174

Research Needs and Applications to Reduce Erosion and Sedimentation in Tropical Steeplands (Proceedings
of the Fiji Symposium, June 1990): IAHS-AISH Publ. No.192,1990.

HHislope erosion, sedimentation, and relief inversion in SE

Brazil: Bananal, SP
ANA L. COELHO NETTO & NELSON F. FERNANDES
Department of Geography, Universidade Federal
do Rio de Janeiro 21910, Brazil

ABSTRACT Hillslope concavities (or hollows) showing

highly discontinuous subsurface structures constitute an
important site for channel incision by seepage erosion.
Channel development occurs mainly in the convergence flow
zone along the topographic hollow axis and may trigger
slope failures, particularly on steep hillside slopes or
headslopes. Adjacent drainage systems with contrasting
valley floor elevations would provide conditions for
local variations of ground water level so that incision
into the weathered bedrock may contribute to changing the
subsurface flow routes due to ground water piracy. By
this way, positive pore pressures may increase at the
seepage face to extend slope retreat toward the watershed
divides. Such a self-driven instability may in turn lead
to the destruction of watershed divides and, by
extension, to the capture of neighboring channels.

INTRODUCTION

It has been proposed that the hilly lowlands of the SE Plateau

followed a discontinuous evolutionary pattern during the Upper
Quaternary with cycles of instability at regional and local scales
(Meis, 1977; Meis & Monteiro, 1979; Meis & Moura, 1984). The
authors propose that climate-induced episodic erosion-sedimentation
on the hillslopes was partially responsible for the development of
concave-up amphitheater slope morphology called "rampa" (or hollow,
as defined by Hack and Goodlett, i960). The recurrence of processes
within the "rampa" reshaped slope forms and reworked their deposits,
producing the so-called "rampa complexes". Stratigraphie sections
show that present day slope concavities do not necessarily show a
correspondence with the paleotopography as a consequence of relief
inversion throughout recent geologic time (Meis & Moura, 1984). The
latter authors suggest that major inversion occurred by headward
slope retreat and consequent destruction of the watershed divides
and/or by the lateral mobilization of the hollow axis.
Meis (1977) had previously suggested that the coalescence of
"rampa complexes" due to the destruction of watershed divides
provided an increase of sediment supply to rivers under drier
climatic conditions relative to present (post-glacial) times.
Hence, the formation of thick alluvial fills (up to 20 m thick in
the study region) has disorganized the Pleistocene drainage network
and produced a kind of drowned topography. Recent dating of such
fills indicates that this aggradation cycle occurred in the Early
Holocene and lasted about 1,000 years (from about 9.500 to 8,500
years B.P.; Dietrich et al., 1986). The regional channel network
has been renewed during the Holocene: river dissection along the
 175

main valleys led new channels (or gullies) to form and to

progressively expand through unchanneled valley bottoms of tributary .
"rampa complexes". The expansion of the regional network, however,
has not been uniformly distributed over space and time: while some
valleys have degraded others are still aggrading.
The subsurface structures of "rampa complexes" differ from one
place to another as a consequence of local base level changes due to
aggradation or degradation processes along the main valleys (Meis &
Moura, 1984). Where hillslope concavities empty onto aggrading
valley bottoms, a superposition of distinct colluvial layers
prevails; an overlapping succession of colluvial layers predominates
on slope concavities tributary to degraded valleys. Colluvial
mantles usually thicken toward the axis of slope concavities, where
colluvial discontinuities tend to increase due to alternation of
local cut and fill processes during the recent geological time (Meis
& Moura, 1984; Fernandes, 1989). In this paper we discuss the role
of concave slope morphology together with colluvial discontinuities
in controlling present-day hydrologie processes and channel erosion
using as a basis our field measurements and direct observations.
The analysis aims to provide a conceptual model for the explanation
of relief inversion.

STUDY REGION AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

Field studies have been conducted in the Municipio de Bananal (state

of Sao Paulo), located in the middle valley of river Paraiba do Sul
(Fig. 1). Landforms are primarily controlled by lithology and rock
structure of the underlying Precambrian geologic basement which is
mostly composed of banded gneisses, schists, quartzites, and
amphibolites. Rock units strike NE with foliation dipping 20 -
40 NW. Main valleys have been dissected by strike channels along
weakly resistant rock units. Tributary valleys follow both the
bedrock strike (NE-SW) and/or distinct joint settings with
predominant direction toward NW-SE.
Local baselevel, controlled by the underlying bedrock or by the
discontinuous pattern of aggradational and degradational processes,
would explain the presence of a series of hanging valleys and the
spatial variation of relief amplitude over the region. A
conspicuous feature is given by the rolling convex-concave
topography with a hilltop altitudinal profile gently inclined toward
river Paraiba. Avelar et al. indicate that hillslope concavities
cover about 19$ of the regional landscape, being 11$ controlled by
rock structure (joints) and 8% non-structural features. Major slope
concavities are usually fed by minor ones so that the concave-up
slope geometry tends to repeat over different scales. Minor
structural concavities can develop as hanging valleys near the
watershed divides, while others develop at grade to the adjacent
ones, which, in turn, are tributary to the main valleys.
The region is presently subject to mesothermic climatic
conditions (annual average, 20 C) with mean annual precipitation
of 1500 mm usually concentrated in the summer when monthly totals
may exceed 500 mm and daily rains may attain 80-100 mm (Fernandes,
1989). The primary rainforest was preserved until the mid-l8th
 176

FIG.l Location of study region.

century, when it was replaced by coffee plantations; and late in the

19th century, rangelands spread over the region. The rangeland
environment favored the expansion of huge anthills and tunnels made
by "Sauva" ants. These features control the entry of overland flow
into the soil, supporting pipeflow generation and water recharge for
the subsurface saturated zones (Coelho Netto et al., 1988; Deus, in
prep.). These authors emphasize that present gullying through the
"rampa complexes" constitutes the erosive response to such
environmental changes.

HYDROLOGY OF "RAMPA COMPLEXES"

The concave-up slope units are usually seen as a convergence flow

zone for both water and sediments (Dunne, 1970; Anderson & Burt,
1978; Tsukamoto et al., 1982; Dietrich et al., 1986; Wilson &
Dietrich, 1987; Coelho Netto et al., I988; and others). While some
 177

authors emphasize that increasing soil moisture into the topographic

hollows results from lateral contributions of subsurface flows
(Dunne, 1970; Anderson & Burt, 1978; Coelho Netto et al., 1988),
others indicate an upflow route from deeper saturated zones (Wilson
& Dietrich, 1987). In any case, the resulting steepening of the
hydraulic gradient would explain the recurrence of cut and fill
processes within the present-day or paleotopographic hollow, as
shown in the subsurface structures of the "rampa complexes". Some
authors have previously suggested a relationship between colluvial
discontinuities and present-day hillslope processes on a qualitative
basis (Pearce et al., 1983; Meis et al., 1985).
Detailed hydrological studies were carried out in a typical
"rampa complex" at Fazenda Sao Joao where a small channel head has
stabilized at the lower end of the hollow axis. The present
topography is a non-structural feature which results from relief
inversion due to the lateral mobilization of the previous
topographic hollow axis (Fig. 2 ) . The paleochannel head shown in
this figure indicates that inversion was associated with the
fingertip growth of an adjacent channel trunk connected to the
regional network. The paleochannel backward retreat triggered local

FIG.2 Fazenda Sao Joao: present topography; subsurface

structure of the "rampa complex" and location of
tensiometer sites.
 178

slope failures which reshaped the previous form. Twelve tensiometer

nests were installed at different slope positions. Tensiometer
depths were guided by the previous stratigraphie survey described
above (Fig. 2 ) . Readings were conducted twice a day for about one
year (1986-1987).
Fernandes (1989) has already shown that most colluvial layers do
not differ significantly in their physical and mechanical
characteristics (texture, porosity, bulk density, shear strength,
among others). The author detected, however, a strong discontinuity
between the coarse alluvium-colluvium deposit (hillslope sediment
deposit into the paleochannel) and the underlying saprolite. This
explains the secondary role played by the colluvial discontinuities
on the hydrologie hillslope responses, particularly during wet
periods, as described previously in the work by Coelho Netto et al.
(1988) and Fernandes (1989). The authors stress that hillslope
morphology controls the convergence of lateral subsurface flows into
the hollow to support a saturated zone at the lower end. The
saturated wedge fluctuates vertically from 1- to 3-m depth during
drier periods to near or at the surface in wetter periods.
Figure 3 shows the expansion and contraction of pressure head at
200-cm depth during the rainy season (December 1986). An increase
of pressure gradient near the present channel head is clearly
observed. Temporal variations of the saturated wedge closely follow
the rainfall distribution. The preferential expansion of the
saturated wedge toward the western watershed divide reveals the
influence of the paleotopography on hillslope hydrology, at least
for wetter periods. Yet, the pressure head can be seen to tend to
slightly increase near the divides.

FIG.3 Pressure head at Sao Joao "rampa complex"

recorded at 2 m deep, December 1986.
 179

CHANNEL EROSION AND SLOPE RETREAT

Previous studies conducted in Bananal and surrounding areas have

shown that gullying predominates along the topographic axis of the
"rampa complexes" in 65% of observed cases (Oliveira & Meis, 1985).
Gullies have developed in connection to the regional channel network
and also separately within minor slope concavities (Fig. 4-A).
According to the authors, channel incision into thick alluvial fills
along the main valleys exposed deep vertical walls through which
exfiltration of subsurface flow and seepage erosion led new channels
to advance headward through tributary "rampa complexes".
Channel trunk and tip growth progress toward the uppermost
hillslope concavities in response to critical pressure head at the

FIG.4 Hillslope degradation (sketch): (A) subsurface

structure of a "rampa complex" and location of shallow
subsurface flow path (SSF); channel systems connected and
disconnected to the regional network; (B) progression of
channel erosion and slope retreat at different times (tl,
t2); relief inversion and capture of hanging river
valley.
 180

very end of the topographic hollow axis, as shown in the previous

section. Sapping predominates at the base of the highly permeable
alluvium-colluvium deposits which may lie over older dense colluvium
or weathered bedrock (Figs. 2 and 4). Coelho Netto et al. U988)
measured channel retreat_at an average rate of about 1076 m
year through a 0.l6-km hillslope amphitheater connected to a
tributary of the river Bananal. As channel incision progresses into
the weathered bedrock, exfiltration of deeper ground water tends to
accelerate erosion rates and channel retreat. The extension of
channels connected to the regional network correlates well with
morphological parameters including size, mean gradient, and hollow
density of hillslope amphitheaters at a regional scale (Oliveira &
Coelho Netto, 1989).
Channel initiation separate from the regional network is not yet
clearly understood. However, field observations show that
discontinuous channels develop by seepage erosion, especially where
hanging valley axes of minor structural concavities drop down to
adjacent valleys. Sapping develops along joints and tunneling
progresses through weakly resistant weathered rock bedding. This
suggests that rock structure possibly controls subsurface flow, paths
and the generation of critical pore pressures that cause erosion.
As excavation advances into the weathered bedrock, the tunnel roof
tends to collapse and, then, open channels are formed. In the
present rangeland environment, surficial washing processes also
contribute to channel erosion.
Both channel systems described above may interconnect with time
so that the regional network tends to expand throughout the
uppermost slope concavities of the drainage headzone (Fig. l\-B).
This figure illustrates other field observations relevant to the
interactions between channel erosion and slope retreat such as :
(a) channel incision can trigger slope failures, particularly on
adjacent steep hillside slopes or headslopes; (b) then slope failure
can destroy the watershed divides and cause relief inversion by its
backward advance into adjacent "rampa complexes", as mentioned
earlier; (c) the backward retreat of the watershed divides may, in
turn, lead to capture of a neighboring channel and its corresponding
drainage system.
River capture is seen particularly between adjacent drainage
systems which develop at distinct valley floor elevations (Fig. 5).
The main channels, river Barreiro de Baixo and river Campo Alegre,
run in parallel along the bedrock strike. The Barreiro de Baixo
valley floor has a lower elevation and therefore higher relief
amplitude relative to the adjacent Campo Alegre drainage area. The
Campo Alegre river capture by Barreiro de Baixo tributary channel
has started a degradation cycle upstream of the capture section,
probably in response to the lowered baselevel. On the other hand,
the downstream river channel is being filled with sediments
converging from hlllslopes. It is not clear how far such a lowered
baselevel can propagate its effects both upstream and downstream of
the capture section. However, one may at least hypothesize that
relief inversion and river capture should promote an increasing
sediment supply to the captured drainage network system.
 181

FIG.5 Topographic map (1:50,000) of adjacent drainage

systems showing distinct baselevel controls.

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

Field insights discussed here emphasize the importance of both

shallow and deeper groundwater flows in controlling the
modifications of landforms in time. The geomorphic results of
seepage erosion include both formation of channels and network
growth and slope retreat throughout hillsides and headslopes.
Shell-shaped concave-up forms can get wider and deeper by the
activity of slumps or landslides with failure planes following the
rock foliation. Progression of hillslope degradation into the
weathered bedrock tends to catalyze the geomorphic work responsible
for major changes of landform evolution, such as relief inversion
and river capture. We hypothesize that relief inversion and capture
of adjacent drainage systems result from increasing seepage
pressures and basal erosion near the slope divides. Then slope
failures in the upper portion should promote the backward retreat of
the hillslope divides down into the adjacent valley. Dissection of
hillslopes due to lowered baselevel (capturing systems) should lead
to changes of groundwater flow paths favoring flow discharge at the
exposed seepage face. However, contrasting valley floor elevations
between the two systems seems to be the required condition to
provide such a groundwater piracy model for the explanation of river
capture. Certainly, we need more detailed field investigations to
understand ground water flow paths and how relief inversion can
affect hillslope and fluvial sedimentation.
 182

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