Z Mount Ney 2002

Sedimentology (2002) 49, 805–833
Stratigraphic evolution and preservation of aeolian dune

and damp/wet interdune strata: an example from the Triassic
Helsby Sandstone Formation, Cheshire Basin, UK
N IGEL P. MOUNTNEY and DAVID B. THOMPSON
School of Earth Sciences and Geography, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK
(E-mail: n.p.mountney@keele.ac.uk)
ABSTRACT
New and previously published models of wet aeolian system evolution form a
spectrum of types that may be explained in terms of aeolian dune dynamics, rate
of water table rise and/or periodicity of interdune flooding. This is illustrated
with an example from the Mid-Triassic (Anisian) Helsby Sandstone Formation,
Cheshire, UK. Lenses of damp and wet interdune strata exhibit an intertonguing,
transitional relationship with the toe-sets of overlying aeolian dune units. This
signifies dune migration that was contemporaneous with water table-controlled
accumulation in adjacent interdunes. Downwind changes in the geometry and
facies of the interdune units indicate periodic expansion and contraction of the
interdunes in response to changes in the elevation of the groundwater table and
episodic flooding, during which accumulation of dune strata continued
relatively uninterrupted. This contrasts with other models for accumulation in
wet aeolian systems where interdune flooding is associated with a cessation in
aeolian bedform climbing and the formation of a bypass or erosional
supersurface. Architectural panels document the detailed stratigraphy in
orientations both parallel and perpendicular to aeolian transport direction,
enabling a quantitative three-dimensional reconstruction of genetically related
aeolian dune and interdune elements. Sets of aeolian dune strata are composed
of grainflow and translatent wind-ripple strata and are divided by a hierarchy of
bounding surfaces originating from oblique migration of superimposed dunes
over slipfaceless, sinuous-crested parent bedforms, together with lee-slope
reactivation under non-equilibrium flow conditions. Silty-mudstone and
sandstone interdune units are characterized by wind ripple-, wavy- and
subaqueous wave ripple-laminae, desiccation cracks, mud flakes, raindrop
imprints, load casts, flutes, intraformational rip-up clasts and vertebrate and
invertebrate footprint impressions and trackways. These units result from
accumulation on a substrate that varied from dry- through damp- to wet-surface
conditions. Interdune ponds were flooded by either fluvial incursions or rises in
groundwater table and were periodically subject to gradual desiccation and
reflooding. Red silty-mudstone beds of subaqueous origin pass laterally into
horizontally laminated wind-ripple beds indicating a progressive transition
from wet- through damp- to dry-surface conditions within a single interdune.
Keywords Aeolian, bedform, Cheshire, Helsby, interdune, Triassic.
INTRODUCTION capillary fringe (Kocurek & Havholm, 1993).

Interdune areas in such systems exhibit a variety
In wet aeolian systems, the water table is shallow, of sedimentary structures ranging from subaqu-
and the surfaces of interdune flats are within the eous current and wave ripples, wavy laminae and
Ó 2002 International Association of Sedimentologists 805
806 N. P. Mountney and D. B. Thompson
contorted bedding (wet-surface conditions) the spatial relationships between wet interdune
through adhesion structures, bioturbation struc- areas and adjoining aeolian dunes, but are limited
tures and desiccation cracks (damp-surface con- in revealing long-term temporal changes in dune–
ditions) to wind-ripple lamination (dry-surface interdune dynamics. In particular, relationships
conditions) (Ahlbrandt & Fryberger, 1981; Hun- between ongoing aeolian dune migration and
ter, 1981; Kocurek, 1981a). This study examines changes in water-table 1evel remain poorly docu-
spatial relationships between aeolian dune and mented.
adjoining dry, damp and wet interdune strata Preservation of wet aeolian systems in the rock
within the Mid-Triassic (Anisian) Helsby Sand- record requires that sediments accumulate in
stone Formation (Benton et al., 1994) of the response to a gradual rise in the water table while
Cheshire Basin, UK, and demonstrates that the dunes continue to migrate downwind (Kocurek &
system represents a small-scale, climbing, wet-erg Havholm, 1993). The angle of climb (cf. Rubin &
environment. A combination of facies and archi- Hunter, 1982) of both aeolian bedforms and
tectural element analysis demonstrates that accu- adjoining interdune flats is controlled by the rates
mulation was controlled by periodic fluvial of both water-table rise and downwind migration
flooding and oscillations in the level of the water of the bedforms. If interdune strata within climb-
table concurrent with dune migration. ing wet aeolian systems are to maintain a uniform
This work integrates a new model that accounts thickness over large distances, then the aeolian
for the behavioural development and mode of sediment budget must remain in balance with the
preservation of wet aeolian systems with models rate of water-table rise. If this balance is not
published previously by Kocurek & Havholm maintained, dunes will either expand to fill the
(1993), Crabaugh & Kocurek (1993) and Carr- interdunes (ultimately creating a dry system) or
Crabaugh & Kocurek (1998). Although previous contract, resulting in expansion of the interdune
models represent end-members for accumulation areas (Crabaugh & Kocurek, 1993; Kocurek &
and preservation, this work outlines the possible Havholm, 1993).
spectrum of stratigraphic styles lying between Although ancient examples of wet aeolian
these end-members with reference to examples in systems are widely reported, many studies do
the Helsby Sandstone Formation. Additionally, not discuss the lateral extent and continuity of
this work provides a case study of an ancient wet damp or wet interdune facies. Studies document-
aeolian system conducted to a level of detail not ing damp and wet interdune sedimentology and
widely attempted hitherto. Data are presented in geometry include those of the Barun Goyot
architectural panels that provide a quantitative Formation, Mongolia (Gradziński & Jerzykiewicz,
and quasi-three-dimensional representation of 1974), the Dala Sandstone, Sweden (Pulvertaft,
the succession. This unequivocally establishes 1985), the Leman Sandstone Formation, southern
lateral relationships between adjacent fluvial, North Sea (Glennie, 1990) and, of particular
aeolian dune and interdune environments within relevance to this study, the Helsby Sandstone
the erg-margin environment. This study provides Formation of NW England (Thompson, 1970a,b)
a test for models of such systems based largely on and the Ormskirk Sandstone Formation of the
blind correlation between isolated one-dimen- East Irish Sea Basin (Meadows & Beach, 1993;
sional log sections either at outcrop or in the Herries & Cowan, 1997). Despite this documenta-
subsurface, and forms a good outcrop analogue tion, it is unclear how damp and wet interdune
for hydrocarbon reservoir heterogeneity studies. facies in these systems relate to adjacent dune
facies over distances in excess of a few tens of
metres.
BACKGROUND The best-documented example of a climbing
wet aeolian system is the Jurassic Entrada
There have been numerous studies of modern wet Sandstone, interpreted by Kocurek (1981a,b) as
aeolian systems and their deposits: Guerrero the product of dune migration contemporaneous
Negro, Mexico (Fryberger et al., 1990), Dhahran, with a progressive and gradual rise in the water
Saudi Arabia (Fryberger et al., 1983), Padre table (Fig. 1a). This climbing wet-erg model was
Island, Texas (Hummel & Kocurek, 1984; Kocurek re-evaluated by Crabaugh & Kocurek (1993), who
et al., 1992), parts of the Namib Sand Sea (Lan- also recognized four supersurfaces formed by
caster & Teller, 1988), White Sands, New Mexico bypassing and/or deflation during periods of
(McKee, 1966; McKee & Moiola, 1975; Simpson & static or falling water table. These models for
Loope, 1985). These studies provide snapshots of the Entrada require a moderate-to-high external
Ó 2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 805–833
Dune–interdune sedimentation 807
Fig. 1. Contrasting models for the

accumulation of wet interdune
strata. (a) Wet aeolian system with
dunes and interdunes climbing
under the influence of a progres-
sively rising water table. (b) Wet
aeolian system with non-climbing
dunes migrating across extensive
interdune flats. Modified in part
from Crabaugh & Kocurek (1993).
supply of sand in order to build and maintain model (e.g. Entrada Sandstone, Utah) requires
dunes as migration and climbing occur at the moderate–high sediment supply in balance with
same time as water table rise. Earlier, McKee & the creation of water table-controlled preserva-
Moiola (1975) proposed a similar wet-climbing tion space. The non-climbing model (e.g. White
interdune model for the White Sands dunefield, Sands, New Mexico) requires low sediment sup-
New Mexico, but were unable to prove the lateral ply and very low rates of creation of water table-
persistence of individual interdune horizons; controlled preservation space.
neither did they demonstrate that interdune
horizons were climbing with respect to the depo-
sitional surface. GEOLOGICAL SETTING
In more recent studies of the White Sands
dunefield and of the Jurassic Wingate Sandstone, The Cheshire Basin, north-west England, is a
Utah, Simpson & Loope (1985) and Loope & faulted and folded half-graben (Chadwick, 1997)
Simpson (1992) argue that continuous, laterally filled with Permo-Jurassic deposits of largely
extensive wet interdune strata are diagnostic of continental origin (Fig. 2). This study documents
ergs characterized by low sand supply and small, the stratigraphic architecture of part of the Mid-
often spatially isolated dunes (the unsaturated Triassic (Anisian) Helsby Sandstone Formation of
and metasaturated systems of Wilson, 1971). the Runcorn area of the basin. This unit, the
They argue that metasaturated wet-erg systems, uppermost formation of the Sherwood Sandstone
characterized by very slow, possibly punctuated Group, is a well-exposed aeolian–fluvial succes-
episodes of water-table rise, require that dune sion that comprises three members (Fig. 3;
strata will only accumulate as limited water table- Thompson, 1970a,b; Warrington et al., 1980).
controlled preservation space becomes available. The basal Thurstaston Member comprises largely
Hence, sediment bypassing is likely to dominate, aeolian sandstone. The central Delamere Member
and the rock record will show amalgamated wet (Fig. 4) comprises predominantly fluvial sand-
interdune deposits and thin, complex sets of stone and pebbly sandstone, with subordinate
aeolian cross-strata separated by many minor but nevertheless laterally extensive intervals of
unconformities. Such stratigraphic architecture aeolian strata. The upper Frodsham Member
reflects the migration of isolated, aeolian bed- comprises distinctive, predominantly large-scale,
forms across wet interdune flats where the angle cross-bedded sets of aeolian dune strata (Thomp-
of climb (determined by the rates of migration and son, 1969). This study focuses on the stratigraphic
water-table rise) fluctuates around zero over architecture of the central Delamere Member in
prolonged periods, thus generating a bypass the Runcorn area, and especially the laterally
supersurface (Fig. 1b; Kocurek & Havholm, 1993). extensive, friable, yellowish aeolian sandstones
Thus, two competing end-member models have and associated red mudstone horizons, here
been proposed previously to explain the accumu- termed the Frogsmouth Unit. These beds, first
lation and preservation of damp/wet interdune described by Strahan (1882), were attributed to a
strata in wet aeolian systems. The climbing desert origin by Maidwell (1914a, 1915). They are
Fig. 2. (a) Onshore outcrop of Permo-Triassic rocks in central and northern England and Wales. (b) Study area at
Beacon Hill, Runcorn. (c) Plan of Frogsmouth Quarry with individual study panels labelled.
underlain and overlain by largely fluvial units, the DATA AND METHODS
Beacon Hill and Beetle Rock Units, of the type
described by Thompson (1970a,b). Regional pal- A series of natural outcrops, roadcuts and disused
aeocurrent data for the aeolian and fluvial facies of quarries reveals the internal architecture of the
the basin were provided by Thompson (1970a,b), Delamere Member. The largest quarry (Frog-
whereas a general palaeogeography was given by smouth Quarry) exposes a 400-m-long, 25-m-high
Warrington & Ivimey-Cook (1992, p. 99) and section (Fig. 2), with adjacent quarries providing
Meadows & Beach (1993, fig. 8). additional exposure. All quarry faces are vertical
Fig. 3. Stratigraphic subdivision of

the Permo-Triassic fill of the
northern Cheshire Basin. Mapped
units within the Delamere Member
of the Runcorn district are assigned
names on an informal basis (Beacon
Hill Unit, Frogsmouth Unit and
Beetle Rock Unit). Ages from
Harland et al. (1990).
Fig. 4. Log section for the study

interval at Frogsmouth Quarry. Pal-
aeocurrent data shown for the Bea-
con Hill, Frogsmouth and Beetle
Rock Units. Log is a composite of
data measured from Runcorn
Boundary Quarry, Frogsmouth
Quarry (Panel H) and Highlands
Road Quarries.
and mostly arranged into right-angled bays, the three-dimensional geometry of genetically related
trend of which exposes aeolian strata both paral- aeolian and interdune architectural elements to
lel and perpendicular to maximum dip of the be established to an accuracy not possible with
cross-beds. This excellent exposure enables the simpler patterns of outcrop.
Data from the quarry sections have been com- fuller description of aeolian dune, interdune and
piled as a series of two-dimensional panels, each fluvial facies of the Helsby Sandstone Formation
relating to a single planar face. Each panel records can be found in Thompson (1969, 1970a,b).
distinctive sedimentary structures and stratifica-
tion types, the lateral and vertical extent of facies,
Aeolian dune facies
the spatial arrangement of sets of strata and their
bounding surfaces and dip-azimuth readings from Two facies associated with aeolian dune genetic
cross-bedded units and bounding surfaces. These elements are recognized in the Frogsmouth Unit.
data are used to determine dune morphology and Facies A1 comprises low- to moderate-angle,
transport direction using methods outlined by cross-stratified translatent strata that lack internal
Rubin & Hunter (1983) and Rubin (1987a). ripple-form lamination (Hunter, 1977, 1981).
Angular relationships within and between sets Sometimes, this facies contains dish-shaped ver-
were measured precisely using an Abney level tebrate indenter (footprint) marks (Fig. 6a; Lewis
[according to the procedures of Kocurek et al. & Titheridge, 1978; Pollard, 1981; Allen, 1989;
(1991; Mountney et al. (1999) and Mountney & Øxnevad, 1991) and commonly shows soft-sedi-
Howell (2000)]. This methodology is important ment deformation (Rice, 1939; McKee et al., 1971;
because the angular relationships between sets Doe & Dott, 1980). This facies accumulated
are often small (< 1°). All dimensional measure- through the migration of aeolian ripples either
ments on the panels are accurate to 0Æ1 m in both down or across the lower flanks of dunes. Facies
lateral and vertical dimensions. Angles calculated A2 comprises mostly moderate- to high-angle,
from the data are accurate to within 0Æ25°, which cross-stratified grainflow strata (Fig. 6b; Hunter,
is considered to be sufficient for a system in 1977, 1981) and accumulated by successive sand
which individual sets rarely exceed 3–4 m in avalanches on dune lee slopes at, or close to, the
thickness and 40–50 m in lateral extent. angle-of-repose; this facies commonly overlies
Panels were collated to form a composite and merges downdip with facies A1.
correlation panel that was manipulated by com-
puter to create a pseudo-three-dimensional view
Interdune facies
of stratigraphic architecture (Fig. 5). This enabled
individual sets to be traced in three-dimensional Three facies associated with interdune genetic
space and established the three-dimensional elements are recognized in the Frogsmouth Unit.
geometry of bed sets relative to one another. Facies ID1 comprises subhorizontal, translatent,
These data were used for comparison with output sandstone laminae that lack internal rippleform
from a computer model (Rubin, 1987a) that lamination (Fig. 6b; Hunter, 1977, 1981). This
depicts three-dimensional bedform architecture. facies is usually gradationally overlain by facies
The modelling procedure repeatedly iterated A1 and is most easily distinguished from facies
individual forward models using adjusted input A1 because it interfingers laterally with facies ID2
parameters until a best fit between the modelled and ID3. Facies ID1 accumulated through the
and observed data was achieved. The high level migration of aeolian ripples across a dry inter-
of stratigraphic detail obtained from the outcrop dune surface. Facies ID2 (Figs 6c and 7a) compri-
has enabled the bed set architecture to be des- ses low-angle, centimetre-scale, wavy sandstone
cribed quantitatively and in three dimensions. laminae that formed through subaqueous modifi-
This means that the geometrical reconstruction of cation of former aeolian wind ripples, the sub-
the original bedform and interdune morphology aerial modification of earlier subaqueous wave
and migration behaviour, obtained as part of the ripples, evaporite precipitation or algal influence
modelling process, is likely to be the only geolo- (Fryberger et al., 1979, 1983, 1988; Ahlbrandt &
gically reasonable explanation of the observed Fryberger, 1981; Kocurek, 1981a; Hummel &
bed set architecture (for discussion, see Rubin, Kocurek, 1984) or the adhesion of aeolian sand
1987a; p.14). grains to a damp substrate (adhesion ripples;
Kocurek & Fielder, 1982). Facies ID2 often
exhibits a centimetre- to decimetre-scale lateral
SEDIMENTARY FACIES and vertical intertonguing with overlying dune
strata of facies A1 and represents deposition in
Detailed facies descriptions and interpretations damp, water table-controlled interdunes. Facies
are beyond the scope of this paper. Hence, only a ID3 is distinctive, being composed of bright-red
summary of the main facies types is provided. A mudstone with a minor silt and fine-sand fraction
Fig. 5. Composite diagram of architectural panels depicting the stratigraphic architecture of the Delamere Member as observed in Frogsmouth Quarry. Set
geometries, bounding surface relationships, facies and palaeocurrent data are used to reconstruct the original environment of deposition. Individual panel
Dune–interdune sedimentation
names are referred to throughout the text.

811
Fig. 5. Continued.

Fig. 5. Continued.

Fig. 5. Continued.

Fig. 6. (a) Low-angle, cross-lamin-

ated translatent strata (aeolian
wind-ripple strata – facies A1) with
indenter mark (arrowed). (b)
Cross-stratified set of aeolian strata
characterized by predominantly
grainflow strata (facies A2). Several
reactivation surfaces are evident
(arrowed), and the base of the set
exhibits minor deformation. Set is
overlain by horizontally laminated
translatent strata (aeolian wind-rip-
ple strata – facies ID1).
(Fig. 7b). This horizontally and finely laminated ments. Facies F1 is common and comprises very
facies is characterized by abundant desiccation fine- to medium-grained sandstone that is hori-
cracks, rare mud curls, raindrop imprints and zontally laminated and displays primary current
groove marks (Ahlbrandt et al., 1978). Vertebrate lineation. Beds commonly exhibit a basal lag of
footprints, trackways and invertebrate burrows intraformational mudstone rip-up clasts (Fig. 7c)
and crawling traces have been documented from and contain rare extrabasinal quartz clasts. This
the immediate area (Beasley, 1896; Maidwell, facies was deposited from upper flow regime,
1911, 1914b). Facies ID3, which may merge plane-bed flow in shallow, fast-flowing stream-
laterally with either facies ID1 or ID2, is inter- or sheet-floods. Facies F2 is very common and is
preted as the product of deposition from standing a planar or trough cross-bedded sandstone often
water within confined interdune hollows (Lang- characterized by a basal lag of intraformational
ford, 1989; Langford & Chan, 1989; Purvis, 1991). mudstone clasts. This facies represents depos-
ition by dune-scale bedforms. The rare facies F3
is ripple cross-laminated as a result of deposition
Fluvial facies
from current ripples. Facies F4 is common and
Four facies in the Beacon Hill and Beetle Rock comprises finely laminated, red silty mudstone
Units are associated with fluvial genetic ele- with abundant desiccation cracks and associated
Fig. 7. (a) Wavy-laminated facies

ID2 indicative of deposition in a
damp, water table-controlled, inter-
dune region. Note asymptotic base
to overlying aeolian dune set. (b)
Interdune unit composed of facies
ID2 overlain by a thin bed of lam-
inated red mudstone (facies ID3).
Arrow denotes minor sand-filled
crack indicative of desiccation of an
interdune pond. Note sharp bound-
ary with overlying aeolian dune
strata. (c) Intraformational rip-up
clasts composed of red laminated
mudstone. Clasts are typically pre-
served as a basal lag and are asso-
ciated with fluvial facies F1 and F2.

rare vertebrate footprints and invertebrate bur- superimposed smaller, faster migrating secondary
rows (King & Thompson, 2000). Facies F4 is bedforms (Brookfield, 1977; Rubin, 1987b). The
similar in character to facies ID3 but is always major bounding surfaces defining the cosets are
found draping over, and ponded between, aban- interdune migration surfaces, with the wind-
doned fluvial bedforms of facies F2 and F3; it is ripple strata that commonly overlie these surfaces
interpreted to represent deposition from over- being interpreted as dune-plinth and dry-inter-
bank flooding and/or in-channel waning flow dune deposits that accumulated in interdune
(Thompson, 1970b). hollows between the primary bedforms. The
scallop-shaped bounding surfaces thus represent
superimposition surfaces (Kocurek, 1996). Such
AEOLIAN DUNE SET ARCHITECTURE surfaces, with a mean dip direction oblique to
that of the cross-strata, are best explained by
The complex architecture of the aeolian dune oblique migration of superimposed bedforms over
elements within the Frogsmouth Unit is shown in primary bedforms (for similar examples else-
Fig. 5. Several commonly repeating styles of where in the Helsby Sandstone Formation, see
bed-set geometry are evident that include small- Øxnevad, 1991;). Accordingly, the troughs of the
scale organized (regularly repeating) trough cross- two sets of bedforms intersect to form depressions
bedding, large-scale disorganized (non-regularly that behave geometrically as scour pits (for the-
repeating) trough cross-bedding, superimposed oretical examples, see Rubin, 1987a, fig. 46). The
sets, reactivated sets, topographic infills and resultant scour-pit migration paths are influenced
deformed sets. All references to panels in the by the migration of both primary and superim-
following discussion refer to those depicted in posed bedforms. The plan-view trend of the pits
Fig. 5. is therefore oblique to the crestline of the primary
bedform (Fig. 8; Rubin & Hunter, 1983), and the
regularly repeating nature of the superimposition
Small-scale organized aeolian trough
surfaces indicates bedform migration under equi-
cross-bedding
librium conditions.
Sets of small-scale cross-bedding are best devel-
oped into an organized repeating pattern in Panels
Large-scale disorganized aeolian trough
A and Q (Figs 5 and 8). Scallop-shaped sets of
cross-bedding
aeolian cross-strata (cf. Rubin, 1987b) composed
of facies A1 and A2 are 1–2 m thick, extend Large-scale, apparently disorganized, trough
laterally for 6–10 m in sections oriented perpen- cross-bedded sets of dune strata are evident in
dicular to cross-bed dip (e.g. Panel Q) and have a much of the succession but are particularly well
lateral extent of 3–4 m in sections parallel to dip. developed in Panels F, G and J (Fig. 5). Individual
Where the scallops can be viewed in three trough-shaped cross-bedded sets are up to 3 m
dimensions, they have a mean dip of 20° towards thick and 8–20 m wide in sections perpendicular
255°. Cross-strata within each set dip 20–24° to the cross-bed dip. In sections parallel to the
towards a mean direction of 282° and downlap cross-bed dip, these sets are simple, cross-strati-
onto the bounding surface that defines the scallop- fied units traceable for 30–40 m and are not
shaped set base. Each set is cut out by the usually subdivided by internal bounding surfaces
succeeding set in a downwind direction (Panel other than minor reactivation surfaces. Internally,
A). Sets have trough-shaped bases that scour into sets are dominated by grainflow cross-strata (facies
underlying strata by up to 20 cm. In sections A2) that exhibit a mean cross-bed dip towards
parallel to the cross-bed dip direction (Panel A), 294°. Sets commonly have subhorizontal wind-
the bases of successive sets form a common ripple strata (facies ID1) and/or wavy-laminated
horizon that dips at 1–2° towards 120° (an upwind strata (facies ID2) in the bases of the troughs
direction) relative to the horizontally laminated (Panel J). Where trough bases are filled with wavy
water-lain deposits (facies ID3). Scallop-shaped lamination, they exhibit a flat (non-erosive) rather
sets are therefore arranged within cosets that form than curved (slightly erosive) geometry (Panel J)
compound cross-bedding. The basal parts of the and, when exposed in three dimensions, the
cosets sometimes reveal a subhorizontal sheet of trough axes trend to 300°. Such sets are disorgan-
wind-ripple strata (facies ID1). ized in their spatial arrangement relative to one
The compound sets are the product of migra- another, and rare, smaller scale sets are superim-
ting, slipfaceless primary bedforms carrying posed within larger scale sets (Panel F).
Fig. 8. Three-dimensional geometric reconstruction of the small-scale, scallop-shaped sets of aeolian cross-strata
observed in Panels A, B and C of Fig. 5. Note that the bounding surfaces that generate the scallops are oriented
oblique to the cross-strata and indicate the presence of superimposed bedforms that migrated obliquely across the
parent bedforms. See text for explanation.
Simple, trough-shaped sets are produced by indicates that these bedforms maintained active
primary bedforms characterized by sinuous crest- slipfaces but did not support superimposed bed-
lines with wavelengths of at least 8–20 m, as forms on their lee slopes. The variable size and
demonstrated by the width of troughs in sections apparently random distribution of trough-shaped
perpendicular to aeolian transport. These sinuos- bounding surfaces in sections perpendicular to
ities promoted the development of closed scour transport indicate that the bedforms were in a
pits. Migration of the erosional, leading edge of state of disequilibrium, suggesting that conditions
these depressions gave rise to the trough-shaped did not remain constant for a sufficiently long
bounding surfaces, which were subsequently period to enable the dunes to become organized
over-run and infilled by the migrating bedforms. into regular trains. The offset, overlapping nature
In most cases, cross-beds symmetrically infill the of some troughs indicates successive bedforms
scour hollow, indicating that the bedforms were characterized by out-of-phase crestline sinuos-
close to being perfectly transverse (Rubin, 1987a). ities (Rubin, 1987a, fig. 34).
In this special case, the azimuth of the cross-bed Wavy lamination in some trough bases signifies
dip is a reliable indicator of palaeotransport sedimentation in a damp interdune area and
direction and reveals bedform migration towards implies aeolian scouring down to a shallow water
294°. A similar architecture was described from table. The flat, non-erosive nature of the trough
the Navajo Sandstone at Snow Canyon, Utah floors in these areas signifies that the scour pits
(Rubin & Hunter, 1983). From set geometries did not erode beneath the water table.
alone, it is impossible to say whether the plan-
forms of the bedforms were sinusoidal or whether
Superimposed sets
they were linguoid or lunate. The simplicity of
the sets in sections parallel to transport, together Panels K and O (Fig. 5) reveal compound cross-
with the predominance of grainflow strata, bed sets. Cosets contain numerous inclined
bounding surfaces dipping towards 250° at 10– strata. These are evident in sections parallel to the
16°. These surfaces define smaller sets, them- dip of the cross-strata and are well expressed in
selves composed of cross-strata that dip up to 24° Panels E, G, N and O (Fig. 5). However, they are
towards 265°, 15° clockwise of the inclined also observed in sections perpendicular to the dip
bounding surfaces. Unlike the scallop-shaped of the cross-strata, where they are subparallel to
sets, these units are planar. They are usually the foresets and planar or slightly concave up
composed of grainflow strata (facies A2) that (Fig. 9). When exposed in true dip direction, they
merge downdip with inclined translatent cross- are inclined at 22–30° and have a lateral spacing
laminae (facies A1) before downlapping onto the of 3–6 m. The overlying cross-stratification
inclined bounding surfaces. planes are either concordant with the bounding
These compound sets can be interpreted as surfaces or exhibit downlap.
either the product of small-scale superimposed These erosional surfaces are reactivation surfa-
bedforms migrating over larger, primary slipface- ces resulting from fluctuating airflow on the lee
less bedforms or simple bedforms subject to slope of an active bedform (Brookfield, 1977;
fluctuating flow (Rubin, 1987b). The small devi- Hunter & Rubin, 1983; Rubin & Hunter, 1983). In
ation between the cross-bed and bounding-sur- the Wilmslow Sandstone Formation within the
face dip directions indicates that superimposed Cheshire Basin, such features are interpreted to
bedforms, if present, migrated in a direction close be the product of seasonal secondary oblique
to that of the primary bedforms. winds that repeatedly deflated dune lee slopes
between episodes of dune advance that were
controlled by the primary wind (Øxnevad, 1991,
Reactivated sets
p. 60).
Many aeolian bed sets in the succession contain Reactivation surfaces often appear to be geo-
bounding surfaces that truncate underlying cross- metrically similar to superimposition surfaces,
Fig. 9. Three-dimensional geometric reconstruction of sets of aeolian cross-strata observed in Panels E, F and G. Note
that internal reactivation surfaces exhibit downlap and minor truncation in sections parallel to transport but are
oriented close to the cross-bedding dip direction. See text for explanation.

but several criteria enable the two types to be is best seen at the base of the Frogsmouth Unit.
distinguished (Rubin, 1987a,b). Reactivation sur- Here, sandstones of facies A1 and A2 directly
faces tend to be more steeply inclined than infill up to 0Æ7 m of fluvial topography (e.g.
superimposition surfaces and are usually overlain Panel J). These infills represent the migration of
by cross-strata concordant with the surface itself. aeolian dunes over abandoned fluvial bedforms in
In contrast, relatively low-angle superimposition an ephemeral stream system.
surfaces are nearly always overlain by downlap-
ping cross-strata. Sometimes, however, reactiva-
Deformed sets
tion surfaces may themselves be overlain by
downlapping cross-strata, notably when the reac- Sets of aeolian cross-strata containing 0Æ1–2-m-
tivation occurs as a result of degradation of a thick, deformed, folded and overturned horizons
dune lee slope by an erosive wind, and when are common and extend downslope for up to 1 m.
subsequent renewed lee-slope sedimentation is Two distinct types of deformation are recognized.
by grainflow avalanching. In such cases, distin- Small-scale deformation (Panel J) occurs parallel
guishing between reactivation and superimposi- to cross-strata in the middle to upper parts of sets
tion surfaces is more problematic. The subparallel (Fig. 10a). The small-scale folding increases in
nature of reactivation surfaces relative to the intensity towards the centre of the deformed zone
foresets distinguishes them from most superim- and nearly always occurs within grainflow cross-
position surfaces. Additionally, superimposition strata (facies A2). The upper surfaces of the
surfaces show a difference in the mean dip disturbed zones may be sharp or gradational and
direction between the surfaces and the foresets, are overlain by undeformed grainflow strata.
owing to oblique migration of the superimposed Larger scale deformation occurs in the basal parts
bedforms (Rubin, 1987a,b; Kocurek, 1996). The of aeolian sets made up of both facies A1 and A2.
sets bounded by reactivation surfaces within the These deformed zones are up to 2 m thick and
Frogsmouth Unit tend to be thick in relation to 5 m wide (Panel H). Cross-strata in these zones
their downdip length, whereas sets bounded by are moderately to intensely folded, may be
superimposition surfaces are thinner (cf. Rubin & overturned and sometimes exhibit metre-scale
Hunter, 1983). flame structures (Fig. 10b). Despite the intensity
of deformation, the cross-strata remain unbroken
by faulting, and the original cross-lamination is
Topographic infills
still evident.
Infilling of topographic features with aeolian sand The limited extent of the small-scale deforma-
is evident at several places in the succession, but tion, its occurrence in the middle to upper parts
Fig. 10. (a) Small-scale deformation

within aeolian cross-bedding.
Deformation is restricted to grain-
flow strata (facies A2) and occurs in
zones parallel to the cross-bedding.
Contortion signifies liquefaction at
or close to the depositional surface
on a bedform lee slope. (b) Large-
scale deformation confined to a
single aeolian cross-bedded set.
This indicates that deformation
occurred before deposition of the
overlying set, probably in response
to loading of a water-logged sub-
strate by the advancing bedform.
Large flame structure signifies
upward escape of water and/or air.
of sets and its relation to overlying grainflow based. These units extend laterally for 20–30 m,
strata indicate either intradune folding that perpendicular to the aeolian transport direction.
developed by liquefaction near the dune surface Larger scale interdune elements, composed of
(Doe & Dott, 1980) or slumping of moderately facies ID1, ID2, ID3 and/or F1 (Fig. 11), extend
cohesive, moist sands on the dune lee slope laterally for at least 90 m in directions perpen-
(Øxnevad, 1991). Both these processes occur in dicular to the aeolian transport direction, and
response to surface precipitation. Deformation distances in excess of 40 m in directions parallel
resulting from intradune liquefaction results from to transport. These elements typically exhibit
an elevation in porewater pressure as the wetting either a flat or a slightly scoured lower surface
front rapidly infiltrates into the highly porous with up to 0Æ2 m of relief (Panel F), generally
dune sands. Loosely packed grainflow laminae attain a maximum thickness of 0Æ5–1 m at their
are particularly susceptible to liquefaction by centre (Panel E) and either pinch-out or lap-out
collapse of grain packing resulting from mechan- against the flanks of dune units at their margins
ical loading associated with the wetting event (Fig. 11; Panel H). The interdune elements form
(Doe & Dott, 1980). Deformation caused by surface either spatially isolated lens-shaped bodies or
collapse occurs where the upper dune lee slope more continuous, elongate ribbon-like geome-
fails because of a decrease in the angle of internal tries.
friction in response to wetting and to over- The isolated lens-shaped geometry of the inter-
steepening by wet grainfall (Hunter et al., 1983; dune elements was partly controlled by the
Loope et al., 2001). The larger scale deformation morphology and behaviour of the aeolian bed-
and its occurrence in the basal parts of sets forms within the erg. Bedforms with distinct
indicate disturbance resulting from liquefaction planform sinuosities generate spatially isolated
below the water table (McKee et al., 1971), which interdune depressions (Fig. 11b). As the bedforms
is best explained by loading of the saturated sand migrated, discrete interdune depressions period-
by an advancing dune (Doe & Dott, 1980; Horo- ically amalgamated to form more laterally con-
witz, 1982). The large-scale flame structures tinuous corridors in directions perpendicular to
indicate air and water escape in areas of elevated transport (Fig. 11b). Damp interdune strata (facies
porewater pressure. Deformed sets similar to ID2), preserved at the base of trough cross-strati-
these have been described from the Thurstaston fied dune units, formed where aeolian scour pits
and Frodsham Members of the Helsby Sandstone intersected a shallow water table. The lateral
Formation (Rice, 1939; Thompson, 1969; Øxne- extension of interdune strata in directions paral-
vad, 1991; Herries, 1992). lel to dune transport signifies that the accumula-
tion of damp interdunes co-existed with dune
migration (Fig. 11b). Wet interdune strata (facies
INTERDUNE ARCHITECTURE ID3) originated as a result of alluvial overbank
flooding into these low-lying interdune depres-
The architecture of interdune elements within the sions.
Frogsmouth Unit is discussed in terms of their
geometry, style of lateral and vertical facies
Facies variations within the interdune units
variations and the relation of the interdune
deposits to surrounding aeolian bounding surfa- Within larger interdune units, lateral facies var-
ces and dune strata. iations generally occur in a predictable sequence
(Fig. 11a). The margins of the interdune units are
typically composed of thin (< 0Æ2 m) accumula-
Geometry of interdune units
tions of wind-ripple strata (facies ID1). These
Interdune architectural elements occur at two thicken and pass laterally into more extensive,
distinct scales. Thin (< 20 cm), laterally restricted 0Æ5- to 1-m-thick accumulations of wavy-lami-
units of interdune strata are commonly preserved nated facies ID2. Towards the centre of the
in the basal hollows of the larger aeolian scallop- interdune units, thin accumulations of fluvial
shaped trough sets. These are composed of facies F1 with rare intraformational mudstone
wind-ripple facies ID1 (Panels C and D), wavy- clasts may be present (Panel H). Wind-ripple
laminated facies ID2 (Panel J) or, rarely, thin red strata (facies ID1) sometimes directly overlie
mudstones of facies ID3 (Panel H). On basal facies ID2 and F1. Some interdune units (e.g.
surfaces, these units either exhibit minor scour Panel H) are composed solely of extensive, but
(usually associated with facies ID1) or are flat thin, sheets of red mudstone (facies ID3).

wave ripples and mudstone intraclasts as indic-

Fig. 11. (a) Schematic depiction of the lateral facies
variations within interdune units observed in Panels G ative of sluggish ephemeral fluvial flooding
and H. Note relation of interdune units to adjacent associated with a high water table. Modern
aeolian dune units. (b) Three-dimensional geometric examples of such flooding have been described
reconstruction of interdune units observed in Panels H, from the Hoanib River of the Namib Desert
I and J. Minor interdune units are laterally restricted in (Stanistreet & Stollhofen, 2002), Great Sand
directions perpendicular to transport, indicating the Dunes, Colorado (Langford, 1989), and from the
presence of isolated interdune hollows and sinuous
Algodones Dunes, California (Fryberger, 1993).
crested dunes. Many interdune units are more exten-
sive in directions parallel to transport, indicating Fryberger (1993) documented ribbon-like flooded
interdune sedimentation contemporaneous with dune interdune corridors characterized by silt deposits
advance. See text for explanation. and overlain by thin muds with desiccation
cracks, which were subsequently infilled with
aeolian sand. Although at least one of the major
The presence of several facies within a single interdune elements studied here is characterized
interdune unit is significant, and associated with by fluvial strata (Panel H), the limited lateral
these lithofacies are a wide variety of structures continuity of many other interdune elements
including wind-ripple translatent strata, wavy suggests that ephemeral flash floods were not
laminae, adhesion-ripple strata, wave-ripple able to penetrate far into the dunefield because of
strata, raindrop imprints, desiccation cracks and the spatially isolated nature of the interdune
mudstone rip-up clasts. Vertebrate footprint hollows. Laterally extensive interdune corridors
impressions and vertical and horizontal trace between the dunes were rare, and the floods were
fossils occur at similar horizons in the local area not large enough to breach and wash out the
(Maidwell, 1911, 1915). These structures indicate dunes.
that the interdune strata accumulated under a An alternative mechanism for generating damp
variety of conditions (Ahlbrandt & Fryberger, interdune strata is the elevation of the water table
1981). As such a varied range of structures is to the surface to create ponds of standing water
unlikely to have been created within these within the interdune areas. Evidence to support
relatively small interdunes at one time, episodic such flooding includes the presence of wavy- and
wetting/drying of interdune surfaces is a more adhesion ripple-laminated sandstones and sym-
plausible explanation. This could result from metrical wave-rippled strata (facies ID2) within
minor fluctuations in the groundwater table spatially isolated interdune lenses (Panel J). The
owing to seasonal weather variations, small-scale lack of incision at the base of many interdune
climatic variation or changes in the balance units can be explained by a passive rise in the
between episodic subsidence and ongoing accu- water table up to and above the sediment surface.
mulation (Kocurek & Havholm, 1993). Alterna- Other evidence supporting a water-table rise
tively, episodic interdune wetting and drying includes the presence of large-scale, deformed,
could result from ephemeral flash flooding of the cross-bedded sandstones in aeolian sets that
interdunes (Langford, 1989). It is likely that all adjoin the interdune units (Doe & Dott, 1980;
these processes influenced interdune sedimenta- Horowitz, 1982). Modern examples of flooded
tion in the Frogsmouth Unit. interdunes include the White Sands, New Mexico
Evidence of ephemeral flash flooding of inter- (McKee & Moiola, 1975), the Oregon Dunes and
dunes includes the lenses of facies F1 with rare dunefields in Saudi Arabia (Fryberger, 1993). In
intraformational mudstone clasts. Additionally, each case, the cause of the water-table rise and
slightly erosively and/or sharp-based, red mud- temporary playa formation was heavy rainfall in
stone horizons, complete with desiccation cracks the adjacent area (Fryberger, 1990). A similar
and extrabasinally derived mica flakes (facies scenario is envisaged here and may be associated
ID3), indicate a nearby fluvial source for the with expulsion of air and/or water from the
sediment. Interdune units characterized by wavy sediments above, and marginal to, the area of
lamination (facies ID2) may also reflect sedimen- greatest precipitation (Stokes, 1968; Øxnevad,
tation within fluvially flooded interdunes. Sim- 1991). Ancient dune–interdune systems inter-
ilar facies architectures were described by Herries preted to have been subject to temporary flooding
(1993), who identified fluvially fed interdune by water-table rise include parts of the Cedar
flood events in the Navajo Sandstone. He inter- Mesa Sandstone, Utah (Langford & Chan, 1988,
preted interdune mudstone units with desicca- 1989), and the Frodsham Sandstone of the
tion cracks, animal tracks, raindrop impressions, Cheshire Basin (Thompson, 1969).
Most interdune strata observed are character- Non-climbing encroachment of a dune across an
ized by wavy-laminated facies ID2 that is indica- interdune region requires that sedimentation
tive of deposition on a damp surface in contact within the latter was not ongoing during the
with the capillary fringe of the water table and not dune advance or, if it was, the advancing dune
necessarily subaqueous (Kocurek, 1981a; Hum- must have reworked the interdune deposits.
mel & Kocurek, 1984). Lateral and vertical Damp interdune strata (Panel J) exhibiting
transitions from subaqueous interdune deposits minor aeolian erosion scours on their upper
(facies ID3) through facies ID2 to subaerial surface require a slight fall in the water table to
deposits (facies ID1), or vice versa, are best allow a damp unit to dry out and liberate
explained by drying out or flooding of an sediment for aeolian reworking (Kocurek &
interdune in response to either overbank flood Havholm, 1993). The centimetre-scale interton-
events or small changes in the ground-water level. guing of dune and interdune strata at the upper
Several interdune units exhibit a lateral down- interdune surface (Fig. 12b) indicates that
wind transition in interdune facies indicative of a dune advance was contemporaneous with verti-
change from wet- to damp- to dry-surface condi- cal accumulation within damp interdunes
tions, implying a progressive drying of the sur- (Gradziński & Jerzykiewicz, 1974; Pulvertaft,
face. The lateral, rather than vertical, nature of 1985; Loope & Simpson, 1992). Additionally,
these transitions suggests that the interdunes intertonguing of dune and interdune strata
were actively migrating as the drying out implies that damp interdune areas were actively
occurred. climbing downwind. In well-exposed localities,
dune–interdune intertonguing has been used to
estimate the angle of climb of the system
Style of interaction between interdune
(Fig. 13). By tracing wavy-laminated damp
and adjacent strata
interdune strata upwind, through places where
Several styles of relationship exist between they are transitional with translatent strata toe-
interdune and adjacent aeolian dune elements set deposits and up into grainflow foreset
(Fig. 12). Basal surfaces of interdune units are deposits, the distance that the dune advanced
always sharp and sometimes slightly erosive, downwind can be compared directly with the
showing up to 0Æ2 m of incision. The termination amount of contemporaneous sedimentation in
of cross-strata of underlying dune sets is abrupt the adjacent interdune area for a geologically
and either planar or slightly corrugated. The short time instant (Pulvertaft, 1985). Using
upper surfaces of the interdune units are either this technique at three separate localities, the
sharp or gradational. Sharp contacts may be angle-of-climb of the system was calculated to
erosional where the overlying dune cross-strata vary from 1° to 1Æ5°, although it is acknowledged
have cut up to 0Æ2 m into the interdune strata of that factors such as differential compaction
facies ID1 or ID2. Alternatively, sharp, non- will affect these values. In a wet aeolian system
erosional contacts are common, where the toe- such as this, where the rate of water-table
sets of the overlying dune sets encroach over rise and rate of aeolian bedform migration
interdune strata. Gradational contacts show a control the angle-of-climb, it is likely that a
progressive upward transition from wavy-lamin- fluctuating water table will result in a fluctu-
ated facies ID2 through wind ripple-laminated ating angle-of-climb.
facies ID1 to dune toe-set facies A1. Sometimes, Migrating, climbing, damp/wet interdune areas
the gradational relationship displays an interton- are also inferred from the presence of small
guing (feathering) of wavy-laminated interdune angular relationships between the interdune
facies (ID2) with dune toe-set facies (A1) on a units and the uppermost fluvial deposits under-
centimetric scale. An additional rare type of lying the Frogsmouth Unit. The upper surface of
dune–interdune relationship is observed in Panel the Beacon Hill Unit is characterized by aban-
E, where a 1-m-thick accumulation of facies ID1 doned fluvial barforms that accumulated in an
and ID2 is stacked directly against cross-strata of ephemeral stream, which represent a former
facies A1 and A2 within the lower flanks of a depositional surface. The overlying interdune
cross-stratified dune set. strata are observed to climb downwind with
The encroaching, erosional and transitional respect to this surface. Over the length of the
styles of dune–interdune interaction noted here outcrop (Fig. 5), several interdune units exhibit a
(Fig. 12) were described by Pulvertaft (1985) in low-angle downwind climb (westward) of 1°
the Middle Proterozoic Dala Sandstone, Sweden. with respect to the fluvial surface.
Fig. 12. (a) Summary model of common dune–interdune relationships observed in the Frogsmouth Unit and their
relation to water-table change over four time steps. T1, static water table and encroaching bedform; T2, rapid water-
table rise and static bedform subject to deformation; T3, static water table and encroaching bedform; T4, gradual
water-table rise contemporaneous with bedform advance (intertonguing). Diagram based in part on Herries (1992,
fig. 42). (b) Intertonguing of aeolian dune toe-sets (facies A1) with damp interdune strata (facies ID2). Relationship
observed in Panel H of Fig. 5.
A MODEL OF AEOLIAN DUNE– tion was towards 300° (Fig. 9), and these slightly
INTERDUNE RELATIONSHIPS asymmetric, slipfaceless bedforms had a down-
wind wavelength of 40 m. Bedforms of this scale
The architectural element data, coupled with are required to produce 1- to 2-m-thick sets in a
foreset and bounding surface dip-azimuth read- system that climbs at 1–1Æ5°. The bedforms had
ings (Fig. 5), have been used to produce a an along-crest planform sinuosity with a wave-
quantitative simulation of the aeolian system length of up to 30 m and an amplitude of 5 m
using the computer modelling program of Rubin (Figs 14 and 15). Such sinuosities are required to
(1987a). Results (Fig. 14) represent a best fit to account for the large troughs observed in sec-
the outcrop data, and the modelled architecture tions perpendicular to transport. The crestline
reflects the interaction of two scales of aeolian sinuosities of successive primary bedforms were
bedform. The primary bedform migration direc- close to 180° out-of-phase, as indicated by the
Fig. 13. Summary of the technique

used to determine interdune angle-
of-climb (a) from the intertonguing
relationship between dune toe-set
and interdune strata. The procedure
accounts for the angular deviation
(b) of the study section away from
the true transport direction. On the
basis of observations made at three
localities (Panels E, G and H), the
angle-of-climb is estimated to vary
between 1° and 1Æ5°.
offset stacking of the large trough cross-sets. migration of superimposed bedforms over the
Additionally, it is likely that the planform primary bedforms, with migration of the former
sinuosities developed some form of along-crest being 30° counter-clockwise relative to that of
migration as the bedforms advanced, as this the latter (i.e. towards 270°), as indicated by the
behaviour most easily explains the lateral trans- angular difference between the superimposition
lation of interdune strata in sections perpen- bounding surfaces and the cross-strata (Fig. 8;
dicular to transport (Panel H). The compound Rubin & Hunter, 1983; Rubin, 1987b). The
cross-bedding of the cosets was generated by the superimposed bedforms had wavelengths of
Fig. 14. Computer-generated model of dune–interdune interaction based on observations of facies architecture in the
Frogsmouth Unit. Model results obtained using the program of Rubin (1987a).

Fig. 15. Facies model for the Frogsmouth Unit. Note the climbing interdune units that undergo expansion and
contraction in response to changes in the water table.
12 m, approximately one-third the size of the tions, or relative, whereby the sediment accumu-
primary dunes. lation subsides through a constant water-table
Oblique migration of superimposed bedforms level (Kocurek & Havholm, 1993). A shallow
over primary bedforms generated a series of water table, either at the depositional surface or
troughs (scour pits) of varying scales and geom- within its capillary fringe, ensures that moisture
etries. Where these hollows were in contact with at the interdune surface is at least sufficient to
the shallow water table, deposition of distinctive raise erosional threshold values to the point at
damp interdune strata occurred (Figs 14 and 15). which the surface is largely protected from
In plan view, the sinuosity of the primary deflation, thus increasing preservation potential
bedforms ensured that many interdune areas (Crabaugh & Kocurek, 1993). Wet aeolian systems
formed spatially isolated depressions. In some characterized by migrating dunes and a rising
cases, however, bedform interaction resulted in water table will therefore preserve climbing sets
interdune hollows becoming more interconnect- of dune–interdune strata. The angle-of-climb
ed in orientations parallel to the crestlines of the (Rubin & Hunter, 1982) of the aeolian bedforms
primary bedforms (Fig. 15), thus providing a and adjoining interdune flats is controlled by
pathway allowing overbank flood events to both the time-averaged rate of water-table rise and
invade the dune field. the rate of downwind migration of the bedforms.
This relationship provides the basis of a generic
model that accounts for the wide variety of dune–
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS interdune geometries described in the literature
(Fig. 16).
Water-table rise is the fundamental mechanism Commonly occurring geometries can be classi-
that enables the accumulation and long-term fied according to the lateral downwind continuity
preservation of wet aeolian systems (Carr-Crab- of the interdune deposits and the angle-of-climb
augh & Kocurek, 1998). It may be either absolute, of the system. Lateral continuity of interdune
resulting from a climatic shift to wetter condi- deposits is a function of the period over which
flood events occur and the rate of dune migration. explanation for this is a situation in which the
The angle-of-climb is controlled by changes in the angle-of-climb is controlled by a varying ground-
rates of water-table rise and dune migration, and water table, whereas the bedforms migrate at
the net aeolian sediment budget, which controls reasonably constant rates. Temporal changes in
dune size. The interaction of these parameters the level of the ground-water table are influenced
results in a spectrum of preserved architectural by several mechanisms that operate on a variety
styles (Fig. 16). of time-scales. Absolute changes in water table
The lens-shaped interdune geometry, style of may occur in response to intense but short-lived
lateral interdune facies transitions and the nature rainfall and flood events that operate over periods
of dune–interdune interactions within the Frog- of weeks, seasonal variations that occur on a
smouth Unit suggest an aeolian system that was yearly basis or longer term (102)104 years), larger
climbing at a positive, but variable, angle. One magnitude variations that occur in response to
Fig. 16. Spectrum of interdune

geometries generated by variations
in the frequency and magnitude of
water-table change, the rate of dune
migration and the net aeolian sedi-
ment budget. (a) Entrada Sandstone,
Kocurek (1981a).; (b) Navajo Sand-
stone (Herries, 1993); (c) and (d)
Helsby Sandstone Formation (this
study); (e) Cedar Mesa Sandstone
(Langford & Chan, 1988, 1989);
(f) White Sands (Simpson & Loope,
1985; Loope & Simpson, 1992). See
text for explanation.
regional climatic shifts. Additionally, the level of sitions in the preserved record (Clemmensen
the water table with respect to the depositional et al., 1994).
surface will also be affected by regional basin The model presented above for the preservation
subsidence that operates over 105- to 106-year of wet interdune strata in response to a fluctuating
periods. The relative change in the water table water table differs from previously documented
through time reflects the sum of all these influ- examples of wet interdune strata preserved by
ences (Fig. 17). climbing aeolian systems. The climbing wet erg of
A variable water table will result in periodic the Entrada Sandstone (Kocurek, 1981a; Crabaugh
wetting and drying of the interdune surfaces. & Kocurek, 1993) exhibits sets of dune and
Where these variations occur over time-scales in intervening damp/wet interdune strata that are
excess of 102 years, associated expansion and climbing at a positive, constant angle (Fig. 16a).
contraction of the interdune deposits, at the The accumulation of laterally continuous sets of
expense of adjoining dunes, will take place climbing damp/wet interdune strata that extend
(Fig. 16c and d). Such a relationship is recog- unbroken downwind for several kilometres
nized in vertical succession by predictable shifts requires that the rate of water-table rise was in
from dry- through damp- to wet-interdune facies constant ratio with the rate of migration of the
and then a reversion to dry-interdune facies dunes. This requires that the aeolian dunes do not
(Fig. 17). In contrast, where aeolian systems are expand or contract at the expense of the interdune
subject to short-lived changes in the water table areas as they migrate and climb, which depends
in response to ephemeral flash floods, the peaked on the maintenance of an overall positive sedi-
nature of flood hydrographs is likely to result in ment budget (Kocurek & Havholm, 1993) that is
rapid oscillations in the level of the water table sufficient both to leave a trace of the climbing
(Fryberger, 1990). These will result in laterally dunes and to maintain their size as they migrate
variable and unpredictable interdune facies tran- (Rubin & Hunter, 1982). The dune–interdune
Fig. 17. Diagram illustrating the roles of subsidence, aeolian sediment supply and water table in controlling the
nature of the preserved stratigraphic record. Note the relationship between water table and aeolian sediment budget.

relationships of the Entrada probably reflect an water, the dunefield area that can supply sedi-
exceptional set of controlling conditions. ment for building and maintaining bedforms is
Another style of dune/wet interdune interac- reduced. Aeolian sediment supply is thereby
tion from a climbing aeolian system was des- restricted because sand in flooded upwind inter-
cribed from the Navajo Sandstone by Herries dune areas is under water, and sand in upwind
(1993). Here, sets of dune strata inferred to be damp interdunes is bound to a wet surface in
climbing at a positive and reasonably constant contact with the capillary fringe. Potential sourc-
angle are punctuated by spatially isolated sandy es of sand are therefore not available for aeolian
lenses of wet-interdune strata (Fig. 16b). Herries transport. Reduced sand supply results in the
(1993) interpreted these as isolated deposits of wind becoming undersaturated with respect to its
short-lived ephemeral flash floods within an potential transport capacity (Kocurek & Havholm,
otherwise dry aeolian system. The restricted 1993), thus encouraging airflow to rework exist-
downwind extent of the flood deposits indicated ing dunes, leading to a reduction in dune size and
that they did not migrate, and that flooding did an expansion of interdune flats. If the water table
not interrupt the climb of the aeolian system. A remains static, but high, then this mechanism
similar relationship could arise where a water could ultimately lead to a complete reworking of
table lay just beneath the depositional surface for the dunes into sandsheet deposits. A high but
the most of the time, but was briefly and period- static water table, and a restricted aeolian sand
ically elevated to create temporary ponds of supply, will result in bypassing (Figs 16e and 17).
standing water. A fall in water table could encourage deflation
The styles of dune/wet interdune interaction in prior to a dunefield establishing a new equilib-
Fig. 16a–d are all products of interdune flooding rium (Figs 16f and 17). In contrast, a slowly rising
within systems that were undergoing an overall water table, coupled with a moderate supply of
positive angle-of-climb. These styles contrast aeolian sand, will generate a climbing wet erg
with models for the White Sands (Simpson, (Fig. 17). However, in most cases, it is unlikely
1983; Simpson & Loope, 1985), parts of the that the rates of aeolian sand supply, dune
Wingate Sandstone (Loope & Simpson, 1992) migration and water-table rise will remain in
and the Cedar Mesa Sandstone (Langford & Chan, balance for protracted periods, as appears to have
1988, 1989). In these examples, extensive wet and been the case for the Entrada Sandstone (Kocurek,
flooded interdune deposits are argued to have 1981a).
accumulated in response to a static water table Water-table change in wet aeolian systems may
coupled with ongoing, but non-climbing, migra- also influence the rate of bedform migration,
tion of dunes fed by a restricted sand supply which itself partly determines the angle-of-climb.
(Fig. 16e). A continually high (but static) water During periods of elevated water table, a reduc-
table, or repeated flood events contemporaneous tion in dune size as a result of a switch to a
with dune migration, led to the accumulation of negative net sediment budget and expansion of
either amalgamated damp-interdune deposits or adjoining interdune flats may act to increase
laterally extensive flood deposits. Additionally, bedform migration rate because small bedforms
Loope, 1984, 1985) proposed that wet interdune- typically migrate more quickly than larger bed-
type strata within the Cedar Mesa originated after forms. For a constant rate of water-table rise, a
deflation (negative climbing) to the water table faster rate of bedform migration will result in a
(Fig. 16f; Stokes, 1968; Kocurek, 1988). The lower angle-of-climb.
climbing vs. non-climbing models for the accu- For most wet systems, temporal changes in both
mulation and preservation of damp or wet inter- bedform migration rate and rate of water-table rise
dune strata, which have been viewed previously are likely to determine the preserved dune–
as competing hypotheses (Loope & Simpson, interdune architecture. This will result in the
1992, 1993; Kocurek & Crabaugh, 1993), are thus accumulation and preservation of semi-continu-
better viewed as end-members of a spectrum of ous to discontinuous lenses of damp and wet
depositional styles. interdune strata that reflect episodically changing
A rise in the water table that enables accumula- surface conditions within interdune areas, as
tion in wet aeolian systems is also likely to affect is documented here for the Frogsmouth Unit
preserved dune–interdune geometry by influen- (Fig. 16c and d).
cing the sediment budget for the active bedforms From an applied perspective, differentiating
(Fig. 17). Where interdune areas begin to flood in between climbing and non-climbing damp- and
response to a regionally extensive rise in ground- wet-interdune units is important because, in
hydrocarbon exploration, this has implications reading of an early draft of this paper, and to Nick
for how subsurface correlation is conducted Lancaster, Colin North and Jim Best for their
between isolated wells. It is unlikely that laterally constructive reviews.
restricted climbing wet interdunes of the scale
observed in this study can be confidently corre-
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Sedimentology (2002) 49, 805–833

Stratigraphic evolution and preservation of aeolian dune

INTRODUCTION capillary fringe (Kocurek & Havholm, 1993).

Fig. 1. Contrasting models for the

Fig. 3. Stratigraphic subdivision of

Fig. 4. Log section for the study

names are referred to throughout the text.

Ó 2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 805–833

Ó 2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 805–833

Ó 2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 805–833

Fig. 6. (a) Low-angle, cross-lamin-

Fig. 7. (a) Wavy-laminated facies

Ó 2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 805–833

Ó 2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 805–833

Fig. 10. (a) Small-scale deformation

Ó 2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 805–833

wave ripples and mudstone intraclasts as indic-

Fig. 13. Summary of the technique

Ó 2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 805–833

Fig. 16. Spectrum of interdune

Ó 2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 805–833

Ó 2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 805–833

Ó 2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 805–833

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