
Soil water potential–water table relationship
The relationship between the soil water potential at 20, 40
and 60 cm depth and the depth to the water table at Pz1 is
shown in Fig. 7. As for the relationship with daily runoff, soil
water potential–water table correlation was different on
the two sides of a threshold drawn at a water table position
of around 100 cm depth. When the water table was below
100 cm, soil water potential was highly variable, but most
often far from saturation (i.e. soil water potential below
50 cm for 72% of the time), except on only a few
occasions.
On the contrary, when the water table was above
100 cm, soil water potential was almost always higher than
50 cm and could reach saturation for any position of the
water table. Fig. 7 shows that soil saturation in the 60 cm
below the surface was more frequent in the terrace than
the saturation of the whole soil profile resulting from a rise
of the water table to the surface in Pz1. Indeed, saturation
or near-saturation conditions were observed almost 10% of
the time according to tensiometer data, but only 4% of
the time according to piezometer data.. Fig. 7 ultimately
shows that saturation at Pz1, observed only during wet con-
ditions, always coincided with soil saturation at the tensi-
ometer site.
Figure 7 Relationship between the depth to water table and
soil water potential measured at 20, 40 and 60 cm depth.
J. Latron, F. Gallart
Rainfall, runoff, water table and soil water
potential dynamics at the event scale
Using available continuous data obtained at short time steps
(minutes), characteristic rainfall–runoff events were ana-
lysed in order to advance in the understanding of storm-run-
off generation processes. Characteristic ‘‘simple floods’’
(see Methods) identified throughout the study period are
listed in Table 1. Rainfall depth associated with selected
runoff events ranged from 5.2 to 82.7 mm (med-
ian = 22.2 mm), with 20-min maximum rainfall intensities
varying from 3.6 to 45.6 mm h 1. Runoff events occurred
with contrasting prior hydrological conditions, with base-
flow values (at the start of the event) between 1.1 and
58.5 l s 1 km 2. In Pz1, the depth to water table prior to
the event oscillated between 197 and 48 cm below the
surface. Owing to the diversity of incoming rainfall events
and prior hydrological conditions, observed runoff responses
were also very variable, with storm-runoff depths ranging
from 0.09 to 50.3 mm; storm-runoff coefficients, from
0.4% to 61.5%; and peakflows, from 5.2 to 966.5 l s 1 km 2.
Finally, response times varied from 82 to 452 min.
Observed hydrological behaviour
Through the systematic analysis of rainfall characteristics,
runoff response at the outlet, soil water potential and water
table dynamics during each selected ‘‘simple flood’’ (in
addition to particular measurements of soil water content
within the first 80 cm), three types of hydrological behav-
iour occurring during the year could be differentiated at
the Can Vila catchment (Fig. 8 and Table 1). Such classifica-
tion into three types of behaviour was supported by results
of an ANOVA test (using the cosine of DOY instead of the raw
value to highlight differences between summer and winter)
that demonstrated significant differences for all the vari-
ables considered in Table 1 except stormflow depth.
Type 1 events (Fig. 8a) were sometimes observed in win-
ter, but more systematically during summer when the
catchment was dry to very dry (baseflow around
1.5 l s 1 km 2), with soil water content values lower than
0.25 cm3 cm 3. At the start of the event, water table was
generally below 1 m deep and soil water potential generally
between 50 and 150 cm. Under these conditions, small
winter rainfall with low intensities did not produce any sig-
nificant runoff response at the outlet; during summer, how-
ever, short intense rainfall caused higher (though still
limited) responses. Owing to dry prior conditions and high
rainfall intensity, observed runoff responses were fast and
short (a few hours duration) with small storm-runoff depths
and coefficients (generally lower than 2%), but with some
relatively significant peak-flows (up to 25.3 l s 1 km 2). Dur-
ing all type 1 events, topsoil saturation never occurred, as
soil water potential data showed, and the water table
showed no significant reaction.
Type 2 events (Fig. 8b) happened during transitions from
dry to wet conditions. At the start of the event, soil water
potential and water table position were similar as in type
1 events and baseflow ranged from 1.8 to 5.7 l s 1 km 2.
During spring and autumn wetting-up periods, however, fre-
quent or large rainfall events produced larger runoff events
with moderate storm-runoff coefficients and variable peak-
flows (from 15.3 to 654.0 l s 1 km 2). Response times were
Runoff generation processes in a small Mediterranean research catchment (Vallcebre, Eastern Pyrenees) 213

Table 1 Characteristics of the 25 representative ‘‘simple floods’’ observed at the Can Vila catchment
1
D.O.Y. P (mm) Imean Imax Rs (mm) Cs (%) Qb Qp (l s km 2) Rt (min) Pz1 (cm) Type of
(mm h 1) (mm h 1) (l s 1 2
km ) hydrological
response
9 82.7 2.0 9.6 50.3 60.8 34.4 966.5 152 53 t
28 44.5 1.4 5.4 27.4 61.5 58.5 497.3 130 48 t
34 5.2 1.0 3.6 0.38 7.3 36.9 47.1 146 70 t
113 58.0 2.4 12.6 18.9 32.6 5.4 654.0 264 113 s
131 33.3 1.2 4.2 15.4 46.2 20.3 205.0 174 69 t
137 12.8 2.4 7.2 0.09 0.7 2.3 7.0 160 179 r
139 17.4 2.9 12 3.4 19.4 30.3 204.3 82 70 t
171 20.0 15.1 34.5 0.3 1.4 4.1 20.0 116 154 r
179 45.1 3.5 11.4 3.88 8.6 2.9 114.9 190 176 s
201 29.9 17.9 36.6 0.3 0.9 1.8 25.3 110 189 r
210 29.1 10.9 45.6 0.1 0.4 1.2 10.9 156 188 r
220 18.3 2.6 24.3 0.2 1.0 1.1 13.9 120 194 r
239 15.6 4.7 25.2 0.1 0.7 1.1 9.1 200 193 r
253 15.4 7.7 16.2 0.2 1.2 1.1 13.6 142 191 r
255 54.6 6.3 36.3 13.3 24.3 4.3 297.3 180 180 s
261 14.1 3.0 9.6 0.1 0.6 1.2 5.2 198 197 r
261 22.2 2.6 9.6 8.6 38.6 17.8 271.1 110 80 t
288 81.9 3.1 11.4 12.1 14.7 1.1 146.5 172 196 s
309 52.0 2.0 8.7 2.38 4.6 2.3 44.4 452 195 s
313 9.2 2.3 7.2 0.29 3.2 5.7 15.3 194 138 s
329 58.0 3.2 9.6 10.2 17.5 1.8 265.2 192 176 s
342 60.2 1.7 8.4 35.7 59.2 6.6 432.4 138 77 t
356 14.9 2.2 6.6 1.4 9.3 30.2 67.8 176 83 t
357 8.0 1.3 6.6 1.98 24.8 43.0 92.6 158 50 t
364 9.1 1.8 4.8 1.1 12.2 21.9 38.5 124 63 t
D.O.Y., day of year; P, rainfall; Imean, mean rainfall intensity; Imax, maximum rainfall intensity (in 20 min); Rs, storm-runoff depth; Cs,
storm-runoff coefficient; Qb, baseflow (at the start of the flood); Qp, peakflow; Rt, response time; Pz1, depth to water table in
piezometer Pz1 at the start of the flood. Type of hydrological response: r, s, t defined in the text.

also longer than for type 1 events and floods were also more
prolonged (2–3 days), with a relatively gentle recession
limb. During type 2 events, soil saturation in the first
60 cm was observed on every occasion. Saturation was how-
ever temporary, never lasting more than a week in the ab-
sence of further rainfall. The delayed response of the
water table response was also characteristic of type 2
events: the water table showed generally a steady rise for
up to 10 consecutive days, coinciding with both flow reces-
sion and topsoil saturation progressive drainage.
Type 3 events (Fig. 8c) were observed during wet condi-
tions that follow the wetting-up transition. At the end of au-
tumn or spring, catchment usually had wet conditions with
soil water content higher than 0.40 cm3 cm 3, soil water po-
tential close to saturation (soil water potential higher than
10 cm) and water table less than one meter below the sur-
face. Long rainfall events (of low intensity) occurring in
these periods of the year generated the largest runoff re-
sponses in terms of storm-runoff coefficients (up to 61.5%)
and peakflows (up to 966.5 l s 1 km 2). Even if the magni-
tude of the runoff response varied with the amount of
incoming rainfall, all type 3 events generally lasted for sev-
eral days (from 4 to 7 days) and were characterised by a
slow recession that may last for 1–2 weeks in the absence
of additional rainfall. During type 3 events, tensiometer
data confirmed that prolonged saturation was observed in
the first 60 cm of the soil; in addition, the water table al-
ready close to the surface showed a quick reaction to rain-
fall and reached the surface, coinciding with the flood peak.
Storm-runoff coefficient–water table relationship
The three types of hydrological response identified in the
Can Vila catchment illustrate the existence of hydrological
behaviour that changed during the year, with different rain-
fall–runoff and runoff–water table relationships. The non-
linearity of these relationships is quite clear in Fig. 9, which
shows, for the 25 selected floods, the relation between
depth to water table at the start of the rainfall event (indic-
ative of the catchment water reserve) and the storm-runoff
coefficient (indicative of the magnitude of the hydrological
response). In Fig. 9, each type of event identified above was
indeed characterized by a particular relation between
storm-runoff coefficient and the depth to water table. Dur-
ing dry conditions (type 1 event), with a water table below
150 cm, runoff coefficient were always lower than 2%, even
for larger (and sometimes intense) rainfall events up to
30 mm. In these conditions, no relationship existed between
storm-runoff coefficient values and the depth to water ta-
ble. During wet conditions, with a water table less than
100 cm below the surface, storm-runoff coefficients associ-
ated with type 3 events were much higher (7.3–61.5%) and
generally increased with the rise of the water table (i.e. for
214
Figure 8 Soil water potential and water table depth dynamics observed for characteristic rainfall–runoff events during: (a) dry
(type 1 events), (b) wetting-up (type 2 events) and (c) wet (type 3 events) conditions. (P = rainfall depth; Cs = storm-runoff
coefficient).
Figure 9 Relationship between the storm-runoff coefficient
and the depth to water table (at the start of the rainfall event)
for characteristic ‘‘simple floods’’ occurring in dry (type 1
events), wetting-up (type 2 events) and wet (type 3 events)
conditions.
smaller values of water table depth). In the Can Vila catch-
ment, this relatively common behaviour (dry–wet condi-
J. Latron, F. Gallart
tions), observed for example by Cappus (1960) in a
temperate catchment, was disrupted during wetting-up
periods, when, in spite of the low water table (often below
150 cm), significant storm-runoff coefficients (3.2–32.6%)
were seen for type 2 events. Independently of the magni-
tude of incoming rainfall, storm-runoff coefficients ob-
served for type 2 events were broadly in between small
values of type 1 events and large values of type 3 events. Fi-
nally, no clear relationship existed between storm-runoff
coefficients and the depth to water table during the wet-
ting-up period.
Analysis of response time
Even if some caution is necessary in the analysis of response
time, principally because of the strong influence of rainfall
characteristics on its calculation, it provides a useful indica-
tion on how rapidly rainfall is converted to runoff at the
catchment scale. The relationship between the response
time associated with each selected flood and its correspond-
ing storm-runoff coefficient is shown in Fig. 10. It demon-
strates that response times observed in the Can Vila
catchment (average value Trmean = 169 min), even if some-
what longer than those usually reported for catchment with
dominant surface runoff processes (see Jones, 1997), were
generally shorter than when subsurface runoff processes
dominate. This relatively rapid ‘‘transfer’’ of rainfall to
catchment outlet suggests a probable large contribution of
surface runoff for all conditions. Nevertheless, the three
Runoff generation processes in a small Mediterranean research catchment (Vallcebre, Eastern Pyrenees)
Figure 10 Relationship between the storm-runoff coefficient
and the response time for characteristic ‘‘simple floods’’
occurring in dry (type 1 events), wetting-up (type 2 events)
and wet (type 3 events) conditions.
types of hydrological behaviour identified in the Can Vila
catchment could be clearly differentiated in Fig. 10. For
type 1 events, small storm-runoff coefficients were always
associated with intermediate response times between 110
and 200 min (Trmean = 150 min), even if no clear relationship
could be observed within the sub-sample. For wet condi-
tions (type 3 events), slightly shorter response times of be-
tween 82 and 176 min (Trmean = 139 min) were observed, but
associated with large storm-runoff coefficients. Again, no
apparent relationship could be found within the sub-sample;
no influence of the rainfall depth on the response time was
found, either. Finally, type 2 events had a longer response
time of from 190 to 452 min (Trmean = 235 min), with no
clear influence of storm-runoff coefficient or rainfall depth
within the sub-sample.
Discussion
Daily scale analysis
Following a purely hydrometric approach, using limited con-
tinuous data on water table and soil water potential dynam-
ics in addition to rainfall–runoff data, this study highlights
some general characteristics of the hydrological response
of a Mediterranean catchment, through the analysis of daily
scale relationships.
The strong non-linearity of the daily (Fig. 3) rainfall–run-
off relationship in the Can Vila catchment is illustrated. This
non-linearity, also observed at monthly or seasonal scale in
the catchment (Latron et al., 2008), has been often re-
ported for Mediterranean conditions: Cosandey (1993),
Ceballos and Schnabel (1998) and, more recently, Lana-
Renault et al. (2007) all provided clear evidence of contrast-
ing runoff responses (varying by several orders of magni-
tude) for similar rainfall occurring at different times of
the year.
215
The non-linearity of the rainfall–runoff relationship for
Mediterranean catchments, which contrasts with rainfall–
runoff dynamics described for more humid or temperate
catchments (Cappus, 1960; Jordan, 1994; Peters et al.,
2003), seems mainly related to the seasonality of catch-
ment water reserves, varying under dry, wetting-up and
wet conditions (Fig. 2). Indeed, examination of the posi-
tion of the water table explained most of the variability
observed in the rainfall–runoff relationship (Fig. 3). This
variability appears to be ultimately linked to the dynamics
of saturation zones within the catchment, which correlate
closely, for most of the year, with the position of the
water table (Latron and Gallart, 2007). It may be con-
cluded that, even for the Mediterranean catchment consid-
ered here, the position of the water table was a relevant
factor in explaining the magnitude of the runoff response
to a given rainfall.
In the Can Vila catchment, runoff measured at the outlet
generally increased with the rise of the water table (Fig. 4),
but the scatter of this relationship was large. This result is
consistent with findings generally reported for Mediterra-
nean catchments (Gaillard et al., 1995; Lana-Renault et
al., 2007), where runoff variations are often fairly indepen-
dent of water table dynamics. It contrasts however with
observations made in humid catchments: Sklash and
Farvolden (1979), for example, reported similar runoff and
water tables responses in eastern Canada and Myrabø
(1997) found very close correlation between runoff and
water table position in a small Norwegian catchment. Simi-
larly, Peters et al. (2003) showed comparable dynamics of
runoff and water table during the dormant season at the hu-
mid continental-to-subtropical Panola Mountain Research
Watershed (PMRW).
As well as the relatively high scatter of the relationship
between the position of the water table and the runoff in
the Can Vila catchment, Fig. 4 also shows the possible
occurrence of particular conditions during periods (of 2 to
more than 10 days) with simultaneous rise of the water ta-
ble and runoff decrease. This particular dynamic, illustrated
in Fig. 5, was observed occasionally (17% of the days with
decreasing runoff) and was always associated with a delayed
response of the water table in days following the runoff re-
sponse. The significantly delayed water table response ob-
served in the Can Vila catchment may be considered a
characteristic of seasonally dry catchments such as Mediter-
ranean ones. Indeed, in wetter tropical environments,
Bonell reported only shortly delayed water table responses,
similar to those observed by Peters et al. (2003) at PMRW;
and in more humid conditions, water table rise has been of-
ten observed prior to runoff response (Jordan, 1994;
Myrabø, 1997). In terms of runoff generation processes, this
much-delayed water table response means that throughout
several floods the water table response was null or very lim-
ited, and that consequently most of the runoff that reached
the Can Vila outlet during these floods did not correspond to
saturation excess runoff associated with the rise of the
water table, but was caused by other processes.
The examination of tensiometer data (Fig. 6 and 7) dem-
onstrates that, apart from infiltration excess runoff ob-
served only locally within the catchment, on bedrock
outcrops or badlands areas (see Fig. 1), saturation excess
runoff associated with surface saturation was likely to be
216
the primary runoff generation process in the absence of
water table response. Fig. 6 shows that soil profile satura-
tion was frequently reached on days with more than
0.3 mm day 1 (3.5 l s 1 km 2), whereas under similar condi-
tions the water table was only occasionally within the first
50 cm below the surface (Fig. 4). Only for runoff values
higher than 10 mm day 1 did soil profile saturation in the
terraced area coincide with saturation at Pz1 location. Com-
parison of soil water potential data and water table depth
(Fig. 7) reveals that soil profile saturation in the first
60 cm below the surface was rather common, even when
the water table at Pz1 was 100 cm below the surface. At
the tensiometer plot, the development of a layer of satura-
tion limited to the terrace topsoil was supported by occa-
sional observations of the water table (often located
below 150 cm) on days with topsoil saturation. During wet
conditions, saturation of the soil profile matched the rise
of the water table. However, the simultaneous occurrence
of saturated conditions in the terrace topsoil, but not in
the whole soil profile at Pz1, was relatively frequent and
ultimately suggests that topsoil saturation could be locally
reached on several occasions without saturation of the
whole profile. Such conditions linked to the rapid reduction
of soil hydraulic conductivity with depth in the terraced
area (Josa and Roda, 1994; Rubio et al., 2008) facilitated
the development of a perched water table at several loca-
tions within the Can Vila catchment. Similar development
of perched water tables promoting surface runoff have been
observed elsewhere in a wide range of conditions varying
from temperate catchments (Bonell et al., 1984; Biron et
al., 1999), tropical rainforest (Bonell and Gilmour, 1978;
Cassells et al., 1985; Dykes and Thornes, 2000) to drier envi-
ronments (Topadilis and Curtis, 1982). In Mediterranean
areas, similar results to those described for the Can Vila
catchment were found by Gaillard et al. (1995), Taha et
al. (1997) and Grésillon and Taha (1998).
Event scale analysis
Even if the analysis of daily scale relationships between
rainfall, runoff, water table and soil water potential data
offers a general scheme of runoff response to rainfall, a
study on a shorter time scale is required to further investi-
gate the way rainfall converts to runoff (e.g. Peschke and
Sambale, 1999; Kirnbauer et al., 2001). In the Can Vila
catchment, more detailed results obtained through the
analysis of 25 representative ‘‘simple flood’’ events sup-
plied additional information on dominant runoff processes,
which improves the perceptual model of the catchment’s
hydrological functioning. At the event scale, three types
of characteristic responses were identified during the year:
– In dry conditions, with low baseflow values, low water
table and relatively dry soils (owing to soil water content
and soil water potential data), only limited storm-runoff
responses were observed at the catchment outlet (Figs.
8a, 9 and Table 1). This type of response (defined as type
1 event) was always fast (Fig. 10) and short and neither top-
soil saturation nor water table rise were observed during the
flood. As shown by Latron and Gallart (2007), there was no
saturated area in the catchment in dry conditions and the
only possible runoff-contributing areas in type 1 events
J. Latron, F. Gallart
were local low permeable areas (bedrock outcrops or bad-
lands, see Fig. 1) close to the stream. In consequence, for
short intense rainfall occurring in (summer) dry conditions,
infiltration excess runoff was probably the dominant runoff
process and could explain both relatively significant peak-
flows and high suspended sediment concentrations (Soler
et al., 2008) associated with type 1 events. In addition,
response times of around 150 min determined for type 1
events were conditioned only by the location (i.e. distance
from the outlet) of low permeable areas (see Fig. 1). Several
authors (Anderson and Burt, 1990; Beven, 2002) point out
that occurrence of infiltration excess runoff is not unusual,
even if, as stressed by Dunne (1983), it is largely restricted
to localized low permeable areas within one catchment. In
dry or Mediterranean climates, infiltration excess runoff
occurrence has been often reported (Topadilis and Curtis,
1982; Cosandey, 1993; Ceballos and Schnabel, 1998; Lana-
Renault et al., 2007), especially during dry conditions. The
hydrological functioning of the Can Vila catchment for type
1 events, conditioned by both its hydro-climatic dynamics
(catchment water status, type of incoming rainfall, etc.)
and soil characteristics (infiltration capacity), is close to
the partial area concept defined by Betson (1964).
– During transitions from dry to wet conditions, with simi-
lar prior wetness conditions as for type 1 events, larger run-
off events with moderate storm-runoff coefficients and
variable peakflows were observed in response to more fre-
quent or larger rainfall events (Figs. 8b, 9 and Table 1). In
type 2 events, characterised by a long response time (Fig.
10) and a relatively gentle recession, topsoil saturation
and delayed water table response were observed every
time. Wetting-up periods, frequently identified in Mediter-
ranean climates (Gaillard et al., 1995; Grésillon et al.,
1997; Piñol et al., 1997), are phases of progressive restora-
tion of catchment water reserves. In consequence, at the
start of type 2 events, storm-runoff was still produced
mainly in impervious areas (as for type 1 events), although
in less quantity due to lower intensities of incoming rainfall.
However, generally larger rainfall volumes helped the for-
mation of a perched saturation layer that could reach the
surface from place to place within the catchment. This scat-
tered saturation pattern, owing to soil characteristics and
terraced topography, observed by Latron and Gallart
(2007), favoured the progressive contribution of saturation
excess runoff during type 2 events. The longer response
time observed for type 2 events (around 235 min) could be
related to the delay necessary for the formation of a
perched saturation layer before significant saturation
excess runoff was produced. The contribution of scattered
perched saturated layers to stream-flow was facilitated by
the presence of man-made ditches that connect terraces
with the stream. In view of flood characteristics and
storm-runoff coefficients, saturation excess runoff on
perched saturated layers was probably the dominant runoff
process in the Can Vila catchment during wetting-up peri-
ods. The lower contribution of infiltration excess runoff
occurring in badlands areas during type 2 events is also con-
firmed by the lower sediment concentrations observed
(Soler et al., 2008) during floods in wetting-up periods. As
stated above, the development of a perched saturation
layer throughout the catchment is not exclusive to Mediter-
ranean conditions, and has been reported elsewhere.
Runoff generation processes in a small Mediterranean research catchment (Vallcebre, Eastern Pyrenees)
However, the seasonality of Mediterranean climate in mid-
dle mountain areas, with a succession of marked dry and
wet periods confers on this process (in combination with soil
characteristics) a more important role in runoff generation
during wetting-up periods. The hydrological behaviour of
the Can Vila catchment during transitions from dry to wet
conditions is indeed close to that observed in other Mediter-
ranean catchments (Gaillard et al., 1995; Taha et al., 1997),
even if the terraced topography covering most of the Can
Vila catchment area seems to be an additional factor that
promotes significantly the formation of perched saturation
layers and the associated production of saturated excess
runoff.
– In wet conditions, when water content, water potentials
and water table data indicate that soils were saturated or
close to saturation, large (in terms of storm-runoff coeffi-
cients) and lasting runoff responses were always measured
at the outlet (Figs. 8c, 9 and Table 1). During low-intensity
but generally long rainfall episodes, the shallow water table
rose quickly and promoted more extensive surface satura-
tion within the catchment. The quick expansion of saturated
areas favourable to saturation excess runoff generation pro-
vides an explanation for the relatively rapid response times
(mean = 139 min) associated with type 3 events (Fig. 10).
Field surveys show (Latron and Gallart, 2007) that larger
extents of saturated areas were observed in wet conditions,
resulting mainly from water table rise but also from perched
saturation. As a result, saturation excess runoff in saturated
areas was most probably the main runoff generation pro-
cess, as confirmed by visual observations in the catchment
during rainfall events. Infiltration excess runoff contribution
(limited to low permeable areas) was less in wet conditions
and, consequently, sediment concentrations observed at
the outlet were generally low (Soler et al., 2008). The con-
tribution of sub-surface runoff processes was not assessed in
this study, but the rapid response time of the catchment in
wet conditions suggests that surface runoff processes were
dominant in the overall hydrological response. The hydro-
logical behaviour of the Can Vila catchment during wet con-
ditions, sometimes observed in other Mediterranean
catchments (Cosandey, 1993; Lana-Renault et al., 2007),
was finally similar (to some extent) to that generally
reported in more humid climates, where the extent of sat-
urated areas for saturation excess runoff generation is clo-
sely related to the position of the water table (Cappus,
1960; Dunne et al., 1975; Bonell et al., 1984; Cosandey,
1986; Ambroise, 1986; Peschke and Sambale, 1999). How-
ever, field observations show (Latron and Gallart, 2007) that
saturation patterns mapped at the Can Vila catchment are
always much more scattered than is usually reported,
mainly because of its terraced topography. In addition,
recession limbs described in more humid catchments
(Tanaka et al., 1988; Myrabø, 1997) are usually not so rapid
as in this study, suggesting the greater contribution of sub-
surface runoff processes than in the Can Vila catchment.
Summary and conclusions
Using limited continuous data on water table and soil water
potential dynamics, as well as rainfall–runoff data, this
study shows certain characteristics of the hydrological
217
behaviour of the Can Vila Mediterranean catchment. Using
daily scale information, the strong non-linearity between
rainfall and runoff values is shown, as well as the influence
of the water table position on the way they relate. The rela-
tionship between runoff and the depth to water table
showed much more scatter than is usually observed under
more humid conditions. Likewise, water table variations
(rise or fall) were on some occasions not in phase with run-
off changes, suggesting somewhat more intricate hydrolog-
ical behaviour. Soil water potential data in relation with
runoff and water table data revealed that the development
of a perched saturation layer was a relatively frequent
process.
Investigation of soil water potential and water table
dynamics during a collection of representative ‘‘simple
floods’’ resulted in the identification of three types of char-
acteristic hydrological behaviour during the year, relating
mainly to the seasonality of catchment water reserves,
but also to rainfall characteristics (intensity, duration).
The type 1 event identified during dry conditions, the type
2 event (wetting-up transition) and the type 3 event (wet
conditions) each had different characteristics and were
associated with different dominant storm-runoff generation
processes. In dry conditions, storm-runoff was generated
essentially as infiltration excess runoff on low permeable
areas, whereas saturation excess runoff dominated during
wetting-up and wet conditions. However, corresponding
saturated areas prone to saturation excess runoff resulted
from different processes. During wetting-up transition, they
resulted from the development of scattered perched water
tables in the terraced area, whereas under wet conditions
they were linked to the rise of the deep water table.
Unlike water table dynamics, which were measured at
three locations, the spatial variability associated with soil
water potential dynamics could not be considered in this
study, as only one site was monitored. The observed dynam-
ics were, however, similar to those in a neighbouring catch-
ment located 2 km away. Results obtained in this study can,
therefore, be considered broadly representative of the
dynamics of water in the topsoil in the terraced area of
the catchment. In the end, and even if more spatially dis-
tributed information would have benefited the analysis, re-
sults obtained in this study provided some new and relevant
information on the way runoff is generated in the Can Vila
Mediterranean catchment. The results reported in this study
complete previous findings on the rainfall–runoff response
observed at the outlet (Latron et al., 2008) and on the spa-
tio-temporal dynamics of runoff-contributing areas (Latron
and Gallart, 2007) and improve the perceptual model of
the hydrological functioning of this Mediterranean
catchment.
Current research aimed at assessing the spatio-temporal
variability of water table dynamics in the Can Vila catch-
ment, along with the use of complementary approaches
(environmental tracing) to support some of the findings ob-
tained here through a purely hydrometric approach, will
contribute to further updating of this perceptual model. Ow-
ing to the relatively few studies of Mediterranean catchment
hydrology, all the knowledge garnered from the Can Vila
catchment should ultimately help the elaboration of more
process-based modelling in similar seasonal environments.
Using results like those given here, modelling activity should
218
involve hypothesis testing (e.g. Piñol et al., 1997; Vivoni et
al., 2007) of a flexible model structure able to integrate
the strong seasonality of Mediterranean catchments’
hydrology.
Acknowledgments
This research was conducted with the support of the CANOA
(CGL2004-04919-C02-01) and PROBASE (CGL2006-11619/
HID) projects funded by the Spanish Government, and the
TEMPQSIM (EVK1-CT-2002-00112) project funded by the
European Commission. Research at the Vallcebre catch-
ments is also supported by the agreement between the
CSIC and the Spanish Ministry of the Environment (RESEL).
J. Latron was the beneficiary of a research contract (Juan
de La Cierva programme), funded by the Spanish Ministry
of Education and Science. Support provided by C. Salvany,
P. Llorens, C. Rubio, M. Soler, D. Regüés, R. Poyatos, O. Avila
and X. Huguet during fieldwork and data acquisition is
acknowledged. The authors would also like to acknowledge
the helpful comments made by M. Sivapalan and another
anonymous reviewer.
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