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ASSIGNMENT

Course Code: BGGCT-131

Assignment Code: BGGCT-131/TMA/2020-2021
Maximum Marks: 100

Part-A
All Questions are compulsory and carries 10 marks each

1) Give a critical explanation of Gaseous hypothesis of Kant regarding the origin of Earth and solar system.

2) Define volcanism. What are the different types of volcanoes of central eruption? Enhance your answer
with suitable sketches.

3) Explain the horizontal distribution of atmospheric pressure in terms of global pressure belts with suitable
figure.

4) Give an account of the ocean currents of Atlantic Ocean and how they affect the climatic conditions of the
coastal regions of the areas they visit.

Part-B
All Questions are compulsory and carries 10 marks each

5) What is the effect of Coriolis force on the direction of planetary winds? Enhance your answer with suitable
figures.

6) Briefly explain the broad climatic types as given by Koeppen.

7) Explain briefly the normal cycle of erosion as given by Davis.

Part-C

8) Write Short notes on the following. Each question carries 5 marks.

a) Plate Tectonics
b) Vertical Structure of the atmosphere
c) The Biosphere
d) Differentiate between Airy’s and Pratt’s views on Isostasy
e) Holmes convection current theory
f) Vertical sub-surface hydrological zones

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ASSIGNMENT SOLUTIONS GUIDE (2020-21)

BGGCT-131
PHYSCIAL GEOGRAPHY

9
CODE: BGGCT-131 /TMA/2020-21

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Disclaimer/Special Note: These are just the sample of the Answers/Solutions to some of the Questions
given in the Assignments. These Sample Answers/Solutions are prepared by Private
Teacher/Tutors/Authors for the help and guidance of the student to get an idea of how he/she can

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answer the Questions given the Assignments. We do not claim 100% accuracy of these sample
answers as these are based on the knowledge and capability of Private Teacher/Tutor. Sample
answers may be seen as the Guide/Help for the reference to prepare the answers of the Questions
given in the assignment. As these solutions and answers are prepared by the private teacher/tutor so
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the chances of error or mistake cannot be denied. Any Omission or Error is highly regretted though
every care has been taken while preparing these Sample Answers/Solutions. Please consult your own
Teacher/Tutor before you prepare a Particular Answer and for up-to-date and exact information, data
and solution. Student should must read and refer the official study material provided by the
university.
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Part-A
All Questions are compulsory and carries 10 marks each
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Q1. Give a critical explanation of Gaseous hypothesis of Kant regarding the origin
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of Earth and solar system.

Ans. Immanuel Kant, the Prussian philosopher, presented his gaseous hypothesis in
his treatise entitled “The General Natural History and Theory of the Heavens or the
Essay on the Working and Mechanical Origin of the Entire Universe on the Basis of
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Newtonian Laws" in 1755.

Obviously, Kant’s hypothesis was primarily based on Newton’s laws of gravitation
and rotatory motion. He assumed that primordial matter (conceived as
supernaturally created) was scattered in the universe. This matter consisted of small,
hard and cold particles. These particles were attracted towards one another under
the influence of gravitational pull.
In due course of time they began to collide against one another. The friction between
these particles generated heat and the temperature of the primordial matter started
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rising. The collision also generated random motion in the primordial matter and
angular velocity was produced.
Thus, the original cold and motionless cloud of primordial matter became a vast hot
nebula. It was so vast that it extended from the sun in the centre to as far away as the
orbit of the outer-most planet. The rise in temperature changed the state of
primordial matter from solid to gaseous.
The repeated collision of the particles increased random motion and angular velocity
to such an extent that the nebula started rotating at a terrific speed and large amount
of centrifugal force1 2 was generated. When centrifugal force became larger than the

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gravitation force (force towards the centre), a ring was thrown away from the
equator of the nebula. This process was repeated nine times and nine rings were

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formed. The irregularity of the rings caused the development of cores (knots) which
led to the formation of corresponding planets.
Our earth is a planet formed from one of the nine rings which got separated from the

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nebula. By small scale repetition of the same process, the gaseous mass of some of
the planets throw away rings which became their satellites.
The remaining part of the original gaseous mass is our present sun. Thus the entire
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solar system comprising the sun, nine planets and their satellites came into being.
Kant was so confident about his hypothesis that he proclaimed, “Give me matter,
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and I will show you how to make a world of it.”

Merits of Kant's Theory:
1. First theory based on gravity and motion. Kant’s theory was the first theory
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which is based on fundamental scientific facts such as Newton’s laws of

gravity and motion.
2. Simple. Kant’s hypothesis appears to be simple and sounds more logical.
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3. Trend setter. This theory provided ground for developing future ideas about
the origin of the earth. For example the Nebular theory of Laplace was
immensely influenced by his theory and it paved way for postulation of
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Laplace’s theory.
Demerits of Kant's Theory: Although this theory was held in high esteem for about
half a century, it has been criticised on the following ground:
1. Origin of primordial matter not explained. The basic assumption on which
Kant based his hypothesis was that there was primordial matter in the
universe. He has not explained the source of origin of the primordial matter.
2. Problem of Gravitational Pull. According to Kant’s view, the collision
between the particles of the primordial matter was due to gravitational pull.
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Scientists have asked whether this force did not exist before the collision, and
if it existed, what prevented it to act and collision to take place.
3. Generation of angular momentum not explained. Kant did not explain how
angular momentum was generated in the primordial matter after collision of
its particles. According to Newton’s first law of motion ‘a body remains at rest
or in uniform motion unless and until an external force is applied on it.’ Thus,
it is clear that some external force is required to generate angular momentum.
Kant did not mention any such force and could not explain it satisfactorily.
4. Against the Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum. Kant assumed that

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rotation was set up, i.e., angular momentum was produced in the nebula by
the collision of its particles. This is against the well-known law of

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conservation of angular momentum. In the words of Otto Schmidt,
‘‘According to law of conservation of angular momentum, the sum total of
rotation in a closed system remains constant. The rotation may be transferred

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from one body to another, but the sum neither increases nor decreases.”

Q2. Define volcanism. What are the different types of volcanoes of central
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eruption? Enhance your answer with suitable sketches.
Ans. Volcanism is a geological term used to describe the complete range of volcanic
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eruptions, volcanic landforms, and volcanic materials. Volcanism is driven by the

internal heat of a planet and provides evidence of the way in which heat is released
from that planet. The type and abundance of volcanoes on the surface of a planet can
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provide evidence about the level of geologic activity of the planet.

It is easier to classify volcanic eruptions.
1. Central type eruptions: This is what one typically pictures when one thinks
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about eruptions. Central eruptions involve most of the lava coming out from
one central pipe (called vent).
2. Fissure type eruptions: In these eruptions, lava comes to the surface from long
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cracks in the ground. Such eruptions tend to yield more lava than central
eruptions. They are also the most common on Earth as they are found
along Mid-ocean ridges.
Classification of central volcanoes:
1. Shield volcano: These are broad, somewhat circular, volcanoes that may be
many hundred meters in diameter. They have gentle slopes.
2. Cinder cones: These are made of solid material ejected out of a volcanic vent,
like blocks or ash, etc. They can have steep slopes.
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3. Strato-volcanoes: These are volcanoes made of alternating layers

of Pyroclastic rock material and lava flows.
4. Domes: They are made by viscous lavas that contain very little gas and solid.

Q3. Explain the horizontal distribution of atmospheric pressure in terms of global

pressure belts with suitable figure.
Ans.

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The four major pressure belts of the Earth are:

a. Equatorial Low Pressure Belt:
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• This belt lies between 0°N to 5°N and 0°S to 5°S

• Since the vertical rays of the Sun fall on the Earth, the heat is intense
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and the temperature is high. The air becomes warm and expands.
• The convection currents also help to spread the heat to the upper layers
of the atmosphere.
• This leads to the creation of a low pressure belt in the region. Winds in
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this pressure belt do not blow at a fast pace and hence this belt is also
known as the Belt of Calms or the Belt of Doldrums.
b. Sub-tropical high Pressure Belt:
• This belt is located between 30°N to 35°N and 30°S to 35°S.
• As the air at the equator moves toward the Poles, it begins to cool and
sink down at about 30° North and South of the Equator. This creates
the areas of high air pressure.
• Due to the rotation of the Earth, air from 60°N and 60°S also descends
in the sub-tropical belts.
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• This pressure belt is also a belt of clams and is referred to as the Horse
Latitudes.
c. Circum Polar Low Pressure Belt:
• This belt is located between 60°N to 65°N and 60°S to 65°S.
• It is a zone of two winds; the warm Westerly winds meet the cold polar
Easterlies. As the Westerlies are lighter, they rise over the cold polar
winds creating a low pressure area.
• These belts experience stormy weather and cyclonic activity especially
during the winters.
d. Polar High pressure Belts:

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• This belt is located between 85°N to 90°N and 85°S to 90°S.
• The Polar Regions experience cold climatic conditions as the rays of the

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Sun are extremely slanting.
• The cold air sinks down giving rise to high pressure areas.
• In these places the temperature is permanently low, and the air is
dense and heavy. These Polar Regions have permanent ice caps.

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Q4. Give an account of the ocean currents of Atlantic Ocean and how they affect
the climatic conditions of the coastal regions of the areas they visit.
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Ans. The oceans of the world are constantly moving. These movements occur in
currents, which, though not always constant, have certain very observable
tendencies. As the ocean waters swirl around in currents, they affect the climates of
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the world's coastal lands significantly.

Trends: In the northern hemisphere, ocean currents tend to flow in a clockwise
motion. In the southern hemisphere, they tend to flow in a counterclockwise motion.
These circular flows are called gyres, and they do sometimes reverse.
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Causes: Just as the heating of air close to the ground causes convection that is the
source of virtually all meteorological phenomena, the heating of equatorial waters is
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the cause of virtually all ocean currents. As water heats, it expands and this
expansion causes it to push outward into cooler areas. As it cools, it contracts, and
this contraction causes it to flow toward the area vacated by warm water.
Effects: When land borders the ocean, the currents of the ocean warm or cool it,
depending on the nature of the particular current that flows by that land. In cases
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where a warm current flows along a particular coast, that coastal area will generally
be warmer than it would otherwise be if it were landlocked. Similarly, cool currents
cause coastal lands to remain cooler than they would be if they were landlocked.
Examples: Southern California and Arizona have the same latitude. However,
Arizona summers are extremely hot, while Southern California summers are
generally quite mild. This is because a cool Pacific current flows down from Alaska
and follows the coast of the Western United States. As this current flows by
California, it keeps California cool. Arizona, though, is so far away from the ocean
that the current has little effect. Similarly, coastal areas of northern Scandinavia and
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northwest Russia are often able to remain ice-free through the winter because of a
warm current that flows there from the central Atlantic.
Exceptions: Sometimes, shifts in ocean currents do occur. The most famous of such
current shifts is El Niño. This happens when the Pacific currents switch direction,
causing warm waters to flow along the American coasts and cool waters to flow
along the Asian and Australian coasts. This change causes many meteorological
anomalies, such as droughts and large storms at unexpected times and places.
Weather conditions where people live are partially influenced by the surrounding
land and surface features. Considering the size of ocean currents, it's no wonder that
they affect the weather near the coast and farther inland to a significant degree.

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Ocean currents can affect the temperature and type of weather on nearby continents,
especially when patterns of above- or below-normal ocean surface temperatures

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occur around the equator.
Ocean Currents: Background: The ocean is a vast, continuous fluid. The actions of
the wind, differences in temperature within the ocean and differences in density and
salt concentration all act together to produce the great ocean currents that flow

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around the world. These currents are large and cyclical, taking the form of loops. In
general, currents carry warm water from the equator north to higher latitudes, then
cooler water south again to the equator.
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Currents and Weather: Currents, being large masses of water at a given
temperature, affect the temperature of the air above them. This effect carries over to
nearby land areas when a current approaches the shore. For example, the Gulf
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Stream is a large current that passes near the northeastern area of the United States.
The Gulf Stream carries warm water northward, so it keeps the temperature of the
Northeast near the stream warmer than it would be otherwise. Currents can also
affect precipitation -- the Gulf Stream crosses the Atlantic in the north, then passes
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south near England. The air above the current is unstable, so it causes extra-wet
weather for the British Isles.
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ENSO Events: Currents are also factors in El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
events, when seawater in the tropics of the Pacific is either unusually warm (El
Nino) or unusually cold (La Nina). This leads to patterns of altered rainfall in the
tropics and all over the globe, as oceanic currents carry the unusual temperatures to
other regions. During ENSO events, different areas of the Earth experience patterns
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of extra-wet or extra-dry weather.

Tropical Cyclone: The most dramatic storms in Earth's climate are the tropical
cyclones. They take different names in different parts of the globe. For example, in
the Atlantic, they are called hurricanes. Currents are a significant part of the
formation and strength of tropical cyclones. These cyclones require warm water to
form, and the warm water should be 5 degrees or more away from the equator. This
ensures that Coriolis forces driven by the Earth's spin will produce rotational energy
in the storm. Cyclones also require warm water to grow in strength, so currents like
the Gulf Stream that carry warm water all the way up the Atlantic give the cyclones
a way to stay strong until they make landfall in the Northeast.
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Part-B
All Questions are compulsory and carries 10 marks each

Q5) What is the effect of Coriolis force on the direction of planetary winds?
Enhance your answer with suitable figures.
Ans. The Coriolis effect (also known as the Coriolis force) refers to the apparent
deflection of objects (such as airplanes, wind, missiles, and ocean currents) moving
in a straight path relative to the Earth's surface. Its strength is proportional to the
speed of the Earth's rotation at different latitudes. For example, a plane flying in a

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straight line north will appear to take a curved path when viewed from the ground
below.

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This effect was first explained by Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis, a French scientist
and mathematician, in 1835. Coriolis had been studying kinetic energy in
waterwheels when he realized that the forces he was observing also played a role in
larger systems.

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Coriolis Effect: Definition: The Coriolis effect is an "apparent" effect, an illusion
produced by a rotating frame of reference. This type of effect is also known as a
fictitious force or an inertial force. The Coriolis effect occurs when an object moving
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along a straight path is viewed from a non-fixed frame of reference. Typically, this
moving frame of reference is the Earth, which rotates at a fixed speed. When you
view an object in the air that is following a straight path, the object will appear to
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lose its course because of the rotation of the Earth. The object is not actually moving
off its course. It only appears to be doing so because the Earth is turning beneath it.
Causes of the Coriolis Effect: The main cause of the Coriolis effect is the Earth's
rotation. As the Earth spins in a counter-clockwise direction on its axis, anything
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flying or flowing over a long distance above its surface is deflected. This occurs
because as something moves freely above the Earth's surface, the Earth moves east
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under the object at a faster speed.

As latitude increases and the speed of the Earth's rotation decreases, the Coriolis
effect increases. A pilot flying along the equator itself would be able to continue
flying along the equator without any apparent deflection. A little to the north or
south of the equator, however, and the pilot would be deflected. As the pilot's plane
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nears the poles, it would experience the most deflection possible.

Another example of latitudinal variations in deflection is the formation of
hurricanes. These storms don't form within five degrees of the equator because there
is not enough Coriolis rotation. Move further north and tropical storms can begin to
rotate and strengthen to form hurricanes.
In addition to the speed of the Earth’s rotation and latitude, the faster the object itself
is moving, the more deflection there will be.
The direction of deflection from the Coriolis effect depends on the object’s position
on Earth. In the Northern Hemisphere, objects deflect to the right, while in the
Southern Hemisphere they deflect to the left.
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Impacts of the Coriolis Effect: Some of the most important impacts of the Coriolis
effect in terms of geography are the deflection of winds and currents in the ocean.
There is also a significant effect on man-made items such as planes and missiles.
In terms of affecting the wind, as air rises off of the Earth's surface, its speed over the
surface increases because there’s less drag as the air no longer has to move across the
Earth's many types of landforms. Because the Coriolis effect increases with an
object’s increasing speed, it significantly deflects air flows.
In the Northern Hemisphere these winds spiral to the right and in the Southern
Hemisphere they spiral to the left. This usually creates the westerly winds moving

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from the subtropical areas to the poles.
Because currents are driven by the movement of wind across the waters of the ocean,

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the Coriolis effect also affects the movement of the ocean’s currents. Many of the
ocean's largest currents circulate around warm, high-pressure areas called gyres. The
Coriolis effect creates the spiraling pattern in these gyres.

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Finally, the Coriolis effect is important to man-made objects as well, especially when
they travel long distances over the Earth. Take, for example, a flight leaving from
San Francisco, California, that is heading to New York City. If the Earth did not
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rotate, there would be no Coriolis effect and thus the pilot could fly in a straight path
to the east. However, due to the Coriolis effect, the pilot has to constantly correct for
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the Earth's movement beneath the plane. Without this correction, the plane would
land somewhere in the southern portion of the United States.
Q6. Briefly explain the broad climatic types as given by Koeppen.
Ans. The Koppen climate classification system is a widely-utilized vegetation-based
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climate classification system that was created by the German botanist and
climatologist Wladimir Koppen. The Koppen climate classification system is an
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attempt to come up with a formula to delineate climatic boundaries in

correspondence with vegetation zones or biomes across the globe.
These biomes were in the process of being formulated and mapped for the first time
during the time Koppen formulated his climate classification system in 1900. Koppen
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published a revised edition of his Koppen climate classification system in 1918, and
afterwards continued to revise his system until he passed away in 1940 (A.J.
Arnfield, 2017).
Throughout history, many attempts have been made in classifying the Earth’s
climates into climatic regions. The great Greek Philosopher Aristotle divided Earth
into torrid, temperate and frigid zones, whose finer details are now redundant.
After this many attempts were made to classify the Earth’s climatic regions, but none
were as influential as the Koppen climate classification system. The Koppen climate
classification system was introduced as a map in 1928 as one co-authored with
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Rudolph Geiger – a student of Koppen (M. Rosenberg, 2017). Since then the Koppen
climate classification system has been modified by various geographers.
The Koppen climate classification system, sometimes called the Koppen-Geiger
climate classification system, is a terrestrial classification of climactic zones into five
major types, which Koppen represented through the letters A, B, C, D, and E.
The present system of Koppen climate classification is based on the classification of
climactic zones as based on both precipitation and temperature along with the
corresponding vegetation. Temperature defines all the climactic zones except for B,
as the determining factor for vegetation here is dryness, which can be categorized
under precipitation.

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Aridity however, is not determined only by precipitation and precipitation input in
soil also works along with evaporation losses among plants. The five major climactic

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zones defined by Koppen as elucidated by Michael Pidwirmy, 2014 are –
A–Tropical Moist Climates (average temperature above 18oC in all months)
B–Dry Climates (deficient precipitation for most of the year)
C–Moist Mid-Latitude Climates with Mild Winters

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D–Moist Mid-Latitude Climates with Cold Winters
E–Polar Climates (extremely cold summers and winters)
A – Tropical Moist Climates: Tropical moist climates can be found about 15 to 25
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degrees latitude northwards and southwards of the equator. The distinctive
feature of this climactic zone is that temperatures in these zones remain above
18 degree C all throughout the year. Annual precipitation in this climactic
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zone is usually above 1,500 mm. Within this broad climactic zone, three minor
climactic types also exist, whose classification is based on the seasonal
distribution of rainfall in these climactic zones. Areas falling under these
climactic zones usually consist of naturally dense tropical forests.
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The first is Af, or tropical wet climate, where the climate is tropical with
precipitation all year round. Monthly variations in temperature in these
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regions are less than of about 3 degree C. The extremely high humidity and
surface temperatures in these regions cause cumulus and cumulonimbus
clouds to form early into the afternoons everyday resulting in a high amount
of precipitation.
Second is tropical monsoon climate, designated as Am. In these regions, the
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annual precipitation is nearly similar to that of Af, but here most of the
precipitation occurs within the 7 to 9 of the warmest months of the year. Less
rainfall occurs in these regions in the rest of the year.
The third sub-division is Aw, or the tropical wet and dry climate, or the
savanna climate. These climactic zones experience an extended dry season
during the winter season. During the wet season, precipitation is usually less
than 1,000 mm, and occurs mostly during the summer season.
B– Dry Climates: Temperature is not as much of a factor in these climactic zones
as precipitation, or rather the lack of it is in these climactic zones. In these
climactic zones, evaporation and transpiration exceeds the total precipitation.
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These climactic regions extend 20 to 35 degrees latitude northwards and

southwards from the equator and are present in large continental regions in
the mid-latitudes or are encircled by mountainous regions.
There are four broad sub-divisions of this climactic zone. The first is BW, or
dry arid climate, also called the true desert climate, and covers about 12 per
cent of the Earth’s total land area. Areas falling under this climactic zone are
habitats for xerophytic vegetation. The letters h and k are suffixed after BW to
signify whether the dry arid zone is located in the sub-tropics or the mid-
latitudes respectively.
The second is BS, or dry semi-arid climate, also referred to as steppe climate.

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This forms a sort of grassland climate that is present in about 14 per cent of
the Earth’s surface. Regions coming under dry semi-arid climate or BS

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receives more precipitation than the regions under the dry arid climate or
BW, which is mainly due to mid-latitude cyclones or due to the inter-tropical
convergence zone.
The letters h and k are suffixed in a similar way to BW zones to define the

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location of the climactic zone in the sub-tropics or in the mid-latitudes
respectively.
C– Moist Sub-tropical Mid-latitude Climates: In this climactic zone summers
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are usually warm and humid while winters are mild. These climactic zones
extend 30 to 50 degrees latitude northwards and southwards from the equator
and are present mainly at the eastern and western extremes of most
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continents. Summer months feature many convective thunderstorms and

winter months feature some mid-latitude cyclones. Three subdivisions exist
for this form of climactic zone.
The first is the humid sub-tropical climate or Cfa, where summers are hot and
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humid with frequent thunderstorms. The winters are comparatively mild and
precipitation during this period occurs due to mid-latitude cyclones, like in
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southeastern USA for example.

The second is the Cfb marine climates that are usually found on the western
coasts of continents. The climate here is largely humid with a hot and dry
summer. Winters are mild, although accompanied with heavy precipitation
due to mid-latitude cyclones. Third is the Mediterranean climactic zone or Cs,
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where rainfall mostly occurs during the mild winters due to the mid-latitude
cyclones.
Precipitation during the summer months in this climactic zone can be
extremely scanty. Areas falling under this climactic zone can include locations
in Portland, Oregon and California for example.

Q7. Explain briefly the normal cycle of erosion as given by Davis.

Ans. Cycle of Erosion by W.M.Davis: William Morris Davis was born in 12th
February, 1850 at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, into a prominent Quaker family. He
was an American Geomorphologist. He had sound knowledge over geography,
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geology and meteorology, thus called him Father of American Geography.

W.M.Davis was professor of Harvard University. From many years he was studying
over geomorphic process on earth surface and after fifteen years of hard work he got
success to make the model Cycle of erosion.
Concept of Davis: According to Davis “Landscape is the function of structure,
process and time”. It means landscape development is dependent on three factors
i.e. structure, process and time. These three factors are also called “Trio of Davis”.
Structure: structure means lithological and structural characteristics of rocks like
dip, strike, fault and fracture.
Process: process means agent of denudation including weathering and erosion,

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fluvial action, wind action, sea wave etc.
Time: Required time for landscape evolution. In this context he divided three stages

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of cycle of erosion, i.e. youth stage, mature stage and old stage.
Basic premises of Davisian Model:
• There is vertical upliftment of landmass.
There is rapid rate of upliftment of landmass.

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•
• During upliftment no erosion will be started.
• Streams erode their valley rapidly downward until the graded condition is
achieved.
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• Stages of cycle of erosion and their characteristics
Youth stage: Erosion started after completing the upliftment of landmass. Numerous
streams are originated with the initiation of upliftment. These streams are called
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Consequent stream. Many tributaries also developed and when they meet with main
stream produce different types of dendritic pattern. In this stage all the rivers are
small and widely spaced. All the rivers are engaged in headward erosion and down
cutting. Headward erosion caused for stream lengthening. Steep slope and steep
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channel gradient rivers are actively deepens their valley, thus the valley became very
deep and narrow. This process is called valley deepening.
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Youthful stage is characterised by rapid downcutting and steep and narrow valley,
because steep slope and channel gradient increase the kinetic energy and velocity of
river. Thus the carrying capacity of the river is also increased. Big boulders are
carried by rivers which help in valley incision through pothole drilling.
Characteristic features of youth stage: Very steep and narrow valley. Valley form is
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gorge and canyon. Absolute height remain constant because of very less amount of
lateral erosion.
Relative height is continuously increasing, because of rapid down ward erosion.
Valleys are of V shape characterised by convex valley side slope.
Long profile of rivers are characterised by rapids and waterfall.
Mature stage: This stage is characterised by lateral erosion and integrated drainage
system. Valley deepening remarkably reduced. Thus both absolute and relative relief
decreases. In this stage steep valley slope turns into wide valley due to lateral
erosion. The graded conditions spread over larger area and most of the tributaries
are graded to base level of erosion.
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Old stage: This stage is characterised by almost total absence of downward erosion
but lateral erosion is still active. Thus height of water divide decreases rapidly. The
entire valley became almost flat with concave valley side slopes. This type of
landscape is called as peneplain. Sometimes hard rocks are stand over the peneplain,
which resistant to erosion, known as Monadnocks.

Part-C
Q8. Write Short notes on the following. Each question carries 5 marks.
a) Plate Tectonics
Ans. Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's outer shell is divided into several plates

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that glide over the mantle, the rocky inner layer above the core. The plates act like a
hard and rigid shell compared to Earth's mantle. This strong outer layer is called the

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lithosphere, which is 100 km (60 miles) thick, according to Encyclopedia Britannica.
The lithosphere includes the crust and outer part of the mantle. Below the
lithosphere is the asthenosphere, which is malleable or partially malleable, allowing
the lithosphere to move around. How it moves around is an evolving idea.

b) Vertical Structure of the atmosphere

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Ans. The variation of temperature with altitude is the basis for defining a number of
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atmospheric shells. Clouds and storms occur in the lowest shell, the troposphere,
characterized by decreasing temperature with altitude. The next highest layer is the
dry stratosphere, in which temperature slowly increases with altitude. Above that is
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the mesosphere, where the lowest temperatures anywhere in the atmosphere occur.
Finally, the thermosphere is the very tenuous, outermost layer, merging with outer
space, where temperature increases with altitude. Overlapping the mesosphere and
thermosphere is the ionosphere, where high‐energy solar radiation dissociates
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atmospheric molecules and ionizes atoms and molecules. Ions and free electrons in
the upper atmosphere interact with the Earth's magnetic field.
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c) The Biosphere
Ans. Biosphere, relatively thin life-supporting stratum of Earth’s surface, extending
from a few kilometres into the atmosphere to the deep-sea vents of the ocean. The
biosphere is a global ecosystem composed of living organisms (biota) and the abiotic
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(nonliving) factors from which they derive energy and nutrients.

d) Differentiate between Airy’s and Pratt’s views on Isostasy

Ans. Isostasy (Greek ísos "equal", stásis"standstill") is the state
of gravitationalequilibrium between Earth's crust and mantlesuch that
the crust "floats" at an elevation that depends on its thickness and density.
This concept is invoked to explain how different topographic heights can exist at
Earth's surface. When a certain area of Earth's crust reaches the state of isostasy, it is
said to be in isostatic equilibrium. Isostasy does not upset equilibrium but instead
restores it (a negative feedback). It is generally accepted [1]that Earth is a dynamic
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system that responds to loads in many different ways. However, isostasy provides
an important 'view' of the processes that are happening in areas that are
experiencing vertical movement. Certain areas (such as the Himalayas) are not in
isostatic equilibrium, which has forced researchers to identify other reasons to
explain their topographic heights (in the case of the Himalayas, which are still rising,
by proposing that their elevation is being supported by the force of the
impacting Indian Plate; the Basin and Range Province of the Western US is another
example of a region not in isostatic equilibrium

e) Holmes convection current theory

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Ans. Arthur Holmes postulated convection current theory in the year 1928–29. It is
widely accepted driving mechanism for Continental drift(moving apart) which lead

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to the foundation of modern plate tectonics.
His main objective was to find the scientific explanation of origin of the Continent
and oceans. But it is also widely accepted concept of mountain building.
To understand Holmes theory, first of all you should have an idea of convection

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current. Convection Current is defined as “a process of continuous heating up of
liquids or gases by the process called as Convection. ’’
The convective currents are divided into two groups on the basis of their
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locational aspect e.g.:
(i) Convective currents of rising columns, and
(ii) Convective currents of falling columns.
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The rising convective currents after reaching the lower limit of the crust diverge in
opposite directions.
This outward or divergent movement introduces tensional force due to which the
crust is stretched, thinned and ultimately broken and the broken crustal blocks are
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moved apart. The wide open area between two drifting crustal blocks in opposite
directions is filled with water and thus an ocean is formed. According to Holmes the
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equatorial crust was stretched and ruptured due to divergence of rising convective
currents which carried the ruptured crustal blocks towards the north and south and
Tethys Sea was formed.
This phase is called ‘opening of Tethys’ Again two sets of convergent or downward
moving (descending) currents brought Laurasia and Godwnaland together and thus
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Tethys was compressed and folded into Alpine mountains. This phase is called
‘closing of Tethys’.
‘The convective mechanism is not a steady process but a periodic one, which waxes
and wanes and then begins again with a different arrangement of centre’. It means
that the convective currents originate at several centres which are not permanent.
Geosynclines are formed due to subsidence of crustal blocks mainly continental
shelves due to compressive force generated by convergent convective currents
moving laterally together under continental and oceanic crusts.
In other words, when the continental and oceanic crusts move together and
converge under the continental shelves, they descend downward and thus cause
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immense compression due to which the crust is subjected to subsidence to form

geosyncline. The convective currents of rising columns under continental and
oceanic crusts bring materials in the geosynclines which are always located above
the descending convective currents of falling column.
Continuous compression and sedimentation causes gradual subsidence of
geosynclines. Holmes has described a cyclic pattern of thermal convective currents
which includes the origin of convective currents, formation of geosynclines,
sedimentation and orogenesis and further rise in the mountains.

f) Vertical sub-surface hydrological zones

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Ans. A combination of field and numerical modeling methods was used to assess porewater
movement in a narrow (20 m) Spartina marsh which was flooded regularly by tidal waters.

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Soil composition and soil hydraulic properties did not vary across the marsh or with depth.
Hydraulic head was monitored on a transect perpendicular to the creekbank. During
exposure of the marsh surface, hydraulic gradients were predominantly horizontal; vertical
gradients were small or zero. Subsurface flow was directed from the marsh interior toward

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the creekbank. Approximately 141 of pore water were discharged laterally to the adjacent
tidal creek per meter of creekbank over a complete tidal cycle.
A numerical hydrological model was modified to simulate subsurface hydraulics in
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the creekbank vicinity of regularly flooded tidal marshes. The model was
parameterized to represent soil conditions, tidal fluctuations and topography at the
field site. Observed changes in hydraulic head over complete tidal cycles were
accurately predicted by the model. Model simulations identified the vertical
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infiltration of creek water into the marsh surface at the onset of tidal flooding as the
primary source (66%) for the replacement of water drained at the creekbank.
Significant replacement (31%) also occurred as discharge from the interior marsh.
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Horizontal recharge at the creekbank was minimal (3%).

A sensitivity analysis was conducted with the model to assess the relative
importance of geomorphological factors and soil properties in controlling pore water
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export at the creekbank of tidal marsh soils. Each parameter was varied
systematically over a realistic range for field conditions. Changes in marsh elevation
exerted greater control over creekbank discharge than changes in soil hydraulic
properties. More rapid turnover of pore water near creekbanks of higher elevation
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marshes is hypothesized.