HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES

Hydrol. Process. 22, 775– 787 (2008)

Published online 4 September 2007 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/hyp.6648

Spatial and temporal variability of the hydrological response

in a small Mediterranean research catchment (Vallcebre,
Eastern Pyrenees)
J. Latron,1,2 * M. Soler,1 P. Llorens1 and F. Gallart1
1 Institute of Earth Sciences “Jaume Almera”, CSIC, Solé i Sabaris s/n 08028 Barcelona, Spain
2 Escola Politècnica Superior, Universitat de Girona, Campus de Montilivi, 17003 Girona, Spain

Abstract:
This paper analyses the spatial and temporal variability of the hydrological response in a small Mediterranean catchment (Cal
Rodó). The first part of the analysis focuses on the rainfall–runoff relationship at seasonal and monthly scale, using an 8-year
data set. Then, using storm-flow volume and coefficient, the temporal variability of the rainfall–runoff relationship and its
relationship with several hydrological variables are analysed at the event scale from hydrographs observed over a 3-year period.
Finally, the spatial non-linearity of the hydrological response is examined by comparing the Cal Rodó hydrological response
with the Can Vila sub-catchment response at the event scale. Results show that, on a seasonal and monthly scale, there is no
simple relationship between rainfall and runoff depths, and that evapotranspiration is a factor that introduced some non-linearity
in the rainfall–runoff relationship. The analysis of monthly values also reveals the existence of a threshold in the relationship
between rainfall and runoff depths, denoting a more contrasted hydrological response than the one usually observed in humid
catchments. At the event scale, the storm-flow coefficient has a clear seasonal pattern with an alternance between a wet period,
when the catchment is hydrologically responsive, and a dry summer period, when the catchment is much less reactive to any
rainfall. The relationship between the storm-flow coefficient and rainfall depth, rainfall maximum intensity and base-flow shows
that observed correlations are the same as those observed for humid conditions, even if correlation coefficients are notably
lower. Comparison with the Can Vila sub-catchment highlights the spatial heterogeneity of the rainfall-runoff relationship
at the small catchment scale. Although interpretation in terms of runoff processes remains delicate, heterogeneities between
the two catchments seem to be related to changes in the ratio between infiltration excess and saturation processes in runoff
formation. Copyright  2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

KEY WORDS rainfall-runoff; spatio-temporal variability; storm-flow; Mediterranean catchment; Vallcebre

Received 24 May 2006; Accepted 20 November 2006

INTRODUCTION Despite this limitation, the study of hydrographs and

The hydrological response of a catchment is the com-
bination of several factors. Ambroise (1999) points out
that climate forcing, background hydrological conditions
and hydrological soil properties, in addition to topogra-
phy and morphology, determine the active processes in a
catchment, as well as the intensities and interactions of
these factors. The resulting combination of hydrological
processes generates a response that is characteristic of the
catchment, but also characteristic of every rainfall event.
Discharge measurements at the outlet enable hydrograph
characteristics and runoff volumes associated with rain-
fall events to be studied and provide valuable information
for characterizing the hydrological behaviour of a catch-
ment. However, as stressed by Hewlett (1982) or Beven
(1991), if the hydrograph provides the only information
available, the nature of hydrological processes active in a
catchment cannot be identified, as different combinations
of processes may lead to similar hydrographs.
* Correspondence to: J. Latron, Escola Politècnica Superior, Universitat
de Girona, Campus de Montilivi, 17003 Girona, Spain.
E-mail: jerome.latron@udg.edu
runoff volumes (essentially storm-flow volume, resulting
from any hydrograph separation technique) has been
a classic approach in catchment hydrology for several
decades. Hewlett and Hibbert (1967) and Woodruff
and Hewlett (1970) studied rainfall–runoff relationships
at the event scale to define a factor of catchment
hydrological response at the annual scale for a large
number of catchments in the US. Other researchers
used the same methodology to identify the effect of
the change in forest cover on the hydrological response
of a catchment (Hornbeck, 1973; Hewlett and Bosch,
1984; Cosandey, 1993; Callegari et al., 1994). Hewlett
and coworkers (Hewlett et al., 1977, 1984; Hewlett and
Bosch, 1984) also used this approach to demonstrate the
negligible role of rainfall intensity on the magnitude of
the hydrological response of forested catchments. Finally,
several authors analysed hydrograph characteristics and
storm-flow volumes (or storm-flow coefficient defined
as the ratio between storm-flow and rainfall volumes)
in more detailed studies of catchment hydrology and
tried to find the relationships between the response at
the outlet and other hydrological information available in
the catchment. Cappus (1960) explored the relationship

Copyright  2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.


776 J. LATRON ET AL.
between storm-flow coefficient, rainfall depth and base-
flow to illustrate the hydrological role of saturated areas
within a catchment. Cosandey (1980, 1986) used a
3-year data set from a humid temperate catchment, to
show the direct influence of the extent of saturated areas
(well correlated with base-flow prior to the flood) on
the magnitude of the hydrological response expressed in
term of storm-flow coefficient. With a similar approach,
Ambroise (1986) showed that in a small temperate
catchment the amount of runoff generated during a small
summer rainfall event corresponds exclusively to the rain
falling on saturated areas close to the stream. Taylor
and Pearce (1982), after analysis of 19 storms in six
nested catchments in New Zealand, concluded that storm-
flow volume always correlates with rainfall amount, but
they only found positive correlation between storm-flow
and background wetness in catchments with significant
saturation excess overland flow. Jordan (1992, 1994)
used runoff volumes and coefficients to investigate the
spatio-temporal variability of runoff generation processes
at several scales in a group of humid catchments in
Switzerland. The scale effect of runoff coefficient was
also investigated by Cerdan et al. (2004) in several
catchments with areas from 450 m2 to 11 km2 . Finally,
in a recent comprehensive study (759 floods) of the
hydrological behaviour of the Panola Mountain Research
Watershed (PMRW), Peters et al. (2003) explored the
relationships between storm-flow, rainfall depth, water
table and soil moisture dynamics.
Most of the studies mentioned earlier correspond,
however, to humid temperate conditions. As pointed out
by Bonell (1993), the limited number of studies from
other climatic regions has often resulted in the unverified
extrapolation of findings from humid regions, even if
the need for different approaches has sometimes been
underlined (e.g. Pilgrim et al., 1988). In drier climate,
or in regions with a more marked climatic seasonality,
results from humid regions may only be appropriate for
short wet periods during the year. During dry periods,
there is a different combination of hydrological processes
with some humid zone processes temporarily absent. As
noted by Beven (2002), the result is complex variability
in rainfall–runoff relationship, which is a function of the
background wetness of the catchment, storm duration and
the pattern of rainfall intensities.
In Mediterranean mountain regions, which is the gen-
eral context of this study, the combination of high sea-
sonality of the climate during the year and a generally
high spatial heterogeneity of the landscape increase dra-
matically the non-linearity of the rainfall–runoff rela-
tionship at the event scale. Several studies have pro-
vided examples of this non-linearity of hydrological
response in Mediterranean catchments. Through the study
of storm-flow volumes, Àvila (1987) investigated the sea-
sonal hydrological response of the small (0Ð04 km2 ) TM9
catchment. With a similar approach, Cosandey (1993)
demonstrated the existence of a threshold effect in the
response of the Latte catchment. Piñol et al. (1997)
Copyright  2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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showed the non-linearity of the rainfall–runoff relation-
ship for a 4-month period corresponding to a wetting-up
period in two paired research catchments. Using a sam-
ple of 26 floods, Ceballos and Schnabel (1998) found two
different rainfall–runoff relationships, depending on the
existence of saturated conditions in the valley bottom.
In the Vallcebre research area, several aspects of the
hydrology of Mediterranean mountain catchments have
been investigated since 1989. Gallart et al. (2005a) gave
a complete overview of the results obtained up to then on
water dynamics at the small catchment scale. Sediment
dynamics issues in the same area are summarized in Gal-
lart et al. (2005b). Gallart et al. (1997) and Latron and
Gallart (2007) identified certain characteristic features
of the hydrological behaviour of these Mediterranean
catchments, and Gallart et al. (2002) investigated the sea-
sonal controls on hydrological processes in the Vallcebre
research area. Previous results on rainfall–runoff rela-
tionships at the rainstorm scale, obtained in the small
Cal Parisa catchment (Llorens and Gallart, 1992; Gal-
lart et al., 1994, 1997), illustrate the seasonal behaviour
of this catchment and its ability, during summer dry
conditions, to absorb up to 50 mm of rainfall without pro-
ducing any runoff at the outlet. The characteristic effect
of small badlands in the area on runoff and sediment
production has also been identified (Gallart et al., 1997,
1998). Finally, the relationships between suspended sed-
iment concentrations and discharge have been recently
investigated (Soler et al., 2007).
The objective of this paper is to investigate the
rainfall–runoff relationship in a small Mediterranean
catchment, in order to characterize the non-linearity of
its hydrological response. The first part of the analysis
focuses on temporal non-linearity. Using Cal Rodó catch-
ment data, the seasonal dynamics of rainfall–runoff rela-
tionship is first examined at monthly and seasonal scale.
Then the rainfall–runoff relationship and its relationship
to several hydrological variables are analysed at the event
scale. The spatial non-linearity of the rainfall–runoff
relationship and its possible origins are analysed in the
second part of the paper, by comparing the Cal Rodó
hydrological response with the response of the Can Vila
sub-catchment for the same set of rainfall events.
STUDY AREA
The Cal Rodó catchment (4Ð17 km2 ) is located close to
Vallcebre village, 130 km north-east of Barcelona, Spain
(Figure 1). It is one of the research catchments in the
Vallcebre research area, on the southern margin of the
Pyrenees, in the headwaters of the Llobregat river. The
catchment was selected in early 1990 to analyse the
hydrological consequences of land abandonment as well
as the hydrological and sediment yield behaviour of bad-
lands areas. In the Cal Rodó catchment, altitudes range
from 1104 m at the outlet to 1643 m, although more
than 80% of the area is below 1400 m (Table I). Slopes
vary between 10% and 40% (mean value 28%) and have
Hydrol. Process. 22, 775–787 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/hyp
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VARIABILITY OF THE HYDROLOGICAL RESPONSE IN A MEDITERRANEAN CATCHMENT 777

Figure 1. General map of the Cal Rodó and Can Vila catchments showing locations of badlands areas and main instruments

Table I. General characteristics of the research catchments ratio between monthly loss through the limestone and pre-
Cal Rodó catchment Can Vila catchment
cipitation is relatively similar during dry and wet periods
(Latron, 2003) and on the other hand, deep percolation
Area (km2 ) 4Ð17 0Ð56 has been found to affect essentially base-flow volumes
Altitude (m) and not storm-flow ones that are considered here.
Maximum 1643 1458 Climax vegetation is woodland of Quercus pubescens
Mean 1299 1239 with Pinus sylvestris on the cooler north-facing aspects.
Minimum 1104 1115
Gradient (%) Most of the gentle hill-slopes were deforested in the past
Mean 28Ð0 25Ð6 and terraced for agricultural use and were then steadily
Land cover (%) abandoned during the second half of the twentieth
Pasture, meadow 21Ð2 51Ð7 century. Most of these agricultural terraces (typically
Forest 60Ð1 33Ð7 10 m to 20 m wide), which account for around 40% of
Sparse vegetation 9Ð1 10Ð6
Rocky outcrop 6Ð8 3Ð1 the catchment, are now covered by mesophile grasses
Badlands 2Ð8 0Ð9 with hydrophile patches of Molinia coerulea (Table I),
and are used for either grass harvesting or extensive sheep
grazing. Spontaneous forestation by Pinus sylvestris has
also occurred following abandonment (Poyatos et al.,
mostly a north-east orientation. The topographical limits 2003).
of the catchment are well-defined, and correspond in over Soils, mainly of Ochrept, Orthent and Aquept types,
half the catchment to the same limestone bed folded in a show high infiltration capacities in the first 20 cm below
near vertical plane. the surface, due to their good structure, based on their
In the south half of the catchment, bedrock is mas- high content of Ca2C ions and organic matter (Solé et al.,
sive limestone of continental Garumnian facies (Aepler, 1992). Nevertheless, hydraulic conductivity drops by
1968), with very few conspicuous karstic features. Else- several orders of magnitude in the deeper horizons (Haro
where bedrock is formed by red clayey smectite-rich et al., 1992). Soil thickness varies greatly, depending on
mudrocks over which some badlands areas have devel- lithology, geomorphology and the changes induced by
oped locally (Figure 1), as a result of the combined terracing. Badlands areas have regoliths whose thickness
effects of winter freezing and summer rainstorms (Regüés varies throughout the year, but which rarely reach 15 cm;
et al., 1995). The geological setting of the Cal Rodó limestone bedrock is overlain by discontinuous soils up
catchment has raised some questions about its hydrolog- to about 40 cm thick; finally, soils on hill-slopes over
ical limits and the issue of its water tightness. By estab- clayey rocks are up to 80 cm thick, but they often reach
lishing a monthly water balance between the Cal Rodó 3 m in the terraced area of the catchment.
catchment and the Can Vila sub-catchment (0Ð56 km2 , see Climate is humid Mediterranean, characterized by a
Figure 1), entirely on clayey bedrock, deep percolation marked water deficit in summer. Mean annual temper-
through the limestone has been calculated over a period ature measured during the period 1992–1997 (1440 m
of 26 months at 21% of incoming rainfall (Latron, 2003). a.s.l.) was 7Ð3 ° C. On average, freezing occurred on
Results presented in this study are not however signifi- 143 days per year and mean daily temperature was lower
cantly affected by this water loss, as on the one hand, the than 0 ° C on 37 days per year. Mean annual precipitation

Copyright  2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Hydrol. Process. 22, 775– 787 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/hyp

778 J. LATRON ET AL.
over 22 water years (September to August) from 1983 to
2004 was 898 š 203 mm, with a mean of 89 rainy days
per year. Snowfalls are occasional and represent less than
5% by volume over the period. Rainfall is usually concen-
trated in autumn and spring with mean rainfall amounts
above 100 mm in October, November and May. Winter
is the season with least precipitation. In summer, short
convective storms, with intensities of up to 80 mm h
1
in 20 min, also provide significant precipitation input.
The spatial variability of rainfall within the catchment is
limited, except during summer storms. Annual reference
evapotranspiration, estimated by the Penman–Monteith
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) method (Smith
et al., 1992), is about 700 mm (Gallart et al., 2002).
During the water years 1995–2002, mean annual
runoff in the Cal Rodó catchment was 273 š 142 mm
(equivalent to 29% of rainfall), and 386 š 255 mm in
Can Vila (43% of rainfall). In spite of this difference
in annual runoff, related to the deep percolation in
the limestone area of the Cal Rodó catchment, the
relationship between annual runoff in both catchments
was linear. Mean daily discharge over the period was
8Ð6 l s
1 km
2 in Cal Rodó and 12Ð2 l s
1 km
2 in Can
Vila. However, stream-flow was highly seasonal, and the
stream dried out in summer every 2 years on average,
for a period ranging from 15 to 40 days. Stream-flow is
rather flashy in the Cal Rodó and Can Vila catchments,
with response time around 1 h. Recessions are quite steep
in the Cal Rodó catchment, but gentler in Can Vila.
DATA AND METHODS
Data collection
Rainfall in the Cal Rodó catchment is recorded with
a network of tipping-bucket rain gauges (Figure 1).
The number of gauges varied between five and seven
during the study. These are located 1 m above the
ground and connected to data-loggers that record 0Ð2 mm
precipitation increments at a temporal resolution of 1s.
Constant time step (down to 1 min) rainfall files were
obtained from original recordings. The rain gauges were
calibrated for a wide range of rainfall intensities by means
of a dynamic calibration method, as in Calder and Kidd
(1978). The weather station (Figure 1) records, at 5-min
intervals, air temperature and relative humidity, global
and net radiation, soil temperature, wind direction and
speed at 2 m height.
At the catchment outlet (4Ð17 km2 drainage area), the
Cal Rodó gauging station is a self-cleaning concrete weir,
designed to avoid clogging by the abundant suspended
and bedload sediment transported in the stream. The Can
Vila sub-catchment (0Ð56 km2 drainage area) gauging
station is a 90° V-notch weir. At both stations, water
level was recorded directly in the stream by means of
a water pressure sensor connected to a datalogger. Mean
water level values (measured every 10 s) were kept every
20 min during low flow periods and every 2 min during
floods. Discharge was determined using established stage
Copyright  2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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discharge rating curves, calibrated by manual discharge
measurements.
Computation and data analysis
Monthly rainfall amounts were obtained from one
single pluviometer, as the variance between gauges was
low at this time scale. Monthly totals were grouped
by season (winter was from January through March;
spring was from April through June; summer was from
July through September; and autumn was from October
through December). At the rainstorm scale, rainfall was
determined using Thiessen polygons from seven gauges
to assess the spatial variability associated with some
summer rainfall events.
Runoff was obtained by adding up all the stream-flow
for the appropriate time period (month, season). At the
rainstorm scale, runoff was separated between storm-flow
and base-flow, using the classical hydrograph separation
method of Hewlett and Hibbert (1967). Although totally
arbitrary (like all others), this hydrograph separation
method was used in this study only to characterize
the response of the catchment to a rainstorm and no
interpretation in terms of runoff processes was derived
from the separation. In practice, hydrograph separation
for every runoff event (defined as an increase higher than
5Ð0 l s
1 km
2 in the discharge series) used the technique
proposed by Bidin and Greer (1997). However, as found
in other studies (e.g. Higgins et al., 1989), the original
slope value proposed by Hewlett and Hibbert (1967) for
a set of forested catchments in the US was too steep to
be used here, and consequently a flatter slope value of
1Ð83 l s
1 km
2 day
1 was chosen to include the highest
number of floods in the analysis. Over a 3-year period,
hydrograph separation was conducted on 57 events in
the Cal Rodó catchment and 55 in Can Vila. A small
number of floods with successive runoff peaks had to be
removed from the analysis because of the impossibility
of applying the hydrograph separation method. For each
rainfall-runoff event, several variables were derived from
the hyetograph and hydrograph. These were (Table II)
rainfall depth, mean and maximum intensity; storm-flow
Table II. Hydrological variables used in the analysisa
Variable description Symbol Units
Rainfall depth P mm
Mean rainfall intensity Imean mm h
1
Maximum rainfall intensity Imax mm h
1
(in 20 min)
Storm-flow (D V/S) Rsf mm
Storm-flow coefficient Csf %
(D 100Ł Rsf /P)
Base-flow specific discharge Qbs l s
1 km
2
(at the start of the flood)
Peak-flow specific discharge Qps l s
1 km
2
Specific discharge increment Qs l s
1 km
2
(D Qps
Qbs )
a S is the catchment area, V is the volume of storm-flow determined for
each flood with the constant slope method.
Hydrol. Process. 22, 775–787 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/hyp
 10991085, 2008, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hyp.6648 by Universitat de Barcelona, Wiley Online Library on [05/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
VARIABILITY OF THE HYDROLOGICAL RESPONSE IN A MEDITERRANEAN CATCHMENT 779

depth and storm-flow coefficient; base-flow (at the start
of the event) and peak-flow specific discharge used to
calculate specific discharge increment.
This study used, on the one hand, monthly scale
data corresponding to water years 1995–2002 and, on
the other hand, rainstorm scale data determined over a
continuous 3-year period from June 1995 to May 1998.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Seasonal and monthly rainfall–runoff relationships
Figure 2 shows the monthly mean values of rain-
fall, runoff, runoff deficit (difference between rainfall
and runoff depths) and reference evapotranspiration for
water years 1995–2002 in the Cal Rodó catchment.
Monthly rainfall mean values during this 8-year period
were quite representative of the trend observed in the
longer term (22 years) in the area, although October rain-
fall amount was somewhat underestimated in the 8-year
period, whereas December and January totals were over-
estimated. Over the study period, the rainfall pattern con-
trasted between winter with a low amount (P D 128 mm)
and the other seasons with rainfall totals around 260 mm.
During the same period, runoff totals (R) were much
more diverse from season to season, with autumn being
the most responsive period (R D 126 mm), followed by
winter, spring and summer with runoff depths of 72, 46
and 29 mm, respectively. At the season time scale, there
was clearly no simple relationship between rainfall and
runoff totals. Monthly mean rainfall and runoff values
showed no simple relationship either: months such as
June, July and October with totals close to 70 mm gener-
ated a very different runoff response with monthly mean
runoff coefficients of 4, 15 and 35%, respectively. The
monthly rainfall–runoff relationship was not improved
for the rainiest months; August, September and Novem-
ber mean monthly runoff coefficients were 10, 14 and
39%, respectively, in response to similar mean rainfall
amounts of 104 mm.
The absence of a straightforward relationship between
monthly values of rainfall and runoff is not particular
to the data shown here and similar seasonal effects
have already been reported for Mediterranean catchments
(Ceballos and Schnabel, 1998; Martin et al., 2003) and
even for temperate ones (Endale et al., 2006).
As suggested by Gallart et al. (2002), a possible factor
explaining the non-linearity of the rainfall–runoff rela-
tionship in this catchment is related to the characteristics
of the rainstorms. For the 8-year period considered here, a
simple count of the number of rainy days per month (days
with more than 1 mm rainfall) showed (Figure 2) that
for 2 months with similar mean rainfall amount (Octo-
ber and July or November and August), the month with
fewer days of rainfall (and consequently with larger rain-
fall events) always had the highest runoff amount.
However, as generally described for Mediterranean
catchments, the most important factor explaining the

Figure 2. Monthly mean values of rainfall, runoff and runoff deficit (dots) for water years 1995– 2002 in the Cal Rodó catchment. Histograms show
the long-term (1983– 2004) rainfall distribution along the year (top), and the reference evapotranspiration (bottom). Error bars show standard error,
and numbers above rainfall values indicate the mean number of rainy days per month

Copyright  2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Hydrol. Process. 22, 775– 787 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/hyp

780 J. LATRON ET AL.
complex relationship between monthly rainfall and runoff
depths is most likely to be the seasonal evolution of the
evapotranspirative demand. In Figure 2, the seasonal pat-
tern of the monthly mean runoff deficit during the study
period is shown together with the monthly evolution
of mean reference evapotranspiration. A linear regres-
sion between these two variables was statistically signifi-
cant (p < 0Ð005), with mean reference evapotranspiration
explaining 85% of variation in runoff deficit. Over the 8-
year period, the similarity of the two patterns suggested
therefore that the seasonal trend of evapotranspiration
was a factor that introduced most of the non-linearity
observed in the monthly rainfall–runoff relationship of
the Cal Rodó catchment.
As shown by Figure 2 and already pointed out by
Gallart et al. (2002), the seasonal dynamics of rainfall
and evapotranspiration promote actually the succession
of three different periods along the year: (a) a dry period
centred on summer when evapotranspiration losses are
higher than incoming rainfall; during these conditions
most of the rainfall re-evaporates and does not convert
into runoff, explaining the poor rainfall-runoff relation-
ship, (b) a transition period, in early autumn and occa-
sionally in spring, due to low rainfall amounts usually
observed in February and March; during transition peri-
ods, incoming rainfall have to feed catchment water
reserves, before any significant runoff is generated, lead-
ing to a poor rainfall–runoff relationship, (c) a wet period
corresponding to late autumn and early winter, when
catchment reserves have been reconstituted and when
evapotranspiration losses are low compared to incoming
rainfall; during wet conditions, rainfall is mostly available
for runoff production, leading to a progressively stronger
rainfall–runoff relationship as the catchment becomes
wetter.
The relationship between monthly rainfall and runoff
depths for the 96 months of the study period is shown in
Figure 3, in which data have been grouped by season.
Over the study period, autumn and winter were the
Figure 3. Relationship between monthly rainfall and runoff in the Cal
Rodó catchment. Dotted line shows the nature of the linear relationship
between the two variables for months with rainfall totals higher than
80 mm
Copyright  2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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seasons with most runoff. This result is similar to those
found in more humid conditions (e.g. Peters et al., 2003;
Endale et al., 2006), where more runoff occurs during
the winter dormant season than during the summer
growing season. As well as the relatively high scatter
of the relationship (also observed by Peters et al., 2003,
in a more humid catchment), Figure 3 illustrates the
existence of a threshold in the monthly rainfall–runoff
relationship. Below this threshold, roughly equivalent
to a monthly rainfall of 80 mm, the response of the
catchment was very limited, whereas above it a linear
regression of runoff on rainfall depth (considering all
seasons) was significant (p < 0Ð001) and explained 63%
of variance (Figure 3). Above the threshold, monthly
runoff values remained, however, lower than 70 mm in
spring and summer, whereas in autumn and winter they
increased linearly with monthly rainfall. Figure 3 also
shows that, in the Cal Rodó catchment, a monthly rainfall
amount below 120 mm always produced a monthly
runoff lower than 40 mm (except on one occasion)
during the 96-month period considered. Conversely,
with a monthly rainfall amount higher than 120 mm,
monthly runoff was always higher than 40 mm (again,
except on one occasion). The threshold identified in the
monthly rainfall–runoff relationship of the Cal Rodó
catchment demonstrates the more extreme behaviour of
this Mediterranean catchment. With a similar analysis
of monthly rainfall–runoff at the PMRW, Peters et al.
(2003) do not identify any comparable threshold in
a humid continental catchment, with a mean annual
precipitation of 1220 mm. Moreover, for similar monthly
rainfall values below 120 mm, monthly runoff totals in
the Cal Rodó catchment were often significantly lower
than those reported by Peters et al. (2003). On the
contrary, during months with more than 120 mm rainfall,
monthly runoff in the Cal Rodó catchment was most of
the time higher than at the PMRW.
Event scale temporal variability of the rainfall–runoff
relationship
To investigate further the temporal variability of the
hydrological response of the Cal Rodó catchment, an
analysis at the flood time scale was conducted. Using
the methodology described earlier for separating storm-
flow and base-flow, a sample of 57 floods over a 3-
year period was created. Within the sample, rainfall
depth ranged from 2Ð6 mm to 90Ð2 mm with a median
of 16Ð5 mm. Storm-flow varied between 0Ð01 mm and
65Ð2 mm (median D 0Ð3 mm), and storm-flow coeffi-
cients between 0Ð3% and 84% (median D 2Ð1%). Five
floods occurred in winter, 17 in spring, 23 in summer
and 12 in autumn.
The relationship between rainfall depth and storm-flow
is shown in Figure 4. At the flood scale, the points appear
somewhat less scattered than in the relationship between
monthly rainfall and runoff. No clear differences between
seasons were found, even though for similar-sized, small
and moderate rainfall events (<20 mm), storm-flow was
Hydrol. Process. 22, 775–787 (2008)
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VARIABILITY OF THE HYDROLOGICAL RESPONSE IN A MEDITERRANEAN CATCHMENT
Figure 4. Relationship between rainfall depth and storm-flow at the event
scale (Cal Rodó catchment). Dotted line shows the nature of the linear
relationship between both variables for rainfall events larger than 20 mm
lower in spring and summer than in autumn and win-
ter. In the relationship between storm-flow and rain-
fall depth, which was markedly non-linear, two different
sections could be identified. For small and moderate rain-
fall events (P < 20 mm), storm-flow response was lim-
ited, whereas for large rainfall events, a significant and
progressive increase in storm-flow was observed. Never-
theless, the high scatter in the storm-flow values associ-
ated with rainfall events larger than 20 mm indicated that
the relationship between rainfall and storm-flow depths
was not straightforward. For all seasons, a linear regres-
sion of storm-flow on rainfall depth, for events larger
than 20 mm, was statistically significant (p < 0Ð001) and
explained 68% of variance. The transition between the
two sections of the relationship, even if progressive, was
relatively poorly defined. Thus, within the study period,
similar storm-flow amounts (2 mm and 3 mm, respec-
tively) were generated by two different autumn rain-
fall events of 10 mm and 52 mm. Conversely, a 33 mm
summer storm generated 10 mm storm-flow, whereas a
45 mm one only produced 3 mm storm-flow. This kind
of relationship between rainfall depth and storm-flow in
the Cal Rodó catchment, with two different sections, is
similar to the one described by Cosandey (1993) for two
humid Mediterranean catchments. Jordan (1992, 1994)
also found a two-section relationship in a temperate
catchment in Switzerland, but with a much lower thresh-
old, equivalent to a few millimetres of rainfall. The scatter
of the relationship reported by this author is also signifi-
cantly less than the one observed in Figure 4.
Storm-flow coefficient (defined as the ratio between
storm-flow and rainfall amounts) is often used to analyse
the hydrological response of a catchment to a single
rainfall event (e.g. Cappus, 1960; Ambroise, 1986), as
it gives an indication of the catchment response to
a rainfall event, independently of its magnitude. The
seasonal evolution of the storm-flow coefficient of the 57
floods in the Cal Rodó catchment is shown in Figure 5.
Over the 3-year study period, the storm-flow coefficient
showed a marked seasonal dynamic, with the highest
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781
Figure 5. Seasonal evolution of the storm-flow coefficient in the Cal Rodó
catchment. Dotted line shows the fit with a sinusoidal function of the day
of the year
values at the beginning of winter (or end of autumn)
and lowest values at the end of the summer period. A
sinusoidal fit of storm-flow coefficient on the day of
the year was significant (p < 0Ð001) and explained 25%
of variance with all the events included; and 39% of
variance, with only rainfall events larger than 20 mm.
A storm-flow coefficient higher than 40% was never
observed between March and October; reciprocally, a
coefficient lower than 1% was never observed outside
this period. Variability of storm-flow coefficient was
also higher during dry conditions, when it reached
typically two-orders of magnitude in summer, than during
wet seasons. The evolution of storm-flow coefficient
illustrates the seasonality of the hydrological response
of the Cal Rodó catchment, with predominantly an
alternance between a wet period (November to March),
when the catchment is hydrologically responsive, and a
dry period mainly in the summer, when the catchment
is much less reactive to any rainfall input. For the Cal
Rodó catchment, this seasonality of the hydrological
response is most likely to be related to the similar
seasonal evolutions of both soil moisture in the first
80 cm of soil described by Gallart et al. (2002) and of
water-table levels (Latron et al., 1999). However, over
the study period, the observed seasonality of the storm-
flow coefficient was also probably affected by rainfall
characteristics, as the largest rainfall events occurred
mainly during rather wet conditions.
To identify factors that might explain the variability of
storm-flow coefficients, these were compared with storm-
flow depth, rainfall depth and maximum intensity (in
20 min) and base-flow at the start of the event. Results
are shown in Figure 6.
The relationship between storm-flow (in mm) and
storm-flow coefficient (in %) shows (Figure 6a) the trend
that exists between these two variables. A power fit of
Hydrol. Process. 22, 775– 787 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/hyp

782
Figure 6. Relationship between storm-flow coefficient and (a) storm-flow depth, (b) rainfall depth, (c) maximum rainfall intensity and (d) base-flow
specific discharge (Cal Rodó catchment). Dotted lines show significant (p < 0Ð001) fits with a power function
storm-flow coefficient on storm-flow was statistically sig-
nificant (p < 0Ð001) and explained 93% of variance. The
increase in storm-flow coefficient with storm-flow was
however subject to some scattering, with, for example,
similar storm-flow coefficients around 30% associated to
storm-flow depths ranging from 5 mm to almost 40 mm.
On the other hand, storm-flow depths around 2 mm led
to runoff coefficients that varied from 4% to 15%. Thus,
even if larger storm-flow depths were roughly associ-
ated with higher storm-flow coefficients, the relation-
ship between the two variables was not as straightfor-
ward as expected, showing some non-linearity in the
rainfall–runoff relationship in the Cal Rodó catchment.
This non-linearity is plainly clear in the relation of
storm-flow coefficient with rainfall depth (Figure 6b).
In this case, a power fit was also significant (p <
0Ð001), but explained only 53% of variance. During
the study period, similar-sized rainfall events (around
50 mm) generated storm-flow coefficients that varied by
more than one-order of magnitude (3% to 48%), and
storm-flow coefficients of 1% resulted from rainfall depth
between 3 mm and 30 mm. In the Cal Rodó catchment,
the absence of a direct relationship between rainfall depth
and storm-flow coefficient, already observed in other
Mediterranean catchments (e.g. Cosandey, 1993; Piñol
et al., 1997; Ceballos and Schnabel, 1998), shows the
role of other factors in controlling the magnitude of the
hydrological response.
Copyright  2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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J. LATRON ET AL.
A factor commonly considered in the analysis of
the hydrological response of a catchment is rainfall
intensity, even though comprehensive studies by Hewlett
et al. (1977, 1984) demonstrate that its effect is totally
negligible for grassed or forested catchments. In the Cal
Rodó catchment, rainfall intensity (maximum value in
20 min) seems to have no effect on the magnitude of
the hydrological response at the outlet (Figure 6c), as no
significant relationship was observed between storm-flow
coefficients and maximum intensities ranging from 2 mm
h
1 to 80 mm h
1 . However, although rainfall intensity
had no significant influence at the catchment scale, the
highest intensities surely did affect runoff generation at
the local scale, especially in badlands areas (see Figure 1)
in which the infiltration capacity of the regolith is low
(Regüés and Gallart, 2004).
Finally, the relationship between the storm-flow coef-
ficient and base-flow at the start of the event (indicative
of the volume of the saturated zone within the catch-
ment, as shown by Latron and Gallart (2007)) demon-
strated the existence of a weak general positive trend
between the two variables (Figure 6d). A power fit of
storm-flow coefficient on base-flow discharge was signif-
icant (p < 0Ð001), but only explained 33% of variance.
As in the case of the relationship with rainfall depth,
the scatter of this relationship was high. Base-flow val-
ues around 10 l s
1 km
2 were, for example, associated
with storm-flow coefficient varying from 1% to more than
Hydrol. Process. 22, 775–787 (2008)
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VARIABILITY OF THE HYDROLOGICAL RESPONSE IN A MEDITERRANEAN CATCHMENT
50%, and similar storm-flow coefficients were obtained
with base-flow values ranging from 0Ð4 l s
1 km
2 to
7 l s
1 km
2 . In the Cal Rodó catchment, the relation-
ship between the storm-flow coefficient and the base-flow
was stronger than that observed by Cosandey (1993) in
a humid Mediterranean catchment. This relationship was
however much more variable than those described in tem-
perate climates (e.g. Cappus, 1960; Jordan, 1992).
To analyse in more detail the influence of the different
variables on the magnitude of the hydrological response,
a correlation analysis was performed with the storm-flow
coefficient and the specific discharge increment measured
for each flood. Two groups were differentiated in the
analysis, depending on the rainfall depth associated with
the flood. A threshold of P D 20 mm was chosen, as
it corresponded to a change in the rainfall–storm-flow
relationship (see Figure 4). Results given in Table III
show that the correlation between storm-flow coefficient
(Csf ) and rainfall depth (P) was only significant for large
events (P > 20 mm). On the contrary, the correlation
of Csf with base flow specific discharge (Qbs ) was
always significant, regardless of rainfall depth, even if
the slope of the Csf
Qbs linear regression was different
between the two groups (0Ð45 for rainfall events smaller
than 20 mm and 4Ð15 for larger ones). In all cases,
no significant correlation was observed between Csf
and mean or maximum rainfall intensities. For small
rainfall events, the response of the Cal Rodó catchment
depended mainly on base-flow at the start of the event
(i.e. on the volume of the saturated zone within the
catchment), whereas for larger rainfall events both base-
flow value and rainfall depth affected the magnitude of
the response. The nature of the correlations obtained
with Csf is similar to those found in temperate climate
(Cappus, 1960; Jordan, 1994), even if the correlation
coefficients are notably lower in the Cal Rodó catchment.
This may be explained by the greater seasonality of the
Mediterranean climate. Indeed, for the two groups defined
in the correlation analysis, none of the correlations was
still significant for summer events (July to September).
Considering the specific discharge increment (Qs ),
significant correlations were found (Table III) with rain-
fall depth (P) and rainfall maximum intensity (Imax ) for
events with P < 20 mm. For larger events, rainfall depth
was the main factor influencing discharge increment.
Strong correlation between Qs and P is in line with
Table III. Linear correlation coefficients between the storm-flow coefficient (Csf ), the increase of specific discharge (Qs ) and several
characteristics of the rainfall-runoff events observed in the Cal Rodó catchmenta
P < 20Ð0 mm
Csf (%)
Rainfall depth (mm) 0Ð35
Mean rainfall intensity (mm h
1 )
0Ð22
Maximum rainfall intensity (mm h
1 )
0Ð03
Base-flow specific discharge (l s
1 km
2 ) 0Ð69Ł
a Events have been separated into two groups, depending on their rainfall depth (P).
Ł Marked correlations are significant with p < 0Ð001.
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783
results described in temperate catchments (Hewlett et al.,
1977; Jordan, 1994), whereas correlation with Imax has,
on the contrary, not been reported in wetter conditions.
The fact that the Qs
Imax , correlation was significant
and slightly higher for summer events (R D 0Ð68) could
be due to the occurrence of infiltration excess runoff (sen-
sitive to rainfall intensity) on low permeable badlands
areas, scattered within the Cal Rodó catchment (Gallart
et al., 2005b).
Event scale spatial variability of the rainfall–runoff
relationship
To complete the analysis of the non-linearity of hydro-
logical response in the Cal Rodó catchment, the spatial
variability of the rainfall–runoff relationship was stud-
ied by comparison, at the event scale, of the response
of the Cal Rodó catchment with that of the Can Vila
sub-catchment (see Figure 1). Similar comparisons of
catchment/sub-catchment hydrological responses have
been frequently used to assess scale effects (e.g. Jordan,
1994; Cerdan et al., 2004), or to investigate spatial het-
erogeneities of runoff generation processes (Cosandey,
1993). This procedure may also help identify domi-
nant runoff processes and give an idea of the origins
of the non-linearity of the rainfall–runoff relationship.
Figure 7(a) shows the relationship between Cal Rodó and
Can Vila catchments’ storm-flow coefficients for a set of
55 floods with contrasted rainfall depth (P) and baseflow
discharge (Qbs ). Six different situations, in terms of P
and Qbs values, occurred:
(1) In dry conditions (Qbs < 15 l s
1 km
2 ), and for
small rainfall events (P < 15 mm), Cal Rodó storm-
flow coefficient (Csf
CR ) was almost always higher
than that of Can Vila catchment (Csf
CV ). Under these
conditions, a small response (Csf ³ 1%) was always
observed at the Cal Rodó outlet, but not always at the
Can Vila one.
(2) For larger rainfall events (15 mm < P < 30 mm),
under dry conditions, storm-flow coefficients ranged
from 1% to 10%. Csf
CR was higher than Csf
CV only
during intense rainfall (with Imax > 25 mm h
1 ). For
similar rainfall events with lower intensities, Csf
CR
was lower than Csf
CV .
(3) Finally, for rainfall events larger than 30 mm, the
response of the Cal Rodó catchment was, in dry
P > 20Ð0 mm
Qs (l s
1 km
2 ) Csf (%) Qs (l s
1 km
2 )
0Ð74Ł 0Ð76Ł 0Ð84Ł
0Ð25
0Ð32 0Ð10
0Ð56Ł
0Ð41
0Ð04
0Ð04 0Ð68Ł 0Ð33
Hydrol. Process. 22, 775– 787 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/hyp

784
conditions, always lower than or equal to that of Can
Vila (Csf
CR < Csf
CV ), even for intense rainfall. In
these conditions, storm-flow coefficients ranged from
4% to 40%.
(4) In wet conditions, with higher base-flow discharge
(Qbs > 15 l s
1 km
2 ), storm-flow coefficients asso-
ciated with small rainfall events varied between 5%
and 20%, and the response of the Cal Rodó catchment
was generally significantly lower than the response of
the Can Vila one.
(5) For larger rainfall events in wet conditions, the
relationship between the two catchments was sim-
ilar, with Csf
CR < Csf
CV . Storm-flow coefficients
ranged from 10% to 40%.
(6) Similar responses, with storm-flow coefficients higher
than 40%, were finally observed for both catchments
in the case of large rainfall depths (P > 30 mm) that
occurred in wet conditions.
The non-linearity between the hydrological response
of the Cal Rodó and Can Vila catchments is clearly
apparent in Figure 7(b), which shows a series of four
hydrographs observed during a representative transition
period from dry to wetter conditions. In addition to
the non-linearity of storm-flow coefficients between the
two catchments (Figure 7a), the changing shape of the
hydrographs during the 2-month period indicated a steady
change in dominant runoff processes.
In dry conditions (event 1), the hydrological response
was very limited in both catchments, with storm-flow
coefficients lower than 1%; the response of the Cal
Rodó catchment (Csf
CR D 0Ð9%) was, however, larger
than the response of the Can Vila one (Csf
CV D 0Ð1%).
Under these dry conditions, infiltration excess runoff
Figure 7. (a) Relationship between storm-flow coefficients in the Cal Rodó and in the Can Vila catchments. (b) Hydrographs observed in both
catchments from June to September, during a transition period from dry to wetter conditions (note that y axes are different in each graph). Numbers
1 to 4 in Figure 7(a) refer to storm-flow coefficients of the hydrographs shown in Figure 7(b)
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J. LATRON ET AL.
on scattered impervious badlands or rocky areas was
most probably the only active runoff process in response
to short intense storms (Imax D 23Ð1 mm h
1 for event
1), and difference in storm-flow coefficients resulted
mainly from the different size of such areas in the
two catchments (Figure 1 and Table I). The sharpness
of the hydrograph, the steep recession and the high
suspended sediment concentrations associated with dry
condition events (Gallart et al., 1998) also confirmed the
predominance of infiltration excess runoff on badlands or
rocky areas.
Under similar dry background conditions, but with a
significantly higher rainfall depth (P D 26 mm), observed
hydrological response in both catchments increased
(event 2). Cal Rodó storm-flow coefficient (Csf
CR D
3Ð5%) remained higher than in Can Vila (Csf
CV D
2Ð1%), but the difference between the two catchments
was not so marked. Cal Rodó hydrograph was still
sharp and peak-flow specific discharge was almost four
times that of Can Vila. The increasing and more similar
response of the two catchments (in terms of storm-flow
coefficient) and the slower recession limb in the Can Vila
catchment suggested that, under these conditions, runoff
generation resulted from a combination of infiltration and
saturation processes.
Event 3 occurred a couple of days after hydrograph 2,
and even if base-flow specific discharge was still rela-
tively low, both catchments were somewhat wet due to
the accumulated rainfall. Under these conditions, a large
rainfall event (P D 45 mm) produced a significant hydro-
logical response, which was higher in Can Vila (Csf
CV D
10Ð0%) than in Cal Rodó catchment (Csf
CR D 7Ð0%). At
the time of the wetting-up transition, peak-flow specific
discharge was higher in Can Vila than in Cal Rodó, and
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VARIABILITY OF THE HYDROLOGICAL RESPONSE IN A MEDITERRANEAN CATCHMENT
recessions were gentle in both catchments, suggesting the
dominant role of saturation processes in runoff forma-
tion. For this event, suspended sediment concentrations,
even if high, were not so extreme as for events in which
the infiltration excess process dominated (Gallart et al.,
1998).
At the end of the wetting-up period, both catchments
had reached relatively wet conditions and base-flow spe-
cific discharges were higher than 15 l s
1 km
2 before
event 4. A rainfall of 22 mm thus produced a large
response with storm-flow coefficients of 28% (Cal Rodó)
and 39% (Can Vila). Under these conditions, satura-
tion excess runoff process and subsurface processes most
probably prevailed over infiltration excess process, and
observed sediment concentrations were typically one-
order of magnitude lower in wet conditions. Field obser-
vations have confirmed that the relatively smaller propor-
tion of forested area in the Can Vila catchment (Table I)
favoured a prone and more extended saturation of downs-
lope areas, which in turn increased the hydrological
response. As for event 3, hydrographs observed in wet
conditions were relatively similar in both catchments but
with more sustained recessions.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The study of rainfall–runoff relationship in the Cal
Rodó catchment showed the marked non-linearity of the
hydrological response in Mediterranean conditions.
At the seasonal and monthly scale, over an 8-year
period, no simple relationship between rainfall and runoff
depths could be found. The similarity between the sea-
sonal trends of runoff deficit and reference evapotranspi-
ration suggested that evapotranspirative demand was a
factor that introduced most of the non-linearity observed
into the monthly rainfall–runoff relationship of the Cal
Rodó catchment.
The analysis of monthly values revealed the existence
of a threshold in the relationship between rainfall and
runoff depths. This threshold (equivalent to a monthly
rainfall of 80 mm) distinguished hydrological responses
lower (below the threshold) or higher (above the thresh-
old) than those usually observed in more humid catch-
ments.
The greater seasonality of the hydrological response of
the Cal Rodó catchment was also apparent at the event
scale, where the scatter of the relationship between rain-
fall depth and storm-flow was greater than for catchments
in temperate conditions. In the Cal Rodó catchment, the
storm-flow coefficient had a clear seasonal pattern with
an alternance between a wet period, when the catchment
was hydrologically responsive, and a dry period in sum-
mer, when the catchment was much less reactive to any
rainfall.
The relationship between the storm-flow coefficient
and other variables commonly considered in hydrol-
ogy (rainfall depth and maximum intensity, base-flow)
showed that observed correlations were of the same kind
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785
as those observed for humid conditions, even if corre-
lation coefficients were notably lower. The correlation
between the specific discharge increment and maximum
rainfall intensity found in the Cal Rodó catchment for
small rainfall events (especially during summer storms,
with intensities of up to 80 mm h
1 in 20 min) was not
found under wetter conditions and should be related to
the occurrence of infiltration excess runoff on badlands
areas.
Comparison between Cal Rodó and Can Vila (sub-
catchment) hydrological responses to a series of rainfall
events has finally highlighted the existing spatial hetero-
geneity of the rainfall–runoff relationship at the small
catchment scale. Although interpretations in terms of
runoff processes remain delicate, as hydrographs were
the only available information, heterogeneities between
the two catchments seem to be related to changes in the
ratio between infiltration excess and saturation processes
in runoff formation. In summer dry conditions, the hydro-
logical response to short intense rainstorms was larger
in the Cal Rodó catchment (with a higher proportion of
badlands areas) than in the Can Vila one. The low runoff
coefficients and the high sediment concentrations asso-
ciated to these runoff events, as well as the correlation
observed for small events between rainfall intensity and
the specific discharge increment, point to a dominant role
of infiltration excess processes in these conditions. At
the contrary, during wet conditions, larger runoff coeffi-
cients observed at the Can Vila outlet, gentle recessions
and relatively small sediment concentrations associated
to runoff events indicate the prevailing role of saturation
excess processes.
These spatial and temporal non-linearities of the
rainfall–runoff relationship observed in the Cal Rodó
catchment and reported in other Mediterranean catch-
ments (e.g. Cosandey, 1993; Ceballos and Schnabel,
1998; Cosandey et al., 2005) have ultimately direct impli-
cations on hydrological modelling. Indeed, as noted by
Gan et al. (1997), the non-linearity of the rainfall–runoff
relationship severely complicates the modelling of dry
catchments because of the greater variability of hydro-
logical processes. As a result, modelling of the hydrolog-
ical response of Mediterranean catchments (see Beven,
2002, for a review) is a particularly difficult problem, as
stressed by Piñol et al. (1997). In the Cal Rodó catch-
ment, modelling works using a fully distributed model
(Anderton et al., 2002a,b; Latron et al., 2003) showed
the difficulties of reproducing correctly with a single set
of parameters the different kind of responses observed at
the outlet.
As a complement of the approach adopted in this study,
more process-orientated research is needed in Mediter-
ranean hydrology to better identify runoff generation
mechanisms, as a way to define more flexible model
structures that can incorporate seasonal changes. The final
objective should be to properly simulate a whole year of
flow data with a single set of parameters, and to reduce
the difficulties of reproducing the first runoff events that
follow the summer dry period.
Hydrol. Process. 22, 775– 787 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/hyp

786 J. LATRON ET AL.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was conducted with the support of
the PIRIHEROS (REN2003-08678/HID) and CANOA
(CGL2004-04919-C02-01) projects funded by the Span-
ish Government, and the TEMPQSIM (EVK1-CT-2002-
00112) project funded by the European Commission. J.
Latron was the beneficiary of a CSIC research contract
(I3P programme). Support provided by O. Avila and X.
Huguet during fieldwork and data acquisition is acknowl-
edged. The authors would also like to acknowledge the
helpful comments made by C. Cosandey and another
anonymous reviewer.
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