A PROJECT REPORT

ON

CAMSHAFT(Machining)
SUBJECT:-WORKSHOP(ME103)

submitted towards the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
in

Civil Engineering
Submitted by
Name-Nidhi Yadav
Roll Number-2K20/A17/52

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological

University Bawana Road. Delhi -110042

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 DECLARATION

I hereby certify that the work, which is presented in the Project entitled
CAMCRAFT(Machining) in fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the
Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Engineering Physics and submitted to the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi is an
work of my own, carried out under the supervision of Mr.Mukesh Sham Rao.

The work presented in this report has not been submitted and not under consideration
for the award for any other course/degree of this or any other Institute/University.

Name:-Nidhi Yadav

Roll.No:-2K20/A17/52

SUPERVISOR CERTIFICATE

To the best of my knowledge, the report comprises original work and has not been
submitted in part or full for any Course/Degree to this university or elsewhere as per
the candidate’s declaration.

Place: Delhi Mr.Mukesh Sham Rao

Date:22/03/2021 Supervisor name and signature

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 ABSTRACT

Camshafts have been a part of engineering for centuries. It’s one among the key parts
or components within the engines of automobile and other vehicles. A camshaft is a
device to convert circular or rotational motion into reciprocating or oscillatory
motion. Such devices have been used since as early as the Hellenistic era within the
Third century BC in the form of toys that automatically performed repeated
functions, and later in automated music boxes for striking a hammer in a
preprogrammed way to play a tune. One amoung the foremost widely used
applications of camshafts in the world today is the opening and closing of fuel valves
in virtually all piston-driven internal combustion engines.It is probably the first
engineering reference to camshafts. Since then, camshafts have been used in
everything, from driving time devices to music boxes, and more importantly within
the combustion engine. The purpose of this project is to analyzing the camshaft and
knowing the behaviours of the camshaft.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In performing my major project, I had to take the help and guideline of some
respected persons, who deserve our greatest gratitude. The completion of this
assignment gives us much pleasure. We would like to show our gratitude
Mr.Mukesh Sham Rao ,Mentor for major project. Giving us a good guideline for
report throughout numerous consultations. We would also like to extend our deepest
gratitude to all those who have directly and indirectly guided us in writing this
assignment.

We thank all the people for their help directly and indirectly to complete our
assignment. In addition, we would like to thank Department of Applied Physics,
Delhi Technological University for giving us the opportunity to work on this topic.

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 CONTENTS

a.Title page i
b. Declaration ii
c.Abstract iii
d. Acknowledgment iv
e.Contents v
1. Introduction 1
2.Mechanics of a Camshaft 2
2.1Camshaft Operation 2
2.2 Valve Timing 3
2.3 Performance Tuning 3
2.4 Four stroke valve 4
2.5 Intake Valve 4
2.6 Exhaust Valve 4
2.7 Effect of Cam Advance 4
3.Materials Used in Camshaft 5
4.Design Procedure 7
5.Methods of Manufacturing 9
6.Types of Camshaft 12
7.Reference 13

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 INTRODUCTION

Camshaft is all about opening and closing of the valves in a piston engine so in the
combustion chamber of a piston engine you have an intake stroke a compression
stroke an expansion stroke and exhaust stroke on the intake stroke and exhaust
stroke you have the valves that let the air in on the intake and out on the exhaust
stroke the thing that’s lifting the valves to make that happen is camshaft .A camshaft
is a rotating object usually made of metal that contains pointed cams, which converts
rotational motion to reciprocal motion. It is basically a rod which rotates and slides
against a piece of machinery in order to turn rotational motion into linear motion.

A cam is a mechanical device used to transmit motion to a follower by direct

contact. The driver is called the cam and the driven member is called the follower.
In a cam follower pair, the cam normally rotates while the follower may translate or
oscillate. A familiar example is the camshaft of an automobile engine, where the
cams drive the push rods (the followers) to open and close the valves in
synchronization with the motion of the pistons. Cams are used for essentially the
same purpose as linkages, that is, generation of irregular motion. The device features
a shaft with discs fitted around it along its length called cams. Each cam is eccentric-
-it isn't a uniform circular disc, but rather has a bulge. This enables the bulge to press
on to an object called a follower once during every complete rotation of the shaft
about its axis.

Cams have an advantage over linkages because cams can be designed for much
tighter motion specifications. The camshaft uses lobes (called cams) that push
against the valves to open them as the camshaft rotates; springs on the valves return
them to their closed position. This is a critical job, and can have a great impact on

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an engine's performance at different speeds. It is the critical to the basic function of
an engine. Comprised of two distinct parts, the cams and the shaft, the camshaft is
the element that enables valves to open. As the shaft rotates, the egg-shaped cams
(lobes) push the valves open in sync with the crankshaft gear.

Fig.1 Camshaft

MECHANICS OF A CAMSHAFT

The device features a shaft with discs fitted around it along its length called cams.
Each cam is eccentric-it isn't a uniform circular disc, but rather has a bulge. This
enables the bulge to press on to an object called a follower once during every
complete rotation of the shaft about its axis.

2.1Camshaft Operation

The camshaft is designed to rotate twice with every rotation of the crankshaft and
for each rotation of the camshaft, four valve events occur. Cams on the camshaft
open the intake valves during the intake stroke, which are then closed at the
beginning of the compression stroke. When the compressed fuel has been ignited,

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the crankshaft has completed one rotation. Other cams come into play to open the
exhaust valves once the piston has moved down considerably, but not all the way.
These valves remain open as the piston returns upwards for the exhaust stroke,
letting all the burned gases escape before they begin to close. The cams for the intake
valves start to open them again to begin the next intake stroke.

2.2 Valve Timing

In internal combustion engines, the timing of the opening and closing of the fuel
injection and gas exhaust valves is extremely important, and must be synchronized
with the corresponding motion of the piston to facilitate proper engine strokes. This
is achieved by using the camshaft for opening and closing the valves at pre-set
timings. The camshaft is connected to the crankshaft directly via gears or indirectly
with a belt or chain and thus, rotates as the crankshaft rotates. The cams are
positioned against the corresponding valves of each cylinder in a manner that enables
the right valve to be open only during the right engine stroke, keeping it closed
throughout the rest of the strokes. Slight discrepancies in this critical valve timing
result in inefficient engine performance.

2.3 Performance Tuning

The timings of the camshaft play an important role in performance tuning of
vehicles. Both the timing and the dimensions of the cams are altered to deliver not
just the precise valve opening timing, but also the correct extent to which the valve
is opened for optimal performance. A properly timed and tuned camshaft could
mean the split-second difference between first place and second place in a race in
otherwise identical vehicles.

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2.4 Four stroke valve

Four-cycle engines perform an intake, compression, power and exhaust stroke in

each cycle. Each cycle requires two complete crankshaft revolutions. The camshaft,
which controls the action of the valves, rotates at half the crankshaft speed. The
camshaft controls the movement of the engine valves. The intake and exhaust valves
are precisely timed to open and close based on the camshaft's influence and each has
it respective actions.

2.5 Intake valve

The intake valve opens slightly before the piston is at the top of the cylinder. As the
piston moves down, air and fuel are drawn in. Shortly after the piston begins rising
again, the intake valve closes for the compression cycle. Ignition takes place when
the piston nears the top of the cylinder bore (TDC--or top dead center).

2.6 Exhaust valve

Once the air/fuel mixture has been ignited, the piston is forced down on the power
stroke. Shortly before the bottom of piston travel (BDC), the exhaust valve begins
to open. As the piston returns to TDC, the exhaust is forced past the open exhaust
valve and the cycle repeats.

2.7 Effect of cam advance

Advancing a camshaft from its original position causes all of these valve events to
happen earlier in the cycle. A camshaft advance of 4 degrees will cause each
opening and closing event to occur four degrees sooner than before, changing the
ability of the cylinder to build pressure. For example, if the intake closing event is
designed to happen at 55 degrees after bottom dead center (ABDC) it will now
close at 51 degrees ABDC, or 4 degrees earlier. The same is true of the exhaust

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events--they will happen 4 degrees earlier, even though they don't happen until
after top dead center (ATDC) of piston travel.

MATERIALS USED IN CAMSHAFT:

Camshaft material is the most important detail in stopping premature wear of

performance camshafts. Camshafts are made of steel and cast iron. The starting
material of the steel cams is the rod material, then precisely machined and
inductively hardened on the surface, respectively case-hardened. Cast iron shafts are
produced by casting an iron alloy. The steel material used for the production of
camshafts differs from the cast iron by the structure of the material, especially the
carbon content – max. 2.11%. Above this carbon limit we are already talking about
cast iron. There are various materials that camshafts are manufactured from:

CAST IRONS

1. HARDENABLE IRON:
This is Grade 17 cast iron with an addition of 1% chrome to create 5 to 7% free
carbide. After casting, the material is flame/or induction hardened, to give a
Rockwell hardness of 52 to 56 on the C Scale. It is not the most suitable material for
performance camshafts in overhead cam (OHC) engines.

2. SPHEROIDAL GRAPHITE CAST IRON KNOWN AS SG IRON:

A material giving similar characteristics to hardenable. Its failing as a camshaft
material is hardness in its cast form, which tends to scuff bearings in adverse
conditions. The material will heat treat to 52 to 58 RockwellC. This material was
used by Fiat in the 1980’s

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3. CHILLED CHROME CAST IRON:
Chilled iron is Grade 17 cast iron with 1% chrome. When the camshaft is cast in the
foundry, machined steel moulds the shape of the cam lobe are incorporated in the
mould. When the iron is poured, it hardens off very quickly (known as chilling),
causing the cam lobe material to form a matrix of carbide (this material will cut
glass) on the cam lobe. This material is exceedingly scuff-resistant and is the only
material for producing quantity OHC performance camshafts.

STEEL CAMSHAFTS

1. CARBON STEEL:
Used mainly in the 1930 to 1945 period and is currently used for induction
hardened camshafts in conjunction with roller cam followers, due to the
throughhardening characteristics of the material.

2. ALLOYED STEELS:
Used by British Leyland in the A Series and B Series engine and best when run
against a chilled cam follower.

3. NITRIDING STEEL:
The best steel for camshafts. When nitrided it gives a surface hardness and finish
similar to chilled iron.We used this when replacing chilled iron camshafts in
competition engines. This material is used on several of the current F1 engines.

When purchasing a camshaft, enquire which material the camshafts are produced
from. A chilled iron camshaft may be more expensive, but its resistance to wear in
all conditions, far exceeds any other type of cast iron. In general, steel is a good

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camshaft material. However, the type of steel has to be matched with the cam
follower it runs against, as different grades of steel have different scuff
characteristics. Steel camshafts handle more mechanical loads than cast iron
camshafts and are comparable to OE camshafts. Camshafts of hardened cast iron
have a harder surface, however, this does not mean that they should necessarily have
shorter lifetime. Their production is less costly and they are also cheaper for the
aftermarket. If you follow the correct procedure for disassembly and replacement of
camshaft, it is possible to replace steel cams in certain types of engines with cast
iron cams.

DESIGN PROCEDURE:

Profile Design according to requirement:

Design a cam for operating the exhaust valve of an oil engine. It is required to give
equal uniform acceleration and retardation during opening and closing of the valve
each of which corresponds to 69° of cam rotation. The valve must remain in the fully
open position for 20° of cam rotation.

The lift of the valve is 37.5 mm and the least radius of the cam is 40 mm. The
follower is provided with a roller of radius of 20 mm and its line of stroke passes
through the axis of the cam.

Proposed Profile Design

Construction

First of all, the displacement diagram, as shown in Fig 1, is drawn as discussed in

the following steps:

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Draw a horizontal line ASTP such that AS represents the angular displacement of
the cam during opening ( i.e out stroke) of the valve (equal to 60°), to some suitable
scale. The line ST represents the dwell period of 20° i.e the period during which the
valve remains fully open and TP represents the angular displacement during closing
(i.e return stroke) of the valve which is equal to 60°.

Fig.2

1. Divide AS and TP into any number of equal even parts (say six).

2. Draw vertical lines through points 0, 1, 2,3 etc. and equal to lift of the valve i.e
37.5 mm.

3. Divide the vertical lines 3f and 3’f’ into six equal parts as shown by the points
a, b, c. .. and a’, b’ , c’ in figure 1.

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4. Since the valve moves with equal uniform acceleration and retardation, therefore
the displacement diagram for opening and closing of a valve consists of double
parabola.

5. Complete the displacement diagram as shown in Fig. 1

Fig.3

Now the profile of the cam, with a roller follower when its line of stroke passes
through the axis of cam as shown in Fig 2.

METHODS OF MANUFACTURING:

1.Casting:

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Chilled cast iron is primarily used for production of cam shaft. The development of
automobile industry and engine power brings up more advance requirement for
properties of camshaft. In casting process, there are more chances of casting defects
such as shrinkage defect, porosity, crack, insufficient pouring. However for higher
loads in roller contact, cast camshafts with induction hardened cam lobes can be
used.

2.Forging:

Forged or manufactured from a steel bar camshafts are also used for certain high
loaded diesel engines. These are produced on computer-controlled forging systems
with integrated heat treatment or machined from steel bar.

3.Machining:

Machining is necessary for giving final dimension to the cam.

A.While using Casted or Forged CAM only Final Machining is require to achieve
final size within the required tolerances. In this process casted or forged CAM are
in the required shape but their size is maintained by machining and finishing
operation.

B.While Using Metal Billet (metal rod), the profile of cam is obtained by removing
excess material which from metal billet. In this process only machining is required
to manufacture CAM.

A detailed description of the processes for mass manufacturing is as follows:

1.TURNING & DRILLING: The raw forging is put in this machine and center
drilling and turning on one side is done here.

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2.TURNING: Here the turning of the 6 journals takes place. There are 4 tools used
for this turning – Rough, Neutral, Left and Right tool. Also, Grooving and Parting
operation is performed on the left side of the shaft.

3.DRILLING: This machine drills the diameter 4.5 dowel hole which is used as
reference for further operations.

4.GRINDING JOURNALS: Here grinding and finish grinding of the 6 journals

takes place. Carborundum wheels are used for grinding.

5.GRINDING ON FACE:An angular grinding wheel is used for the face grinding
operation. At this stage, inspection is done after every 10 components using gauges.

6.DRILL DOVEL HOLE: Grinding of the Cam is done here. The dowel hole is
taken as the reference.

7.LAPPING:To give superfinish in microns, lapping is done using lapping paper

on the Cams and the Oil seal area.

8. SLITTING:This machine makes a slit in the right side of the shaft to fit in the
engine. The cutter used is a Saw cutter and pneumatic deburring is done here.

9.AIR & WATER CLEANING: etc This is the Washing Machine where water and
air jets are used to clean the component of dust, oil, chips etc.

10. INSPECTION: This is a Measuring Machine used to check for tolerances -

Runouts and Diameters of journals ( all 6 and center 4). The machine then declares
the component as OK, NG, or BAD.

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 TYPES OF CAMSHAFT

Camshafts, and the shape of the lobes on them, can play a dramatic effect on how a
vehicle performs at different engine speeds. Understanding how they work—and the
different types available.

Two major types of camshafts exist: flat tappet and roller. Within those categories
are two options: solid or hydraulic—four variations in all.Tappets ride against the
camshaft lobes—their movements open and close the valves. As the terms suggest,
a flat tappet camshaft operates with solid flat tappets and hydraulic flat tappets, also
known as lifters or followers. A roller camshaft operates with hydraulic roller lifters
and solid roller lifters.

Hydraulic camshafts: In passenger cars of the 20th century, the hydraulic flat
tappet assembly was succeeded by the hydraulic roller arrangement that became
popular in the early 1980s. Though adding the roller wheel, bearing, and axle
increases costs marginally to the original equipment manufacturers (OEM), the
difference between the two aftermarket assemblies is substantial—the hydraulic
roller costs at least three times more. But high-revving race engines require a
standard far beyond OEM obligations. These include precision-ground heat-treated
tool steel and stainless steel components, dedicated pressure-fed oiling, polished
DLC coatings to resist abrasive wear, and exacting tolerances.

Solid flat tappet camshafts: Though NASCAR rules switched to solid roller
camshafts around 2015, solid flat tappet arrangements have been mandatory for
decades. These flat tappets are lightweight and durable when made from tool steel,
finished with a DLC coating, and operated in conjunction with a tool steel camshaft.

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Today, solid flat tappet arrangements remain compulsory in certain Circle Track
racing rule books and continue to be popular in street performance engines.

Solid roller tappet camshafts: These were used in aircraft radial engines dating back
to the 1930s, and are still prominent in our domestic V8 racing engines today,
particularly in drag racing engines. The introduction of the roller allows the finessing
of seat times; that is, the amount of time the valves remain seated or closed. They
also permit stiffer valve springs that generate high engine speeds. Note that unlike
their hydraulic counterparts, both solid flat tappet and solid roller tappet assemblies
require maintenance—periodic free-play checks known as “lash” adjustment.

REFERENCE

[1]S.G Thorat,Nitish Dubey,Arvind Shinde ,Pushkar Fulpagare,Manish

Suryavanshi, Design and Analysis Of Camshaft, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Mitcoe, Pune 2,3,4,5Mit College of Engineering, Pune.

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