Mechanical Engineering Department

 
 
 

Me  410    
 
Mechanical  Engineering  Systems  
Laboratory  
 
 
 
 
Performance  Characteristics  of  an  Internal  
Combustion  Engine  
Experiment  No.:  4  
 
 
 
 
 
 

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1.  Purpose  of  the  Experiment  
 
The   objective   of   this   experiment   is   to   study   the   variations   of   the   engine   performance  
characteristics,   such   as   brake   power,   torque,   brake   specific   fuel   consumption,  
volumetric   efficiency   and   etc.   under   different   engine   loading   conditions   using   a  
hydraulic  dynamometer  coupled  to  a  single  cylinder  gasoline  engine.  
 
2.  Introduction  
 
Perhaps  the  best-­‐known  engine  in  the  world  is  the  reciprocating  internal  combustion  
(IC)   engine.   Virtually   every   person   who   has   driven   an   automobile   or   pushed   a   power  
lawnmower  has  used  one.  By  far  the  most  widely  used  IC  engines  are  the  spark-­‐ignition  
(SI)   gasoline   engine,   used   in   everyday   passenger   cars   and   the   Diesel   engine,   the  
workhorse   of   the   heavy   truck   industry   which   is   widely   used   in   industrial   power   and  
marine   applications.   A   newer   type   of   IC   engine   is   called   Homogeneous   Charge  
Compression  Ignition  (HCCI)  engine  which  is  basically  the  combination  of  both  SI  and  CI  
engines  in  operating  principle.  A  reciprocating  IC  engine  basically  consists  of:  
 
• Engine  block,    
• Cylinder  head,    
• Piston  and  piston  pin,    
• Connecting  rod,    
• Crankshaft,  flywheel,    
• Valves  and  valve  mechanisms  and  camshaft  
 
There   are   usually   one   or   more   cylinders   in   the   engine   block.   For   water   cooled   IC  
engines  these  cylinders  are  surrounded  by  an  outer  shell.  Between  the  outer  shell  and  
the  cylinders  there  are  water  passages  for  cooling  the  engine.  For  air  cooled  IC  engines  
the   cylinders   are   surrounded   by   fins   for   air   cooling.   For   multiple   cylinder   engines   the  
cylinders  will  be  arranged  side  by  side  in  a  row  (inline),  opposite  to  each  other,  in  a  V  or  
W   form   or   even   flat.   Each   piston   is   connected   by   a   piston   pin   to   a   connecting   rod   which  
in  turn  is  connected  to  the  related  crankpin  of  the  crankshaft.  The  crankshaft  which  is  
placed  in  the  crankcase  of  the  engine  block  is  supported  by  journal  bearings.    
 
The  back  end  of  the  crankshaft  is  coupled  to  a  flywheel.  The  flywheel  acts  to  absorb  
the   fluctuations   in   the   speed   of   the   crankshaft   which   is   mainly   due   to   uneven  
distribution,  both  spatially  and  temporal,  of  the  cyclic  thermodynamic  events  among  the  
cylinders.   The   crankshaft   of   an   IC   engine   may   then   be   coupled   to   a   gear   box   as   in   the  
case  of  transport  vehicles  or  to  the  shaft  of  a  water  pump  or  to  the  shaft  of  an  electric  
generator   or   to   the   shaft   of   a   ships   propeller   or   to   the   shaft   of   the   propeller   of   an  
airplane   or   even   to   the   shaft   of   the   propeller   of   a   model   airplane.   It   is   evident   that   IC  
engines  are  very  versatile.  They  come  in  all  sizes  producing  powers  from  40  000  kW  to  

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0.2   kW.   They   are   easily   transported   and   the   mainly   liquid   fuel   that   they   use   is   easily  
available,   relatively   cheap   and   easily   transportable.   They   are   reliable.   You   can   expect  
them   to   work   for   long   hours   with   the   same   performance   and   over   and   over   again   for  
years   with   proper   maintenance.   They   are   easy   to   start   and   operate.   Their   transient  
characteristics  (acceleration,  deceleration)  are  excellent.  All  in  all,  we  can  easily  say  that  
the  IC  engine  has  been  the  greatest  mechanical  achievement  of  mankind,  both  socially  
and  economically  and  it  is  rapidly  becoming  mankind's  foremost  concern,  ecologically.    
 
3.  Theory  of  IC  Engines  
 
IC   engines   may   operate   on   a   4   stroke   cycle   or   a   2   stroke   cycle.   In   a   4   stroke   cycle   the  
piston   has   to   go   through   4   strokes   in   order   to   complete   cyclic   thermodynamic  
processes.  In  the  2  stroke  cycle  the  piston  goes  through  only  2  strokes  to  complete  the  
cycle.  This  seems  to  make  the  2  stroke  cycle  more  advantageous.  However,  if  the  engine  
speed  is  high  then  the  gas  exchange  processes  are  not  as  efficient  as  in  the  4  stroke  cycle  
engines   and   so   the   2   stroke   cycle   is   applied   more   to   marine   type   slow   and   large   CI  
engines  and  to  light  SI  engines  used  on  motorcycles  and  lawn  mowers,  etc.  (since  there  
won't   be   any   need   for   the   valves   and   valve   mechanisms).   On   the   other   hand   there   are   2  
stroke  cycle  CI  engines  in  the  power  range  of  200-­‐500  kW  and  operating  at  speeds  of  up  
to  approximately  2000  rpm.    
 
In   the   two   stroke   engine,   the   inlet   and   exhaust   valves   are   eliminated   by   using   the  
piston  to  cover  and  uncover  ‘ports’  or  passages  in  the  cylinder  and  crankcase.  Beginning  
the   cycle   with   the   piston   about   the   half-­‐way   through   its   compression   stroke,   all   three  
ports   are   covered.   The   upward   movement   of   the   piston   compresses   a   fresh   charge   of  
mixture  in  the  combustion  chamber.  At  the  same  time  the  pressure  in  the  crankcase  is  
reduced  below  atmospheric  pressure.  Near  the  top  of  the  stroke  the  lower  edge  of  the  
piston   uncovers   the   inlet   port,   allowing   the   pressure   of   the   atmosphere   to   fill   the  
crankcase   of   the   engine   with   fresh   mixture   from   the   carburetor.   The   mixture   in   the  
combustion  chamber  is  ignited  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  four  stroke  engine  near  the  top  
of   the   stroke.   The   high   pressure   of   the   burned   gases   drives   the   piston   down   the  
cylinder.   Just   below   TDC   the   piston   covers   the   inlet   port,   and   further   downward  
movement  compresses  the  mixture  in  the  crankcase.  Near  the  bottom  of  the  stroke  the  
top   edge   of   the   piston   uncovers   the   exhaust   port,   allowing   the   burned   gases   to   flow   out  
of  the  cylinder  under  their  own  pressure.    
 
3.1.  Operation  of  IC  Engines  
 
3.1.1  SI  Engines  
 
Spark   ignition   engines   are   mainly   used   in   automotive   vehicles   such   as   automobiles  
and   motorcycles.   These   engines   cannot   be   very   big   in   size   because   of   auto   ignition  

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(abnormal   combustion)   problems   of   flame   propagated   combustion   of   premixed  
mixtures.  They  induce  a  mixture  of  air  and  fuel  during  the  induction  process  and  then  
compress  the  induced  charge  to  a  pressure  of  approximately  12-­‐15  atmospheres  and  a  
temperature  of  500-­‐600  K  during  the  compression  process  and  towards  the  end  of  the  
compression  process  the  hot  and  compressed  mixture  is  ignited  by  a  spark  produced  by  
the  electrical  ignition  system  of  the  engine  across  the  points  of  spark  plug  situated  in  the  
cylinder   (10-­‐20   degrees   before   TDC).   Then   the   pressure   and   temperature   of   the   gas  
inside   the   cylinder   rapidly   rise   to   a   maximum   of   approximately   70-­‐80   atmospheres   and  
a  temperature  of  2400-­‐2600  K  during  the  combustion  process.  A  flame,  starting  at  the  
spark   plug   location,   sweeps   across   the   combustion   chamber   (volume   between   the  
cylinder  head  and  piston  top)  at  mean  speeds  which  may  reach  10-­‐20  m/s,  such  that  the  
movement   of   the   piston   towards   TDC   and   away   from   TDC   is   negligibly   low   as   this  
happens.   Therefore   for   most   practical   calculations   this   type   of   combustion   process   is  
considered  to  happen  at  constant  volume.    
 
The  products  of  combustion  then  push  the  piston  away  from  TDC  and  the  expansion  
of   these   gases   during   the   expansion   process   goes   on   until   the   piston   nearly   arrives   at  
BDC.  At  about  40-­‐50  degrees  crank  angles  away  from  BDC  the  exhaust  valve  is  opened  
by  the  valve  mechanism  which  is  synchronized  to  the  motion  of  the  crankshaft  through  
the   camshaft.   Even   though   the   piston   continues   to   travel   towards   BDC   the   pressure  
inside  the  cylinder  rapidly  decreases  from  about  4  atmospheres  when  the  exhaust  valve  
opens  to  about  1.1  to  1.25  atmospheres,  as  the  gases  rush  out  of  the  exhaust  valve  into  
the   exhaust   port   and   from   there   into   the   exhaust   manifold   and   exhaust   pipe.   The   piston  
then   returns   towards   TDC   and   starts   pushing   out   the   remaining   gases   out   forcefully  
during  the  exhaust  process.  This  motion  of  the  piston  requires  outside  work  which  will  
be   supplied   by   one   of   the   other   pistons   (which   will   be   going   through   the   expansion  
process)  or  in  the  case  of  a  single  cylinder  engine  it  will  be  supplied  by  the  flywheel.    
Towards  the  end  of  the  exhaust  process  the  inlet  valve  opens  and  mixture  of  air  and  fuel  
vapor  enters  the  cylinder  even  though  there  will  still  be  some  exhaust  gases  going  out  of  
the   exhaust   valve   which   will   normally   be   closed   after   TDC.   This   overlapping   of   the   inlet  
and  exhaust  valves  occurs  for  almost  all  IC  engines.  How  many  degrees  crankangle  this  
overlap  should  be  depends  on  the  engine  type  and  operating  speeds.  Inertia  effects  on  
the  gases  is  important  in  determining  the  valve  timing  of  IC  engines  and  this  timing  is  
usually   done   by   testing   the   performance   of   the   engine   in   order   to   arrive   at   optimum  
values.    
 
3.1.2  CI  Engines  
 
Compression  ignition  engines  have  a  much  broader  field  of  application.  It's  possible  
to  produce  approximately  2000  kW  per  cylinder  as  well  as  0.2  kW  per  cylinder  with  this  
type  of  engine.  Since  they  can  operate  at  much  higher  powers  than  SI  engines  they  are  
more   suitable   for   commercial   applications.   These   engines   induce   only   air   (except   the  
dual  fuel  engines)  during  the  induction  process.  For  naturally  aspirated  engines,  the  air  

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is   compressed   to   approximately   40   atmospheres   and   900   K   during   the   compression  
process.   Liquid   fuel   is   injected   into   the   cylinder   towards   the   end   of   compression   (10-­‐20  
degrees   before   TDC)   and   the   fuel   spray   atomizes   into   small   droplets,   evaporates   and  
mixes   with   hot   air,   forms   pockets   of   local   combustible   mixtures   and   then   auto   ignites  
after  having  gone  through  a  series  of  preliminary  (slow  rate)  reactions  in  these  pockets.  
Once   combustion   starts,   the   remaining   fuel   rapidly   evaporates   and   enters   the  
combustion  reaction.  During  all  this  the  injection  of  fuel  is  still  continuing.  
 
 After   the   initially   fast   spontaneous   burning   of   the   fuel   which   entered   first   into   the  
combustion   chamber   the   continued   injection   of   fuel   results   in   a   diffusive   type   of  
burning,   since   this   fuel   has   to   diffuse   through   the   products   of   combustion   in   order   to  
meet   with   the   oxygen   molecules.   This   kind   of   combustion   of   course   takes   more   time  
than  the  flame  propagation  in  SI  engines.  Therefore  CI  engines  cannot  normally  operate  
as   fast   as   SI   engines.   On   the   other   hand   they   can   have   cylinder   bores   up   to  
approximately  one  meter  whereas  SI  engine  cylinder  bores  are  normally  limited  to  0.15  
m   The   expansion   and   exhaust   processes   of   4   stroke   cycle   CI   engines   are   exactly   the  
same  as  in  4  stroke  cycle  SI  engines.    
 
3.1.3.  HCCI  Engines  
 
In   the   Homogeneous   Charge   Compression   Ignition   (HCCI)   engine,   a   homogeneous  
mixture  is  formed  in  the  combustion  chamber  and  the  mixture  is  compression-­‐ignited.  
The  auto-­‐ignition  is  first  initiated  by  several  hot  auto-­‐igniting  spots   at   the   core   region  
where  temperature  is  higher  than  the  other  regions.  It  can  be  said  that  HCCI  is  similar  to  
SI  in  the  sense  that  both  engines  use  premixed  charge  and  similar  to  CI  as  both  rely  on  
auto-­‐ignition  to  initiate  combustion.  But  unlike  traditional  SI  combustion  that  relies  on  
the  flame  propagation  and  diesel  combustion  that  is  heavily  dependent  on  the  fuel/air  
mixing,   HCCI   combustion   is   a   chemical   kinetic   combustion   process   controlled   by  
temperature,  pressure,  and  composition  of  the  in-­‐cylinder  charge.  Compared  to  an  Otto  
engine,   HCCI   allows   the   engine   to   operate   at   higher   compression   ratios,   resulting   in  
greater  (Diesel-­‐like)  efficiencies.  Greater  efficiencies  is  provided  by  wide  open  throttle  
operation   at   part   loads   unlike   SI   engines   and   reduced   cycle   to   cyclic   variations   due   to  
absence  of  spark  ignition  and  early  developing  flame  growth.  HCCI  engine  also  produces  
dramatically   lower   emissions   compared   to   SI   and   CI   engines.   Figure   1   show   general  
schematics  the  operation  principles  of  SI,  CI  and  HCCI  engines.  
 

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Figure  1  –  SI  vs.  CI  vs.  HCCI  Engines  
 
3.3  Performance  Testing  of  IC  Engines  
 
The  aspect  of  engine  performance  testing  is  to  determine  how  the  torque  and  brake  
power  vary  with  engine  speed.   In  real  life,  vehicles  always  operate  against  a  resistance.  
This  resistance  may  be  made  of  rolling  friction,  slope,  and  air  and  inertia  resistance.  The  
dynamometer   loading   simulates   the   total   of   these   resistances.   Therefore   the   steady  
state   performance   of   IC   engines   can   be   tested   on   dynamometers   and   the   variation   of  
performance  parameters  monitored  and  analyzed.  Some  of  the  important  performance  
parameters  are  as  follows:  
 
• Brake  power  and  torque  
• Mechanical  efficiency  
• Fuel-­‐air  ratio  
• Volumetric  efficiency  
• Specific  power  output  
• Specific  fuel  consumption  
• Thermal  efficiency    
• Exhaust  smoke  and  emissions  
• Effective  pressure    
 
3.4.  Dynamometer  
 
A  dynamometer  is  a  mechanical  device  that  measures  the  torque  of  a  given  machine  
under   test.   A   common   dynamometer   in   use   in   industry   is   the   engine   dynamometer  
where  it  is  connected  to  the  crankshaft  of  the  engine.  The  dynamometer  then  applies  a  
resistance,   or   load,   to   the   engine   at   different   angular   velocities.   The   load   can   be   applied  
by  using  a  variety  of  brakes  including  an  electric  brake,  water  brake,  or  friction  brake.  
Figure   2   demonstrates   a   simple   schematic   of   this   process.   In   this   system,   the  
dynamometer  is  seated  in  bearings,  allowing  it  to  rotate.  This  rotation  is  prevented  by  a  

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torque   arm   with   an   attached   force-­‐measuring   scale,   generally   a   strain   gage.   As   the  
dynamometer   loads   the   engine,   the   torque   arm   experiences   a   force.   This   force  
multiplied   by   the   distance   from   its   center   of   rotation   equals   the   torque   of   the   engine.  
With   the   known   torque   and   angular   velocity,   the   power   of   the   system   can   be   calculated  
from   the   product   of   these   two   values.   The   purpose   of   the   engine   dynamometer   is   to  
examine   the   engine’s   performance.   There   are   generally   two   types   of   dynamometers  
namely  the  hydraulic  and  electric  dynamometers.  
 

 
Figure  2  –  Schematics  of  a  typical  dynamometer  
 
3.4.1.  Hydraulic  Dynamometers  
 
Water brake dynamometers utilize water flow proportional to the applied load to create
resistance to the motor. A controlled flow of water through the inlet manifold is directed at
the center of the rotor in each absorption section. This water is then expelled towards the
outside of the dynamometer body by centrifugal force. As it is directed outward, the water is
accelerated into pockets on the stationary stator plates where it is decelerated. This
continuous acceleration/deceleration of the water creates the applied load to the motor.  
 
3.4.2.  Electric  Dynamometers  
 
Electric  dynamometer  is  essentially  an  electric  generator  used  for  loading  the  engine.  
The   output   of   the   generator   must   be   measured   by   electric   instruments   and   corrected   in  
magnitude  for  generator  efficiency.  Since  the  generator  efficiencies  depend  on  loading,  
speed   and   temperature,   the   results   obtained   will   not   be   very   precise.   However   the  
generator   may   be   cradled   and   the   torque   exerted   by   the   stator   frame   may   directly   be  
measured.   This   torque   arises   from   the   magnetic   coupling   between   the   armature   and  
stator   and   is   equal   to   the   engine   brake   torque.   DC   or   AC   type   electric   generators   of   may  
be   used   in   these   dynamometers.   AC   type   electric   dynamometers   have   better   dynamic  
response  characteristics  and  are  used  in  cycle  simulation  tests.    
 
 
 

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4.  Experimental  Setup  
 
4.1.  Engine  
 
The   engine   under   test   is   a   single   cylinder   gasoline   engine   from   MITSUBISHI   with  
specification  given  in  table  1.  Figure  3  also  shows  a  picture  of  the  engine.    
 
Table  1  –  Engine  specifications  

Make     MITSUBISHI  

Air-­‐cooled  4-­‐Stroke  Cycle  OHV  Gasoline  

Type  
Engine  with  Slant  Cylinder  

Swept  Volume     181  cc  

Bore  x  Stroke  [mm]   68  x  50  

Maximum  Torque   11.6  Nm    

Maximum  Power       4.6  kW    

Continuous  Rated  Output     3.4  kW  

Starting  System     Recoil  Starter  

 
 

 
Figure  3  –  The  OHV  MITSUBISHI  engine  used  for  tests  
 
 
 
 
 
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 4.2.  Instrumentation  Unit  
 
The   instrumentation   unit   for   this   experiment   is   TecQuipment   TD114   designed   to  
stand  beside  the  engine  under  test.  In  addition  to  the  housing  for  the  measuring  devices,  
the  unit  also  contains  the  fuel  tank  and  delivery  systems  and  the  also  an  air-­‐box/viscous  
flow   meter   which   are   used   to   damp   the   intake   air   before   induction   to   the   engine   and  
also  measuring  the  consumption  of  air.    Figure  3  shows  the  front  and  back  view  of  the  
unit.  The  working  dials  are  marked  in  the  figure.  The  unit  indicators  consist  of  engine  
RPM  meter,  torque  meter,  fuel  pipette,  a  slant  manometer  (air-­‐flow  manometer),  tubes  
and   vanes   to   and   from   the   engine.   In   the   back   of   the   unit,   fuel   tank   and   airbox   are  
located  with  intake  tubes.  The  airbox  is  used  as  a  flow  damper  before  the  engine  intake,  
this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  single  cylinder  engines  tend  to  induce  a  pulsating  flow  of  air.    
 

FUEL
PIPETTE

FUEL TANK TACHOMETER TORQUEMETER

AIR INTAKE
VISCOUS
FLOW-
METER

AIRBOX AS DAMPER FUEL TO

ENGINE AIRFLOW
MANOMETER

   
Figure  3  –  The  front  and  back  view  of  the  instrumentation  
 
The  engine  speed  is  measured  electronically  by  a  pulse  counting  system.  An  optical  head  
mounted  on  the  dynamometer  chassis  contains  an  infrared  transmitter  and  receiver.  A  
rotating  disk  with  radial  slots  is  situated  between  the  optical  source  and  sensor  and  as  
the   engine   rotates,   the   beam   is   interrupted.   The   resulting   pulse   train   is   electronically  
processed  to  provide  a  read  out  of  engine  speed.  The  electronic  tachometer  is  calibrated  
against  a  signal  generator  at  the  factory  and  should  not  need  adjusting.  
 
4.2.1.  Air  Flow  meter  
 
Air  Flow  meter  is  a  device  that  measures  the  mass  flow  rate  of  intake  air  charge.  The  air  
flow  meter  used  in  this  test  instrument  is  a  viscous  flow-­‐meter  located  in  the  intake  port  
of   the   airbox   at   the   back   of   the   unit   as   can   be   seen   in   figure   3   and   schematically   on  
9
figure   4.   As   it   can   be   seen   on   the   figure,   air   is   drawn   in   through   an   inlet   and   flows  
through  the  viscous  flow-­‐meter  which  consists  of  thousands  of  small  bore  tubes  before  
entering   the   damping   volume.   The   size   of   the   tubes   is   chosen   so   that   the   Reynolds  
Number   (ud/υ)   is   less   than   2300.   This   ensures   that   airflow   through   the   element   is  
entirely  viscous,  in  which  case  the  pressure  drop  is  given  by  Poieseuille’s  equation.  
 
32µl u
Δp =    
d2

 
Figure  4  –  The  schematic  of  the  airbox  for  damping  of  the  intake  air  to  the  engine  
 
For  a  given  pressure  difference  reading  on  the  slant  manometer,  as  shown  in  figure  5,  
the   air   mass   flow   rate   can   be   calculated   using   figure   5.     To   account   for   temperature   and  
pressure  differences  of  the  test  location  with  that  of  the  calibrated  curve,  a  factor  is  used  
to  correct  the  calculated  air  flow  rate  as  below.  
 
Pambient Tambient +114 Tcalibrated 52
m! Air−Actual = . .( ) m! calibrated    
Pcalibrated Tcalibrated +114 Tambient
 
 

 
Figure  5–  FL15  Type  manometer  for  pressure  reading  in  the  test  
 
 

10
  
Figure  6  –  Viscous  flow  meter  calibration  curve  
 
Figure   7   also   shows   the   inner   part   of   the   viscous   flow-­‐meter   which   consists   of   small  
bore  tubes  to  maintain  viscous  flow  and  air  flow  rate  calculations.  
 
 

     
Figure  7  –  The  viscous  flow-­‐meter  at  the  inlet  port  of  the  airbox    
 
4.2.2.  Fuel  flow  meter  
 
Figure  8  shows  the  fuel  flow  meter  of  the  unit  which  includes  a  fast  flow  pipette  and  
the  capacity  scale  of  the  pipette.  The  pipette  is  connected  to  the  fuel  tank  at  the  back  of  
the   unit   from   the   bottom   through   a   vane.   The   fuel   consumption   rate   is   measured  
manually.   While   the   engine   is   running   at   a   constant   desired   speed,   the   vane   which   is  
controlling  the  fuel  flow  from  the  tank  to  pipette  is  closed  so  that  the  existing  fuel  in  the  
pipette  is  used  for  running  the  engine.  While  the  vane  is  closed,  the  amount  of  fuel  to  the  
engine  is  indicated  on  the  scale  and  a  chronometer  is  used  to  measure  the  required  time  
for   consumption   of   a   specific   amount   of   fuel   i.e.   8ml,   16ml   or   32ml   as   shown   on   the  
figure  below.  
   

11
  

Figure  8  –  fuel  pipette  and  the  capacity  scale  

 
4.3.  TechQuipment  TD114  Water  Brake  Dynamometer  
 
The  hydraulic  dynamometer  used  in  this  experiment  is  TechQuipment  TD114.  Figure  
9   shows   the   principles   and   the   layout   of   the   dynamometer.   The   flow   of   water   is  
controlled   by   a   valve   (A)   near   the   engine   bed.   Water   flows   into   the   top   of   the  
dynamometer  casing  (B)  and  out  through  the  bottom,  discharging  into  a  drain  through  
tap   (C).   The   dynamometer   also   has   an   air   vent.   The   quantity   of   water   in   the  
dynamometer,   and   hence   the   power   absorbed   from   the   engine,   depends   on   the   settings  
of   the   valve   (A)   and   a   tap   (C).   The   engine   shaft   drives   a   paddle   (D)   inside   the   vaned  
casing  (B)  churning  up  the  water  inside  the  dynamometer.  If  not  restrained,  the  casing  
would  rotate  at  almost  the  same  speed  as  the  paddle.  Restraint  is  provided  by  a  spring  
loaded   nylon   cord   €   which   passes   round   the   casing   (B)   and   is   clamped   to   the   top   of   the  
casing.   Two   springs   (F)   have   equal   stiffness,   and   are   always   in   tension   as   the  
dynamometer  casing  rotates.  A  damper  (G)  filled  with  lubricating  oil  is  connected  to  the  
casing.  
 
The   angular   position   taken   up   by   the   casing   (B)   depends   on   the   torque   T   and   the  
stiffness   of   the   two   springs   (F).   The   peripheral   displacement   of   the   casing   is  
proportional   to   the   torque   T   and   is   measured   by   a   rotary   potentiometer   (H),   the   output  
of  which  is  fed  in  to  the  input  of  the  TD114  torquemeter.    

12
  
Figure  9  –  The  schematic  of  the  TD114  dynamometer  
 
 
5.  Experiments  
 
5.1.  Variable  Speed  Variable  Load  Test  
 
With  a  growing  demand  for  transportation  IC  engines  have  gained  lot  of  importance  
in  automobile   industry.   It   is   therefore   necessary   to   produce   efficient   and   economical  
engines.   While   developing   an   IC   engine   it   is   required   to   take   in   consideration   all   the  
parameters   affecting   the   engines   design   and   performance.   There   are   enormous  
parameters   so   it   becomes   difficult   to   account   them   while   designing   an   engine.   So   it  
becomes   necessary   to   conduct   tests   on   the   engine   and   determine   the   measures   to   be  
taken  to  improve  the  engines  performance.  In  this  experiment,  the  throttle  of  the  engine  
is   fully   open   during   the   whole   test.   Therefore   as   the   load   is   increased,   the   throttle  
cannot   be   opened   wider   to   maintain   the   same   constant   speed   since   it   is   already   fully  
open.  As  a  result  of  this,  the  engine  speed  will  gradually  drop  as  it  is  loaded.  This  case  
may  also  be  visualized  in  real  life.  Consider  a  car  going  with  maximum  speed  on  a  flat  
road.  Here  maximum  speed  corresponds  to  the  fully  pressed  gas  pedal,  therefore  fully  
opened  throttle.  When  it  starts  to  climb  up  an  inclined  plane,  its  speed  will  begin  to  drop  
since  the  driver  cannot  press  the  gas  pedal  more  which  is  already  fully  pressed.  So  this  
test   will   begin   at   fully   opened   throttle   position   at   nearly   no-­‐load   condition.   Then   the  
load  will  be  increased  gradually.  At  each  engine  speed,  the  required  values  such  as  air  
flow  rate,  fuel  flow  rate,  torque  and  fuel  consumption  rate  will  be  recorded  to  calculate  
the  performance  parameters  of  the  engine.  
 
 
 

13
5.2.  Test  Procedure  
 
The   outline   of   the   engine   test   bed   can   be   seen   in   figure   10.   The   single   cylinder  
gasoline  engine  is  coupled  to  the  hydraulic  dynamometer  via  a  shaft.  The  water  source  
for   the   dynamometer   is   a   tank   located   above   the   ground   level   to   ensure   constant  
pressure   flow   into   the   dynamometer   while   operating.   The   water   flow   which   controls  
the   dynamometer   and   thus   the   engine   load   and   RPM   is   adjusted   through   a   butterfly  
valve.  
 

   
   
Figure  10  –  View  of  the  test  bed  
 
The  experiment  procedure  can  be  summarized  as  below:  
 
1.   Open   the   dynamometer   water   intake   vane   slightly   so   that   a   trickle   of   water   stream   is  
fed   into   the   dynamometer   to   prevent   harming   the   bearing   sealing’s   of   the  
dynamometer.  
2.  Turn  the  engine  on-­‐off  button  to  position  1.  
3.  Keep  the  throttle  slightly  open  and  pull  the  recoil  starter  lever  to  start  the  engine.    
4.   Slowly   increase   the   throttle   to   the   maximum   speed   (100%   open   throttle   position)  
while   opening   the   dynamometer   water   intake   vane   and   close   the   vane   which   controls  
the  exit  water  flow  from  the  dynamometer.  
5.  By  adjusting  the  water  vane  on  the  dynamometer,  set  the  engine  speed  to  5000  RPM  
(you  have  to  give  this  process  enough  time  to  let  the  engine  speed  reach  to  a  constant  
value).  
6.  Read  and  take  note  of  the  torque  and  pressure  value  in  the  slant  manometer.  
7.   Close   the   vane   controlling   the   fuel   intake   to   the   pipette   from   the   tank   and   let   the  
engine   burn   the   fuel   inside   the   pipette.   Make   sure   to   record   the   time   that   the   engine  
takes  to  consume  a  specific  amount  of  fuel  in  the  pipette  (i.e.  8ml).  

14
8.    Repeat  the  steps  5-­‐7  by  decreasing  the  engine  speed  500  RPM  at  a  time.    
9.  Open  the  exit  and  intake  water  vanes  and  decrease  the  throttle  of  the  engine  to  idle  
condition.  
 
6.  Formulations  
 
6.1.  Brake  Power  
     
The   mechanical   brake   power   of   the   engine   is   the   product   of   the   torque   on   the  
crankshaft  and  the  rotational  speed  of  the  crankshaft.    
 
Nb = T ω
N = 2π Tn    
b

Where  
Nb  =  Brake  power  (Watt)    
T  =  Torque  (N-­‐m)    
ω  =  Engine  Speed  (rad/sec)        
n  =  engine  speed  (rev/sec)  
1kW  =  1.36  HP  
 
6.2.  Corrected  Brake  Power  
 
Test  results  must  always  be  referred  to  a  known  datum  so  that  comparisons  between  
different   engines   may   readily   be   made   or   the   effect   of   modifications   easily   seen.   All  
measurements   taken   should   ideally   be   corrected   to   standard   atmospheric   conditions.  
To  find  the  corrected  brake  horsepower,  multiply  the  measured  value  by  the  following  
correction  factor.  
 
  Nbc = 2π Tn.α a  

The   correction   factor,   αa,   for   spark-­‐ignition   engines   shall   be   as   calculated   from   the  
formula  

1.2
⎛ 99 ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞0.6
α a = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜  
⎜ P ⎟ ⎝ 298 ⎟⎠
⎝ d ⎠

Where  

Ta  :  Absolute  temperature  of  the  intake  air  expressed  in  Kelvin  

Pd  :  Dry  atmospheric  pressure  expressed  in  kilopascals  calculated  as    
Pd = Patm − Φ.Pv  

15
Patm  :  Atmospheric  pressure  expressed  in  kilopascals  
Pv:  Saturated  water  vapor  pressure  expressed  in  kilopascals  
Φ :  Relative  humidity  expressed  in  percent    
Recommended   range   (especially   for   type   approval   testing   and   commercial   purposes):  
0.97  ≤  αa  ≤  1.03  
 
6.3.  Corrected  Engine  Torque  
 
Engine   torque   is   the   twisting   or   turning   effort   that   the   engine   applies   through   the  
crankshaft.  Engine  torque  can  be  found  from  the  following  relation:    

Nbc
Tc =  
2π n

Where    
Tc  =  Engine  corrected  torque  (N-­‐m)    
Nbc  =  Corrected  engine  brake  power  (watt)    
n  =  engine  speed  (rev/sec)  
 
 6.2.  Brake  Thermal  Efficiency  
 
The  thermal  efficiency  of  an  IC  engine  is  the  relationship  between  the  power  output  
delivered   at   the   crankshaft   and   the   energy   available   in   the   fuel   to   produce   this   power  
output:    
 
Nbc
ηb =  
G f ⋅ QL
where  
Nbc  =  Corrected  brake  power  (kW)    
Gf  =  Rate  of  fuel  consumption  (kg/sec)    
QL  =  lower  heating  value  of  the  fuel  (kJ/kg)    
QL  =  44000  kJ/kg  for  gasoline  fuel  
Also  density  of  fuel  which  will  be  used  for  fuel  flow  rate  can  be  assumed  as:    
ρ f  =  740  kg/m3  for  gasoline  fuel    
 
6.3.  Brake  Specific  Fuel  Consumption  (bSFC)  
 
The   brake   specific   fuel   consumption   is   a   measure   of   efficiency   which   indicates   the  
amount  of  fuel  that  an  engine  consumes  for  the  work  it  produces  and  is  calculated  using  
the  below  relation.  

16
 Gf
gb =  
N bc
Where  
gb  =  Brake  specific  fuel  consumption  (g/HP-­‐hr)    
Gf  =  Rate  of  fuel  consumption  (g/hr)  
Nb  =  Corrected  engine  brake  horsepower  (HP)    
   
6.4.  Brake  Mean  Effective  Pressure  (bMEP)  
 
Although  it  is  a  measure  of  an  engine's  ability  to  do  work,  torque  cannot  be  used  to  
compare   different   engines,   since   it   depends   on   engine   size.   A   more   useful   relative  
engine   performance   measure   is   obtained   by   dividing   the   work   per   cycle   by   the   cylinder  
volume   displaced   per   cycle.   The   parameter   obtained   thus   is   called   brake   mean   effective  
pressure  and  is  defined  shortly  as  the  average  pressure  that  the  gas  exerts  on  the  piston  
through  one  complete  operation  cycle.  The  brake  mean  effective  pressure  can  be  found  
from  the  following  formula.  
 
Nbc
bmep =  
(2n )iVs
j
Where  
bmep  =  Brake  Mean  Effective  Pressure  (kPa)    
Nbc  =  Corrected  brake  power  (kW)    
n  =  Engine  speed  (rev/sec)    
j  =  Number  of  strokes    
i  =  number  of  cylinders    
Vs  =  Swept  volume  of  a  single  cylinder  (m3)    
 
6.5.  Actual  Air-­‐Fuel  Ratio  
 
The   actual   air-­‐fuel   ratio   is   calculated   from   values   of   air   and   fuel   mass   flows   obtained  
from  the  airflow  manometer  reading  and  the  time  to  consume,  say,  8  ml.  of  fuel.    
 
! A$ !
m
# & = air  
" F %actual G f  
 
 
6.6.  Volumetric  Efficiency  
 
Volumetric  efficiency  is  the  ratio  between  the  amount  of  air-­‐fuel  mixture  that  actually  
enters  the  cylinder  and  the  amount  that  could  enter  under  ideal  standard  atmospheric  
conditions.    

17
 m! air−actual
ηv =  
m! air−theoretical
Where  ηv  =  Volumetric  Efficiency  (%)  
m! air−actual  =  Actual  Air  Flow  Rate  (  kg/s)    
  m! air−theoretical =  Theoretical  Air  Flow  Rate  (kg/s)      
The  amount  of  theoretical  air  that  could  enter  into  a  cylinder  can  be  found  from;  
" 2n %
m! air−theoretical = $ ' ⋅ i ⋅Vs ⋅ ρ STD
# j &  
PSTD
ρ STD =  
Rair ⋅ TSTD
 
Where   m! air−theoretical   =   Amount   of   theoretical   air   that   could   enter   a   cylinder   under   ideal  
standard  atmospheric  conditions.  (kg/s)  
ρSTD =  Standard  air  density  (kg/m3)    
Vs  =  Swept  volume  of  a  single  cylinder  (m3)  
Pstd  =  Standard  atmospheric  pressure  =  101.325  kPa  
Tstd=  Standard  atmospheric  temperature  =  293  K.  
D  =  Cylinder  bore  (m)  
S  =  Piston  Stroke  (m)  
 
6.7.  Excess  Air  Coefficient  
 
( A / F ) actual
α=  
( A / F )theoretical
 Where   α =  Excess  air  coefficient    
(A/F)actual  =  Actual  air  -­‐  fuel  ratio  (kgair  /kgfuel)    
(A/F)theoretical  =  Theoretical  air  -­‐  fuel  ratio  (kgair/kgfuel)    
Theoretical  air-­‐fuel  ratio  can  be  taken  as  14.6  for  gasoline  fuel.  
 
7.  Report  Presentation  
 
Reports  for  the  lab  experiment  are  due  final  exam.  In  preparing  your  reports  please  
note  below:  
• Title  page  should  include:  
Course  code  and  name  
Experiment  name  
Student  surname,  name  and  ID  number  

18
 Laboratory  group  number  and  experiment  date  
   
• Object   of   the   test   should   be   briefly   explained   (in   your   own   words)   and   data  
collected  during  the  test  should  be  tabulated  
• A  sample  calculation  will  be  performed  for  a  selected  load  condition    
• All  results  will  be  presented  in  a  tabulated  form.    
• Graphs:  Selected  graphs  from  the  following  will  be  drawn.    
 
a) Corrected  brake  horse  power  vs.  RPM  
b)  Corrected  brake  torque  vs.  RPM  
c)  bMEP  vs.  RPM  
d)  bSFC  vs.  RPM    
e)  Brake  thermal  efficiency  vs.  RPM  
f)    Volumetric  efficiency  vs.  RPM  
                         
• In  your  discussion  &  conclusions,  you  should  analyze  the  plots  and  comment  on  
why   they   show   specific   trends.   Also   discuss   the   possible   sources   of   errors   that  
may  be  encountered  in  the  experiment.    
 
7.  Important  Notes  
 
• You   are   supposed   to   read   this   write-­‐up   sheet   carefully   before   coming   to   the  
laboratory.    
• There  might  be  some  questions  asked  at  the  beginning  or  during  the  lab  session  
about   the   working   principles   of   the   dynamometers,   the   engine,   the   air   flow  
meter  and  etc.  so  be  ready.  
• Bring   a   chronometer   or   a   watch   for   measuring   fuel   consumption   time   (This  
could  also  be  provided  in  the  lab).  
• The  humidity,  atmospheric  pressure  and  temperature  should  be  recorded  at  the  
beginning  of  the  experiment.  
• The   laboratory   ambient   temperature   value   can   be   read   from   the   thermometer  
located  beside  the  engine  test  bed.  
• Water   vapor   pressure   should   be   taken   from   the   thermodynamic   tables   using   the  
ambient  pressure  and  temperature.  
 
   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

19
  
Date:

Engine Analysis Data Sheet

Barometric pressure: Relative Humidity:.....%

Temperature:

Engine
RPM
Speed

Torque [N.m]

Fuel Amount ml                

Consumption
[s]
Duration

Manometer
[mmH2O]
Pressure

20